TheLithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (Lithuanian SSR;Lithuanian:Lietuvos Tarybų Socialistinė Respublika;Russian:Литовская Советская Социалистическая Республика,romanized: Litovskaya Sovetskaya Sotsialisticheskaya Respublika), also known asSoviet Lithuania or simplyLithuania, wasde facto one of theconstituent republics of theSoviet Union between 1940–1941 and 1944–1990. After 1946, its territory and borders mirrored those of today'sRepublic of Lithuania, with the exception of minor adjustments to its border withBelarus.[1]
On 18 May 1989, the Lithuanian SSR declared itself to be asovereign state, though still part of the USSR. On 11 March 1990, the Republic of Lithuania wasre-established as an independent state, the first Soviet Republic to leave Moscow and leading other states to do so. Lithuania considered theSoviet occupation and annexation illegal and, like the other two Baltic States,claimed state continuity. This legal continuity has been recognised by mostWestern powers. The Soviet authorities considered the independence declaration illegal, but after theJanuary Events in Lithuania and failed1991 Soviet coup attempt in Moscow, the Soviet Union itself recognized Lithuanian independence on 6 September 1991.
On 23 August 1939,Nazi Germany and theSoviet Union signed theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact,[3] which contained agreements to divide Europe intospheres of influence, with Lithuania falling into Germany's sphere of influence. On 28 September 1939, the USSR and Germany signed theFrontier Treaty and its secret protocol, by which Lithuania was placed in the USSR's sphere of influence in exchange for Germany gaining an increased share of Polish territory, which had already been occupied.[4] The next day, the USSR offered Lithuania an agreement on the establishment of Soviet military bases in its territory. During the negotiations, the Lithuanian delegation was told of the division of the spheres of influence. The Soviets threatened that if Lithuania refused to host the bases,Vilnius could be annexed toBelarus (at that time the majority of population in Vilnius and Vilnius region werePolish people). In these circumstances aLithuania–USSR agreement on mutual assistance was signed inMoscow on 10 October 1939, allowing a Soviet military presence in Lithuania.[5] A total of 18,786Red Army troops were deployed at strategically important locations within the country:Alytus,Prienai,Gaižiūnai, andNaujoji Vilnia.[6] This move effectively ended Lithuanian neutrality and brought it directly under Soviet influence.
While Germany was conducting itsmilitary campaign in Western Europe in May and June 1940, the USSR invaded the Baltic states.[7] On 14 June 1940, an ultimatum was served to Lithuania on the alleged grounds of abduction of Red Army troops. The ultimatum said Lithuania should remove officials that the USSR found unsuitable (the Minister of the Interior and the Head of the Security Department in particular), replace the government, and allow an unlimited number of Red Army troops to enter the country. The acceptance of the ultimatum would have meant the loss of sovereignty, but Soviet foreign ministerVyacheslav Molotov declared to diplomatJuozas Urbšys that, whatever the reply may be, "troops will enter Lithuania tomorrow nonetheless".[8] The ultimatum was a violation of every prior agreement between Lithuania and the USSR and ofinternational law governing the relations ofsovereign states.[9]
The last session of the government of the Republic of Lithuania was called to discuss the ultimatum,[9] with most members in favour of accepting it. On 15 June, PresidentAntanas Smetona left for the West, expecting to return when the geopolitical situation changed,[10] leaving Prime MinisterAntanas Merkys in Lithuania. Before his departure, Smetona transferred most presidential duties to Merkys. Under the constitution, the prime minister became acting president whenever the president was unable to carry out his duties.
Meanwhile, the 8th and 11th armies of the USSR, comprising a total of 15 divisions, crossed the border. Flying squads took over the airports of Kaunas, Radviliškis, and Šiauliai. Regiments of the Red Army disarmed the Lithuanian military, took over its assets, and supported local communists. On 16 June, Merkys announced in a national radio broadcast that he had deposed Smetona, and was now president in his own right. On 17 June, the cabinet resolved that Smetona had effectively abandoned his post by leaving the country and confirmed Merkys as president without any qualifiers.
The Lithuanian Teachers' Congress in 1940, which in protest sang theTautiška giesmė[11]
Later that day, under pressure from Moscow, on 17 June 1940, Merkys appointedJustas Paleckis prime minister and resigned soon after. Paleckis then assumed presidential duties, andVincas Krėvė was appointed prime minister.[12] TheCommunist Party was legalized again and began publication of its papers and staging meetings to support the new government. Opposition organizations and newspapers were outlawed, and ties abroad cut. On 14–15 July,elections took place for a "People's Seimas." The only contender was theUnion of the Working People of Lithuania, a front for the Communists. Citizens were mandated to vote, and the results of the elections were likely falsified. At its first meeting on 21 July, the new People's Seimas declared that the Lithuanian people desired to join the Soviet Union. Accordingly, it unanimously changed Lithuania's official name to the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (LSSR) and formally petitioned to join the Soviet Union as a constituent republic. Resolutions to start the country's Sovietisation were passed the same day. On 3 August, a Lithuanian delegation of prominent public figures was dispatched to Moscow to sign the document by which Lithuania acceded to the USSR. After the signing, Lithuania was annexed to the USSR.[13] On 25 August 1940, an extraordinary session of the People's Seimas reorganized itself as the provisional Supreme Soviet of the LSSR, ratified the Constitution of the LSSR, which in form and substance was similar to the1936 Constitution of the Soviet Union.
On 22 June 1941, Nazi Germanyinvaded the USSR and occupied all of Lithuania within a month. TheLithuanian Activist Front (LAF), a resistance organisation founded in Berlin and led byKazys Škirpa whose goal was to liberate Lithuania and re-establish its independence, cooperated with the Nazis. The LAF was responsible for killing manyLithuanian Jews (during the first days ofthe Holocaust in Lithuania).[14] Škirpa was named prime minister in theProvisional Government of Lithuania; however, the Germans placed him underhouse arrest and dissolved the LAF on 5 August 1941.[15][16] During the German occupation, Lithuania was made part of theReichskommissariat Ostland. Between July and October 1944, theRed Army entered Lithuania once again, and the second Soviet government began. The first post-war elections took place in the winter of 1946 to elect 35 representatives to the LSSR Supreme Council. The results were again likely falsified to show an attendance rate of at over 90% and to establish an absolute victory for Communist Party candidates. The LSSR Supreme Council under Paleckis was formally the supreme governmental authority; in reality, power was in the hands of thefirst secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, a post held byAntanas Sniečkus until 1974.[17]
Upon recapturing Lithuania from the retreating Germans in 1944, the Red Army immediately began committingwar crimes. The situation was so extreme that even Sniečkus complained toLavrentiy Beria on 23 July that "If such robbery and violence continues inKaunas, this will burst our last sympathy for the Red Army". Beria passed this complaint on toJoseph Stalin.[18]
In a special report on the situation in theKlaipėda Region, the head of the localNKGB operational group wrote that:
A beautiful city,Šilutė, left by the Germans without a battle, currently looks repulsive: there is not one remaining store, almost no flats that are suitable for living. ... Metal scrap collection teams are blowing up working agricultural machinery, engines of various kinds, stealing valuable equipment from the companies. There is no electricity in Šilutė because an internal combustion engine was blown up.[19]
In the same report, the mass rape of Lithuanian women in the Klaipėda and Šilutė regions was reported:
Seventy year old women and fourteen-year-old girls are being raped, even in the presence of parents. For example, in November 1944 eleven soldiers raped aPriekulė County resident in the presence of her husband. In Šilutė district, two soldiers, covering her head with a bag, at the doorway raped a seventy-year-old woman. On 10 December, two soldiers shot a passing elderly woman.[19]
In Klaipėda Lithuanian men aged 17 to 48 were arrested and deported. In December 1944, Chief of the PriekulėKGB Kazakov wrote to the LSSR Minister of the Interior Josifas Bertašiūnas that due to the soldiers' violence most of the houses in Priekulė were unsuitable for living in: windows were knocked out, fireplaces disassembled, furniture and agricultural inventory broken up and exported as scrap. Many Red Army soldiers engaged in robbery, rape, and murder, and Lithuanians who saw soldiers at night would often run from their homes and hide.[20]
"On the night of 20 October, aviation unit senior M. Kapylov, by taking revenge against 14-year-old Marija Drulaitė who refused to have sexual intercourse, killed her, her mother, uncle Juozas and severely injured a 12-year-old."
Other regions of the LSSR also suffered heavily. For example, on 26 December 1944, Kaunas'NKGB representative Rodionov wrote to the USSR and LSSR Ministers of the Interior that due to the violence and mass arrests by thecounterintelligence units ofSMERSH, many Kaunas inhabitants were forced into crime[clarification needed]. Eleven SMERSH subdivisions did not obey any orders, not even those from the NKGB.[23] Chief of the Vilnius Garrison, P. Vetrov, in his order described discipline violations: on 18 August a soldier went fishing with explosives in theNeris river; on 19 August a fifteen-minute firefight took place between the garrison soldiers and prison guards; on 22 August drunk officers shot at each other.[24] On 1 October 1944, Chief of the KaunasNKVD G. Svečnikov reported that on the night of 19 October two aviation unit soldiers killed the Mavraušaitis family during a burglary.[21] On 17 January 1945, Chairman of theAlytus Executive Committee requested the LSSR People's Commissars Council to withdraw the border guards unit, which was sent to fight theLithuanian partisans, because it was burning not only the enemy's homes and farms, but also those of innocent people. They were also robbing local inhabitants cattle and other property.[25]
TheSovietisation of Lithuania began with the strengthening of the supervision of the Communist Party. Officials were sent from Moscow to set up bodies of local governance. They were exclusively Lithuanian, with trustworthy Russian specialists for assistants – it was these who were in effective control. By the spring of 1945, 6,100 Russian-speaking workers had been sent to Lithuania.[13] When the Soviets reoccupied the territory, Lithuanians were deprived of all property except personal belongings. This was followed bycollectivisation, which started in 1947, with people being forced to joinkolkhozes.[26] Well-off farmers would be exiled, and the livestock of the peasants from the surrounding areas would be herded to their properties. Since kolkhozes had to donate a large portion of their produce to the state, the people working there lived in poorer conditions than the rest of the nation. Their pay would often be delayed and made in kind and their movement to cities was restricted. This collectivisation ended in 1953.
Lithuania became home to factories and power plants, in a bid to integrate the country into the economic system of the USSR. The output of major factories would be exported from the republic as there was a lack of local demand. This process of industrialisation was followed by urbanisation, as villages for the workers had to be established or expanded in the vicinity of the new factories,[27] resulting in new towns such asBaltoji Vokė,Naujoji Akmenė,Elektrėnai andSniečkus or expansion of old ones such asJonava. Residents would be relocated from elsewhere in the LSSR, and from other USSR republics.[28] By 1979, more than half of population lived in urban areas.
All symbols of the former Republic of Lithuania were removed from public view by 1950, and the country had its history rewritten and its achievements belittled. The veneration of Stalin was spread and the role of Russia and the USSR in the history of Lithuania was highlighted. People were encouraged to join the Communist Party and communist organisations. Science and art based on communist ideology and their expression controlled by censorship mechanisms. People were encouraged into atheism in an attempt to secularise Lithuania, with monasteries closed, religion classes prohibited and church-goers persecuted.
The second Soviet occupation was followed by armed resistance in 1944–1953, aiming to restore an independent Lithuania, re-establish capitalism and eradicate communism, and bring back national identity and freedom of faith. Partisans were labelled bandits by the Soviets. They were forced into the woods and into armed resistance by the Soviet rule. Armed skirmishes with the Red Army were common between 1944 and 1946. From the summer of 1946 a partisan organisational structure was established, with units of 5–15 partisans living in bunkers. Guerrilla warfare with surprise attacks was the preferred tactic. In 1949 theUnion of Lithuanian Freedom Fighters underJonas Žemaitis–Vytautas was founded. Partisan units became smaller still, consisting of 3 to 5 partisans. Open fighting was a rarity, with sabotage and terrorism preferred. Despite guerrilla warfare failing to achieve its objectives and claiming the lives of more than 20,000 fighters, it demonstrated to the world that Lithuania's joining the USSR had not been a voluntary act and highlighted the desire of many Lithuanians to be independent.[29]
Lithuanian political prisoner Onutė Milušauskaitė (arrested in 1945 as a messenger of theLithuanian partisans) by the grave of her daughter inUst-Omchug
In the fall of 1944, lists of 'bandits' and 'bandit family' members to be deported appeared. Deportees were marshaled and put on a USSR-bound trains in Kaunas in early May 1945, reaching their destination in Tajikistan in summer. Once there, they employed as forced labour at cotton plantations.[30] In May 1945, a new wave of deportations from every county took place, enforced by battlegroups made of NKVD andNKGB staff and NKVD troops – the destruction battalions, oristrebitels. On 18–21 February 1946, deportations began in four counties: Alytus, Marijampolė, Lazdijai, and Tauragė.
On 12 December 1947 the Central Committee of the Lithuanian Communist Party resolved that actions against supporters of resistance were too weak and that additional measures were in order.[31] A new series of deportations began and 2,782 people were deported in December. In January–February 1948, another 1,134 persons[32] were exiled from every county in Lithuania. By May 1948, the total number of deportees had risen to 13,304. In May 1948, preparations for very large-scale deportations were being made, with 30,118 staff members from Soviet organisations involved.[33] On 22–23 May 1948, a large-scale deportation operation calledVesna began, leading to 36,932 arrests, a figure that later increased to 40,002.
The second major mass deportation, known asOperation Priboi, took place on 25–28 March 1949, during which the authorities put 28,981 persons into livestock cars and dispatched them deep into the USSR. Some people went into hiding and managed to escape the deportations, but then a manhunt began in April. As a result, another two echelons left for the remote regions of the USSR. During March–April 1949, a total of some 32,000 people were deported from Lithuania. By 1952, 10 more operations had been staged, but of a smaller scale. The last deportations took place in 1953, when people were deported to the district of Tomsk and the regions of Altai and Krasnoyarsk.[34]
Even after the guerrilla resistance had been quelled, Soviet authorities failed to suppress the movement for Lithuania's independence. Underground dissident groups had been active from the 1950s, publishing periodicals and Catholic literature.[35] They fostered national culture, celebrated historical events, instigated patriotism and encouraged hopes for independence. In the 1970s, dissidents established theLithuanian Liberty League under Antanas Terleckas. Founded in Vilnius in the wake of aninternational conference in Helsinki, Finland, which recognised the borders established after the Second World War, theLithuanian Helsinki Group demanded that Lithuania's occupation be recognised as illegal and the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact be condemned.[36] The dissidents ensured that the world would receive information about the situation in the LSSR and human rights violations, which caused Moscow to soften the regime.[37] In 1972, youngRomas Kalantaimmolated himself in Kaunas in a public display of protest against the regime. This was followed bypublic unrest, demonstrating that a large portion of the population were against the regime.[38]
TheCatholic Church took an active part in opposing the Soviets. The clergy published chronicles of the Catholic Church of Lithuania, secretly distributed in Lithuania and abroad. The faithful would gather in small groups to teach their children religion, celebrate religious holidays, and use national and religious symbols. The most active repressed figures of the movement wereVincentas Sladkevičius,Sigitas Tamkevičius, andNijolė Sadūnaitė.[39]
In the 1980s, the USSR sank into a deep economic crisis. In 1985,Mikhail Gorbachev was elected head of the USSR's Communist party and undertook internal reforms which had the effect of liberalising society (whilst actually increasing the economic chaos) and a new approach to foreign policy that effectively ended the Cold War. This encouraged the activity of anti-communist movements within the USSR, the LSSR included.[40] On 23 August 1987, theLithuanian Liberty League initiated an unsanctioned meeting in front of the monument toAdomas Mickevičius in Vilnius. At the meeting, the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact was condemned for the first time in public. The meeting and the speeches made at it were widely reported by western radio stations. Also meeting was reported by Central Television and evenTV Vilnius.
In May 1987, the Lithuanian Cultural Fund was established to engage in environmental activity and the protection of Lithuanian cultural assets. On 3 June 1988, the Lithuanian Reformation Movement (LRM) was founded; its mission was to restore the statehood of Lithuania; LRM supporters formed groups across Lithuania. On 23 August 1988, a meeting took place atVingis Park in Vilnius, with a turnout of about 250,000 people. On 23 August 1989, marking 50 years of the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact and aiming to draw the world's attention to the occupation of the Baltic states, theBaltic Way event was staged.[41] Organised by the Lithuanian Reformation Movement, the Baltic Way was a chain of people holding hands that stretched for nearly 600 kilometres (370 mi) to connect the three Baltic capitals of Vilnius, Riga, and Tallinn. It was a display of the aspiration of the Lithuanian, Latvian, and Estonian people to part ways with the USSR. The LSSRde facto ceased to exist on 11 March 1990, with the Reconstituent Seimas declaring Lithuania's independence restored. It took the line that since Lithuania's membership in the USSR was a violation of international law, it was reasserting an independence that still legally existed. Therefore, the Reconstituent Seimas argued that Lithuania did not need to follow the formal procedure of secession from the USSR.
Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania with signatures of the delegatesReferendum poster from 1990:Taip (Yes) stands for an independent and democratic Lithuania, whileNe (No) stands for an enslaved Lithuania.
Lithuania declared the sovereignty of its territory on 18 May 1989 anddeclared independence from the Soviet Union on 11 March 1990 under its pre-1940 name, theRepublic of Lithuania. Lithuania was the first Baltic state toassert state continuity, and the first Soviet Republic to declare full independence from the Union (thoughEstonia was the first Soviet Republic to assert its national sovereignty and the supremacy of its national laws over the laws of the Soviet Union). All of the Soviet Union's claims on Lithuania were repudiated as Lithuania declared therestitution of its independence. The Soviet Union claimed that this declaration was illegal, as Lithuania had to follow the process of secession mandated in the Soviet Constitution if it wanted to leave.
Lithuania contended that it did not need to follow the process of secession because the entire process by which Lithuania joined the Soviet Union violated both Lithuanian and international law. Specifically, it contended that Smetona never resigned, making Merkys' takeover of the presidency illegal and unconstitutional. Therefore, Lithuania argued that all acts leading up to the Soviet takeover wereipso facto null and void, and it was simply reasserting an independence that still existed under international law.
Iceland immediately recognised Lithuania's independence. Other countries followed suit after thefailed coup in August, with theState Council of the Soviet Union recognising Lithuania's independence on 6 September 1991. The Soviet Union officially ceased to exist on 26 December 1991.
It was agreed that theSoviet Army (later the Russian Army) must leave Lithuania because it was stationed without any legal reason. Its troops withdrew in 1993.[42]
Lithuanian SSR postage stamp, showing workers of akolkhoz
Collectivization in the Lithuanian SSR took place between 1947 and 1952.[44]The 1990per capitaGDP of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic was $8,591, which was above the average for the rest of the Soviet Union of $6,871.[45] This was half or less of the per capita GDPs of adjacent countriesNorway ($18,470),Sweden ($17,680) andFinland ($16,868).[45] Overall, in theEastern Bloc, systems without competition or market-clearing prices became costly and unsustainable, especially with the increasing complexity of world economics.[46] Such systems, which required party-state planning at all levels, collapsed under the weight of accumulated economic inefficiencies, with various attempts at reform merely contributing to the acceleration of crisis-generating tendencies.[47]
Lithuania accounted for 0.3 percent of the Soviet Union's territory and 1.3 percent of its population, but it generated a significant amount of the Soviet Union's industrial and agricultural output: 22 percent of its electric welding apparatus, 11.1 percent of its metal-cutting lathes, 2.3 percent of its mineral fertilizers, 4.8 percent of its alternating current electric motors, 2.0 percent of its paper, 2.4 percent of its furniture, 5.2 percent of its socks, 3.5 percent of underwear and knitwear, 1.4 percent of leather footwear, 5.3 percent of household refrigerators, 6.5 percent of television sets, 3.7 percent of meat, 4.7 percent of butter, 1.8 percent of canned products, and 1.9 percent of sugar.[48]
Lithuania was also a net donor to the USSR budget.[49] It was calculated in 1995 that the occupation resulted in 80 billionLTL (more than 23 billioneuros) worth of losses, including population, military, and church property losses and economic destruction among other things.[50] Lithuania mostly suffered until 1958 when more than a half of the annual national budgets was sent to the USSR budgets, later this number decreased but still remained high at around 25% of the annual national budgets until 1973 (totally, Lithuania sent about one third of all its annual national budgets money to the USSR budgets during the whole occupation period).[51]
^Lithuania in 1940–1990. A History of Lithuania under Occupation, ed. Anušauskas A., Genocide and Resistance Research Centre of Lithuania, Vilnius, 2007.
^Christie, Kenneth,Historical Injustice and Democratic Transition in Eastern Asia and Northern Europe: Ghosts at the Table of Democracy, RoutledgeCurzon, 2002,ISBN0-7007-1599-1
^Urbšys J., Lietuva lemtingaisiais 1939–1940 metais, Tautos fondas, 1988.
^The History of the SSR of Lithuania, vol. 4, Vilnius, 1947.
^Grybkauskas S., Sovietinė nomenklatūra ir pramonė Lietuvoje 1965-1985 metais / Lietuvos istorijos institutas. – Vilnius: LII leidykla, 2011.
^Epochas jungiantis nacionalizmas: tautos (de)konstravimas tarpukario, sovietmečio ir posovietmečio Lietuvoje / Lietuvos istorijos institutas. – Vilnius: Lietuvos istorijos instituto leidykla, 2013
^Gailius B., Partizanai tada ir šiandien, Vilnius, 2006.
^Lithuania in 1940–1990, ed. A. Anušauskas, Vilnius: GRRCL, 2005, p. 293.
^Lietuvos sovietizacija 1944–1947 m.: VKP(b) CK dokumentai, sud. M. Pocius, Vilnius: Lietuvos istorijos institutas, 2015, p. 126.
^Tremtis prie Mano upės, sud. V. G. Navickaitė, Vilnius: Lietuvos nacionalinis muziejus, 2008, p. 7.
^Lietuvos gyventojų trėmimai 1941, 1945–1952 m., Vilnius, 1994, p. 210.
^Lietuvos kovų ir kančių istorija. Lietuvos gyventojų trėmimai 1940–1941; 1944–1953 m. Sovietinės okupacija valdžios dokumentuose, red. A. Tyla, Vilnius: Lietuvos istorijos institutas, 1995, p. 101
^V. Vasiliauskaitė, [null Lietuvos Ir Vidurio Rytų Europos šalių periodinė savivalda], 1972–1989, 2006.
^Lietuvos Helsinkio grupė (dokumentai, atsiminimai, laiškai), sudarė V. Petkus, Ž. Račkauskaitė, . Uoka, 1999.
^Tininis V., Sovietinė Lietuva ir jos veikėjai, Vilnius, 1994.
^Bagušauskas J. R., [nullLietuvos jaunimo pasipriešinimas sovietiniam režimui ir jo slopinimas], 1999.
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