Litter consists of waste products that have been discarded incorrectly, without consent, at an unsuitable location. The waste is objects, often man-made, such as aluminum cans, paper cups, food wrappers, cardboard boxes or plastic bottles, but also large and hazardous items of rubbish such as tires, electrical appliances, electronics, batteries and large industrial containers are sometimes dumped in isolated locations, such as national forests and other public lands.
Litter is a type ofhuman impact on the environment and is a serious environmental problem in many countries. Litter can exist in the environment for long periods of time beforedecomposition and be transported over large distances into the world's oceans. Litter can negatively affect quality of life.
Cigarette butts are the most littered item in the world, with an estimated 4.5 trillion discarded each year.[1] Estimates of the required time for cigarette butts to break down vary, ranging from 5 to 400 years for complete degradation.[2][3]
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In addition to intentional littering, almost half of litter on U.S. roadways is now accidental or unintentional litter, usually debris that falls off improperly secured trash, recycling collection vehicles and pickup trucks.[4] Population levels, traffic density and proximity to waste disposal sites are factors known to correlate with higher litter rates.[5][6][7][8][9]
Illegally dumpedhazardous waste may be a response to the costs of dropping materials at designated sites: some of these charge a fee for depositing hazardous material.[10] Lack of access to nearby facilities that accept hazardous waste may deter use. Additionally, ignorance of the laws that regulate the proper disposal of hazardous waste may cause improper disposal.
According to a study by the Dutch organization VROM, 80% of people claim that "everybody leaves a piece of paper, tin or something, on the street behind".[11] Young people from 12 to 24 years cause more litter than the average (Dutch or Belgian) person; only 18% of people who regularly cause litter were 50 years of age or older. However, a 2010 survey of littering in Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont in the United States, placed litterers aged 55 and over at less than 5%. The same observational study estimated that 78% of litterers are male.[9] Litter organizations, such asKeep America Beautiful affiliates,Keep Northern Ireland Beautiful, and the Bay Area Stormwater Management Agencies Association, have focused educational efforts on youth littering.[12][13][14] Negligent or lenient law enforcement contributes to littering behavior. Other causes are inconvenience, entitlement and economic conditions. A survey of dumping in Pennsylvania found that the largest number of illegal dumps were in townships without municipal trash hauling.[15] The same report also cites unavailability of curbside trash and recycling service, shortage of enforcement, and habit as possible causes.[16] The presence of litter invites more littering.[17]
The two-stage process model of littering behavior describes the different ways in which people litter. The model was proposed by Chris Sibley and James Liu and differentiates between two types of littering: active and passive.[18]
The theory has implications for understanding the different types of litter reduction interventions that will most effectively reduce littering in a given environment. The theory states that, all things being equal, passive littering will be more resistant to change because of two psychological processes: 1.diffusion of responsibility that increases as the latency between when an individual places litter in the environment and when they vacate the territory, and 2. forgetting, which is also more likely to occur at longer delays between when an individual places litter in the environment and when they vacate the territory.
Litter can remain visible for extended periods of time before it eventuallybiodegrades, with some items made of condensed glass,styrofoam or plastic possibly remaining in the environment for over a million years.[19][20][21]
About 18 percent of litter, usually traveling throughstormwater systems, ends up in local streams, rivers, and waterways. Uncollected litter can accrete and flow intostreams, localbays andestuaries. Litter in the ocean either washes up on beaches or collects inocean gyres such as theGreat Pacific Garbage Patch. About 80 percent ofmarine debris comes from land-based sources.[22]
Some litter that is collected can berecycled; however, degraded litter cannot be recycled and eventually degrades tosludge, often toxic. The majority of litter that is collected goes tolandfills.
Litter can have a detrimental impact on humans and the environment in different ways.
Hazardous materials encapsulated withintires and other items of illegally dumped rubbish canleach into water sources,contaminate the soil andpollute the air.
Tires are the most often dumped hazardous waste.[citation needed] In 2007 the United States generated 262 million scrap tires.[23] Thirty-eight states have laws that ban whole tires being deposited in landfills.[24] Many of these discarded tires end up illegally dumped on public lands. Tires can become a breeding ground for insect vectors which can transmit disease to humans.[25]Mosquitoes, which breed in stagnant water, can transmitWest Nile virus andmalaria. Rodents nest in accumulated tires and can transmit diseases such asHantavirus.[25]
When tires are burned, they can smolder for long periods of time, emitting hundreds of chemical compounds that pollute the air causing respiratory illnesses. Additionally the residue left behind can harm the soil and leach into groundwater.[25]
Visual pollution is a major effect of litter.
Open containers such as paper cups, cardboard food packets, plastic drink bottles and aluminum drinks cans get filled up with rainwater, providing breeding locations formosquitoes. In addition, a spark or a lightning flash can start a fire if it strikes litter such as a paper bag or cardboard box.
Litter can be hazardous to health. Debris falling from vehicles is an increasing cause ofautomobile accidents.[26] Discardeddangerous goods,chemicals, tires,sharps waste andpathogens resulting from litter can cause accidental harm to humans.
Litter also carries substantial cost to the economy. Cleaning up litter in the US costs hundreds of dollars per ton, about ten times more than the cost of trash disposal, with a cost totaling about $11 billion per year.[5][27]
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Animals may get trapped or poisoned with litter in their habitats. Cigarette butts and filters are a threat towildlife and have been found in the stomachs offish,birds andwhales, who have mistaken them for food.[28] Also, animals can get trapped in the rubbish and be in serious discomfort. For example, the plastic used to hold beverage cans together can get wrapped around animals' necks and cause them to suffocate as they grow.[29] Other instances where animals could be harmed by litter include broken glass lacerating the paws ofdogs,cats, and other small mammals.
Organic litter in large amounts can causewater pollution and lead toalgal blooms.[30] Cigarettes could also start fires if they are not put out and then discarded in the environment.
Litter is an environmental concern in many countries around the world. While countries in thedeveloping world lack the resources to deal with the issue, consumer-based economies in thewestern world are capable of generating larger quantities of litter per capita due to a higher consumption ofdisposable products.
A number of credible studies have shown thatfast food packaging is one of the most common forms of litter, whileMcDonald's is the most common brand of litter, despite having messages to dispose of it properly, such as theRonald McDonald "tidy man" marking.[31][32] According toKeep Britain Tidy in 2013,Cadbury chocolate wrappers,Walkers crisp packets andCoca-Cola cans were the three top brands that were the most common pieces of rubbish found in UK streets.[33]
Public waste containers or street bins are provided by local authorities to be used as a convenient place for the disposal and collection of litter. Increasingly both general waste and recycling options are provided. Local councils collect the waste and take it for reuse or recycling. However, there are some problems with this approach; if the bins are not emptied regularly, then the bins will overflow and can increase litter indirectly. Some local authorities will only take responsibility for rubbish that is placed in the bins, which means that litter remains a problem. People may blame a lack of well-placed bins for their littering. Hazardous materials may often be incorrectly disposed of in the bins and they can encouragedumpster diving.
Volunteers, sometimes alone or coordinated through organizations, pick up litter and dispose of it.Clean up events may be organized in which participants will sometimes comb an area in a line to ensure that no litter is missed. Organizations may promote litter cleanup events and may also have separate media campaigns to prevent littering.
In North America,Adopt a Highway programs are popular, in which companies and organizations commit to cleaning stretches of road.Keep America Beautiful has held litter cleanups called the Great America Cleanup since 1998 in over 20,000 communities nationwide.[34]
Earth Day cleanups have been held globally since 1970. In 2019, Earth Day Network partnered withKeep America Beautiful andNational Cleanup Day for the inaugural nationwide Earth Day CleanUp. Cleanups were held in all 50 States, 5 US Territories, 5,300 sites and had more than 500,000 volunteers.[35][36]
Commercial properties such as retail, office and industrial have litter picking maintenance programs. This service may be provided by property owners or contracted to various service providers by property management companies acting on owner's behalf. Litter picking is performed on foot using simple hand tools. A worker will walk the sidewalks, parking lot and landscape and sweep up litter material into a litter collection tool. Contents are emptied into a waste bin on job site.
In Kiwayu, a Kenyan island, some of the collected litter (flip-flops) is used to make art, which is then sold.[37][38]
Litter traps can be used to capture litter as it exits stormwater drains into waterways. However, litter traps are only effective for large or floating items of litter and must be maintained. A recent watershed litter survey showed a difference in the composition of street litter and stormwater litter.[39]
Increasingly, there have been efforts to use technology to monitor areas prone to dumping. In Japan, a study usedGeographic Information Systems (GIS) to map areas of dumping based on site characteristics.[40]Another study used satellite images to detect possible illegal dumping sites.[41]
Container deposit legislation can be aimed at both reducing littering and also encouraging picking up through local recycling programs that offer incentives, particularly foraluminium cans,glass bottles andplastic bottles. In New York, an expanded bottle bill that included plastic water bottles increased recycling rates and generated 120 million dollars in revenue to the state General Fund from unclaimed deposits in 2010.[42]
In some countries such as Germany and the Netherlands,container-deposit legislation has been introduced on cans and plastic bottles. Parts of Belgium are also considering adopting such legislation.[43] People can thus collectrefund value money from this type of waste. The result of this is that in Germany, hardly any cans or plastic bottles can still be found along the road. In the Netherlands, the amount of litter has dropped considerably since the new law was implemented, and 95% of the plastic bottles are now recycled. According to Chris Snick, the revenue that can be obtained from waste picking can be financially profitable in countries where container deposit legislation has been introduced: in 1 hour he managed to pick up 108 cans and 31 plastic bottles, earning him 13.90 euro (€0.10 per can/plastic bottle).[44] By comparison, in countries where only the value of the aluminum for example would be refunded, 139 cans would yield only 1.72 euro (0.0124 euro per can; assuming there is 15 grams of aluminum in a can, and with scrap aluminum valued at 0.8267 euro/kg[45]).
Some countries and local authorities have introduced legislation to address the problem.
Actions resulting in fines can include on-the-spot fines for individuals administered by authorised officers in public or on public transport or littering from a vehicle, in which the vehicle owner is fined - reported by either responsible officer or third party, sometimes online.[46][47]
Specific legislation exists in the following countries:
Many groups exist with the aim of raising awareness and run campaigns including clean up events.
In the United States there are a number of organizations running anti-litter campaigns.Keep America Beautiful was founded in 1953, and promulgated the wordlitterbug, coined by its partner theAd Council in 1947.[50] At least 38 states have high profile, government-recognized slogan campaigns, includingDon't Mess with Texas; Let's Pick It Up New York; Don't Trash California; Take Pride in Florida; Keep Iowa Beautiful.
In Australia,Clean Up Australia Day is supported by many major Australian companies, firms and volunteers alike. Anti-litter organizations include "Keep Australia Beautiful", founded in 1963. It created the popular "Do the Right Thing" campaign and its Tidy Towns competition became well known being a very competitive expression of civic pride.
Keep Britain Tidy is a British campaign run by the Keep Britain Tidy environmental charity, which is part funded by the UK government.
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Throughout human history, people have disposed of unwanted materials onto streets, roadsides, in small local dumps or often in remote locations. Prior to reforms within cities in the mid-to-late 19th century,sanitation was not a government priority. The growing piles of waste led to the spread of disease.
Anti-littering legislation seems to have existed inancient Greece, as is evidenced by a road marker discovered on the island ofParos, bearing the inscription"whoever drops their litter on the street owes 51drachmae to whoever wishes to claim them".[51]
To address the growing amount of waste generated in the United States, theSolid Waste Disposal Act of 1965 was enacted. In 1976 the Federal government amended the Solid Waste Disposal Act, creating theResource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), which requires a "cradle to grave"[52] approach to the proper handling of potentially hazardous materials. RCRA gives authority to theEnvironmental Protection Agency (EPA) to regulate and enforce proper hazardous waste disposal.[53]Many countries now have laws that require thathousehold hazardous waste be deposited in a special location rather than sent to landfills with regular refuse. Household hazardous waste includespaints andsolvents,chemicals,light bulbs,fluorescent lights, spray cans,disposable batteries, and yard products such asfertilizers,pesticides,herbicides andinsecticides. Additionally,medical waste generated at home is considered a hazardous waste and must be disposed of properly.
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