Lithium (fromAncient Greek:λίθος,líthos,'stone') is achemical element; it hassymbolLi andatomic number 3. It is a soft, silvery-whitealkali metal. Understandard conditions, it is the least dense metal and the least dense solid element. Like all alkali metals, lithium is highlyreactive and flammable, and must be stored in vacuum, inert atmosphere, or inert liquid such as purified kerosene[7] or mineral oil. It exhibits a metallicluster when pure, but quicklycorrodes in air to a dull silvery gray, then black tarnish. It does not occur freely in nature, but occurs mainly aspegmatitic minerals, which were once the main source of lithium. Due to its solubility as an ion, it is present in ocean water and is commonly obtained frombrines. Lithium metal is isolatedelectrolytically from a mixture oflithium chloride andpotassium chloride.
Thenucleus of the lithium atom verges on instability, since the two stable lithiumisotopes found in nature have among the lowestbinding energies pernucleon of all stablenuclides. Because of its relative nuclear instability, lithium is less common in theSolar System than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements even though its nuclei are very light: it is an exception to the trend that heavier nuclei are less common.[8] For related reasons, lithium has important uses innuclear physics. Thetransmutation of lithium atoms tohelium in 1932 was the first fully human-madenuclear reaction, andlithium deuteride serves as afusion fuel instaged thermonuclear weapons.[9]
Lithium and its compounds have several industrial applications, including heat-resistant glass andceramics,lithium grease lubricants, flux additives for iron, steel and aluminium production,lithium metal batteries, andlithium-ion batteries. Batteries alone consume more than three-quarters of lithium production.[10]
Lithium ingots with a thin layer of black nitride tarnish
Thealkali metals are also called the lithium family, after its leading element. Like the other alkali metals (which aresodium (Na),potassium (K),rubidium (Rb),caesium (Cs), andfrancium (Fr)), lithium has a singlevalence electron that, in the presence of solvents, is easily released to form Li+.[11] Because of this, lithium is a good conductor of heat and electricity as well as a highly reactive element, though it is the least reactive of the alkali metals. Lithium's lower reactivity is due to the proximity of its valence electron to itsnucleus (the remainingtwo electrons are in the1s orbital, much lower in energy, and do not participate in chemical bonds).[11] Molten lithium is significantly more reactive than its solid form.[12][13]
Lithium metal is soft enough to be cut with a knife. It is silvery-white. In air it oxidizes tolithium oxide.[11] Itsmelting point of 180.50 °C (453.65 K; 356.90 °F)[14] and itsboiling point of 1,342 °C (1,615 K; 2,448 °F)[14] are each the highest of all the alkali metals while itsdensity of 0.534g/cm3 is the lowest.
Lithium has a very low density (0.534 g/cm3), comparable withpine wood.[15] It is the least dense of all elements that are solids at room temperature; the next lightest solid element (potassium, at 0.862 g/cm3) is more than 60% denser. Apart fromhelium andhydrogen, as a solid it is less dense than any other element as a liquid, being only two-thirds as dense asliquid nitrogen (0.808 g/cm3).[16] Lithium can float on the lightest hydrocarbon oils and is one of only three metals that can float on water, the other two beingsodium andpotassium.
Naturally occurring lithium is composed of two stableisotopes,6Li and7Li, the latter being the more abundant (95.15%natural abundance).[24][25] Both natural isotopes have anomalously lownuclear binding energy per nucleon (compared to the neighboring elements on theperiodic table,helium andberyllium); lithium is the only low numbered element that can produce net energy throughnuclear fission. The two lithium nuclei have lower binding energies per nucleon than any other stable nuclides other thanhydrogen-1,deuterium andhelium-3.[26] As a result of this, though very light in atomic weight, lithium is less common in the Solar System than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements.[8] Sevenradioisotopes have been characterized, the most stable being8Li with ahalf-life of 838ms and9Li with a half-life of 178 ms. All of the remainingradioactive isotopes have half-lives that are shorter than 8.6 ms. The shortest-lived isotope of lithium is4Li, which decays throughproton emission and has a half-life of 7.6 × 10−23 s.[27] The6Li isotope is one of onlyfive stable nuclides to have both an odd number of protons and an odd number of neutrons, the other four stableodd-odd nuclides beinghydrogen-2,boron-10,nitrogen-14, andtantalum-180m.[28]
7Li is one of theprimordial elements (or, more properly, primordialnuclides) produced inBig Bang nucleosynthesis. A small amount of both6Li and7Li are produced in stars duringstellar nucleosynthesis, but it is further "burned" as fast as produced.[29]7Li can also be generated incarbon stars.[30] Additional small amounts of both6Li and7Li may be generated from solar wind, cosmic rays hitting heavier atoms, and from early solar system7Be radioactive decay.[31]
Lithium isotopes fractionate substantially during a wide variety of natural processes,[32] including mineral formation (chemical precipitation),metabolism, andion exchange. Lithium ions substitute formagnesium and iron in octahedral sites inclay minerals, where6Li is preferred to7Li, resulting in enrichment of the light isotope in processes of hyperfiltration and rock alteration. The exotic11Li is known to exhibit aneutron halo, with 2 neutrons orbiting around its nucleus of 3 protons and 6 neutrons. The process known aslaser isotope separation can be used to separate lithium isotopes, in particular7Li from6Li.[33]
Nuclear weapons manufacture and other nuclear physics applications are a major source of artificial lithium fractionation, with the light isotope6Li being retained by industry and military stockpiles to such an extent that it has caused slight but measurable change in the6Li to7Li ratios in natural sources, such as rivers. This has led to unusual uncertainty in the standardizedatomic weight of lithium, since this quantity depends on the natural abundance ratios of these naturally occurring stable lithium isotopes, as they are available in commercial lithium mineral sources.[34]
Both stable isotopes of lithium can belaser cooled and were used to produce the first quantum degenerateBose–Fermi mixture.[35]
Occurrence
Lithium is about as common aschlorine in the Earth's upper continentalcrust, on a per-atom basis.
Although it was synthesized in theBig Bang, lithium (together withberyllium andboron) is markedly less abundant in the universe than other elements. This is a result of the comparatively low stellar temperatures necessary to destroy lithium, along with a lack of common processes to produce it.[36]
According to modern cosmological theory, lithium—in both stable isotopes (lithium-6 and lithium-7)—was one of the three elements synthesized in the Big Bang.[37] Though the amount of lithium generated inBig Bang nucleosynthesis is dependent upon the number ofphotons perbaryon, for accepted values the lithium abundance can be calculated, and there is a "cosmological lithium discrepancy" in the universe: older stars seem to have less lithium than they should, and some younger stars have much more.[38] The lack of lithium in older stars is apparently caused by the "mixing" of lithium into the interior of stars, where it is destroyed,[39] while lithium is produced in younger stars. Although ittransmutes into two atoms ofhelium due to collision with aproton at temperatures above 2.4 million degrees Celsius (most stars easily attain this temperature in their interiors), lithium is more abundant than computations would predict in later-generation stars.[40]
Lithium is also found inbrown dwarf substellar objects and certain anomalous orange stars. Because lithium is present in cooler, less-massive brown dwarfs, but is destroyed in hotterred dwarf stars, its presence in the stars' spectra can be used in the "lithium test" to differentiate the two, as both are smaller than the Sun.[40][42][43] Certain orange stars can also contain a high concentration of lithium. Those orange stars found to have a higher than usual concentration of lithium (such asCentaurus X-4) orbit massive objects—neutron stars or black holes—whose gravity evidently pulls heavier lithium to the surface of a hydrogen-helium star, causing more lithium to be observed.[40]
On 27 May 2020, astronomers reported thatclassical nova explosions are galactic producers of lithium-7.[44][45]
Although lithium is widely distributed on Earth, it does not naturally occur in elemental form due to its high reactivity.[11] The total lithium content of seawater is very large and is estimated as 230 billion tonnes, where the element exists at a relatively constant concentration of 0.14 to 0.25 parts per million (ppm),[46][47] or 25micromolar;[48] higher concentrations approaching 7 ppm are found nearhydrothermal vents.[47]
Estimates for the Earth'scrustal content range from 20 to 70 ppm by weight.[49][50] In keeping with its name, lithium forms a minor part ofigneous rocks, with the largest concentrations ingranites. Graniticpegmatites also provide the greatest abundance of lithium-containing minerals, withspodumene andpetalite being the most commercially viable sources.[49] Another significant mineral of lithium islepidolite which is now an obsolete name for a series formed by polylithionite and trilithionite.[51][52] Another source for lithium ishectorite clay, the only active development of which is through the Western Lithium Corporation in the United States.[53] At 20 mg lithium per kg of Earth's crust,[54] lithium is the 31st most abundant element.[55]
According to theHandbook of Lithium and Natural Calcium, "Lithium is a comparatively rare element, although it is found in many rocks and some brines, but always in very low concentrations. There are a fairly large number of both lithium mineral and brine deposits but only comparatively few of them are of actual or potential commercial value. Many are very small, others are too low ingrade."[56]
Chile is estimated (2020) to have the largest reserves by far (9.2 million tonnes),[57] and Australia the highest annual production (40,000 tonnes).[57] One of the largestreserve bases[note 1] of lithium is in theSalar de Uyuni area of Bolivia, which has 5.4 million tonnes. Other major suppliers include Argentina and China.[58][59] As of 2015, theCzech Geological Survey considered the entireOre Mountains in the Czech Republic as lithium province. Five deposits are registered, one nearCínovec [cs] is considered as a potentially economical deposit, with 160 000 tonnes of lithium.[60] In December 2019, Finnish mining company Keliber Oy reported its Rapasaari lithium deposit has estimated proven and probable ore reserves of 5.280 million tonnes.[61]
In June 2010,The New York Times reported that American geologists were conducting ground surveys ondrysalt lakes in westernAfghanistan believing that large deposits of lithium are located there.[62] These estimates are "based principally on old data, which was gathered mainly by theSoviets during theiroccupation of Afghanistan from 1979–1989".[63] TheDepartment of Defense estimated the lithium reserves in Afghanistan to amount to the ones in Bolivia and dubbed it as a potential "Saudi-Arabia of lithium".[64] InCornwall, England, the presence of brine rich in lithium was well known due to the region's historicmining industry, and private investors have conducted tests to investigate potential lithium extraction in this area.[65][66]
Lithium is found in trace amount in numerous plants, plankton, and invertebrates, at concentrations of 69 to 5,760parts per billion (ppb). In vertebrates the concentration is slightly lower, and nearly all vertebrate tissue and body fluids contain lithium ranging from 21 to 763 ppb.[47] Marine organisms tend to bioaccumulate lithium more than terrestrial organisms.[67] Whether lithium has a physiological role in any of these organisms is unknown.[47]Lithiumconcentrations in human tissue averages about 24ppb (4 ppb inblood, and 1.3ppm inbone).[68]
Lithium is easily absorbed byplants[68] and lithium concentration in plant tissue is typically around 1ppm.[69] Some plantfamiliesbioaccumulate more lithium than others.[69]Dry weight lithium concentrations for members of thefamilySolanaceae (which includespotatoes andtomatoes), for instance, can be as high as 30 ppm while this can be as low as 0.05 ppb forcorn grains.[68]Studies of lithium concentrations in mineral-rich soil give ranges between around 0.1 and 50−100ppm, with some concentrations as high as 100−400 ppm, although it is unlikely that all of it is available for uptake byplants.[69]Lithium accumulation does not appear to affect theessential nutrient composition of plants.[69] Tolerance to lithium varies by plant species and typically parallelssodium tolerance;maize andRhodes grass, for example, are highly tolerant to lithium injury whileavocado andsoybean are very sensitive.[69] Similarly, lithium at concentrations of 5 ppm reducesseed germination in some species (e.g.Asian rice andchickpea) but not in others (e.g.barley andwheat).[69]
Even the exact mechanisms involved inlithium toxicity are not fully understood.
One study indicated reduced cortical lithium in the brains of individuals with Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer's Disease. This deficiency, caused in part by lithium's sequestration within amyloid plaques, has been shown to accelerate Alzheimer's pathology in mouse models through the over-activation of the kinase GSK3β. This physiological role is distinct from the use oflithium-based drugs at much higher pharmacological doses as a mood stabilizer in the treatment of mental illness such asbipolar disorder.[73][74]
History
Johan August Arfwedson is credited with the discovery of lithium in 1817.
Petalite (LiAlSi4O10) was discovered in 1800 by the Brazilian chemist and statesmanJosé Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva in a mine on the island ofUtö, Sweden.[75][76][77][78] However, it was not until 1817 thatJohan August Arfwedson, then working in the laboratory of the chemistJöns Jakob Berzelius,detected the presence of a new element while analyzing petalite ore.[79][80][81][82] This element formed compounds similar to those ofsodium andpotassium, though itscarbonate andhydroxide were lesssoluble in water and lessalkaline.[83] Berzelius gave the alkaline material the name "lithion/lithina", from the Greek wordλιθoς (transliterated aslithos, meaning "stone"), to reflect its discovery in a solid mineral, as opposed to potassium, which had been discovered in plant ashes, and sodium, which was known partly for its high abundance in animal blood. He named the new element "lithium".[11][77][82]
Arfwedson later showed that this same element was present in the mineralsspodumene andlepidolite.[84][77] In 1818,Christian Gmelin was the first to observe that lithium salts give a bright red color to flame.[77][85] However, both Arfwedson and Gmelin tried and failed to isolate the pure element from its salts.[77][82][86] It was not isolated until 1821, whenWilliam Thomas Brande obtained it byelectrolysis oflithium oxide, a process that had previously been employed by the chemist SirHumphry Davy to isolate the alkali metals potassium and sodium.[40][86][87][88][89] Brande also described some pure salts of lithium, such as the chloride, and, estimating that lithia (lithium oxide) contained about 55% metal, estimated the atomic weight of lithium to be around 9.8 g/mol (modern value ~6.94 g/mol).[90] In 1855, larger quantities of lithium were produced through the electrolysis oflithium chloride byRobert Bunsen andAugustus Matthiessen.[77][91] The discovery of this procedure led to commercial production of lithium in 1923 by the German companyMetallgesellschaft AG, which performed an electrolysis of a liquid mixture of lithium chloride andpotassium chloride.[77][92][93]
Australian psychiatristJohn Cade is credited with reintroducing and popularizing the use of lithium to treatmania in 1949.[94] Shortly after, throughout the mid-20th century, lithium's mood stabilizing applicability for mania anddepression took off in Europe and the United States.
The production and use of lithium underwent several drastic changes in history. The first major application of lithium was in high-temperaturelithium greases for aircraft engines and similar applications inWorld War II and shortly after. This use was supported by the fact that lithium-based soaps have a higher melting point than other alkali soaps, and are less corrosive than calcium based soaps. The small demand for lithium soaps and lubricating greases was supported by several small mining operations, mostly in the US.
The demand for lithium increased dramatically during theCold War with the production ofnuclear fusion weapons. Both lithium-6 and lithium-7 producetritium when irradiated by neutrons, and are thus useful for the production of tritium by itself, as well as a form of solid fusion fuel used inside hydrogen bombs in the form oflithium deuteride. The US became the prime producer of lithium between the late 1950s and the mid-1980s. At the end, the stockpile of lithium was roughly 42,000 tonnes of lithium hydroxide. The stockpiled lithium was depleted in lithium-6 by 75%, which was enough to affect the measuredatomic weight of lithium in many standardized chemicals, and even the atomic weight of lithium in some "natural sources" of lithium ion which had been "contaminated" by lithium salts discharged from isotope separation facilities, which had found its way into ground water.[34][95]
Lithium is used to decrease the melting temperature of glass and to improve the melting behavior ofaluminium oxide in theHall-Héroult process.[96][97] These two uses dominated the market until the middle of the 1990s. After the end of thenuclear arms race, the demand for lithium decreased and the sale of department of energy stockpiles on the open market further reduced prices.[95] In the mid-1990s, several companies started to isolate lithium frombrine which proved to be a less expensive option than underground or open-pit mining. Most of the mines closed or shifted their focus to other materials because only the ore from zoned pegmatites could be mined for a competitive price. For example, the US mines nearKings Mountain, North Carolina, closed before the beginning of the 21st century.
The development of lithium-ion batteries increased the demand for lithium and became the dominant use in 2007.[98] With the surge of lithium demand in batteries in the 2000s, new companies have expanded brine isolation efforts to meet the rising demand.[99][100]
"Lithium salt" redirects here. For Lithium salts used in medication, seeLithium (medication).
Of lithium metal
Lithium reacts with water easily, but with noticeably less vigor than other alkali metals. The reaction formshydrogen gas andlithium hydroxide.[11] When placed over a flame, lithium compounds give off a striking crimson color, but when the metal burns strongly, the flame becomes a brilliant silver. Lithium will ignite and burn in oxygen when exposed to water or water vapor. In moist air, lithium rapidly tarnishes to form a black coating oflithium hydroxide (LiOH and LiOH·H2O),lithium nitride (Li3N) andlithium carbonate (Li2CO3, the result of a secondary reaction between LiOH andCO2).[49] Lithium is one of the few metals that react withnitrogen gas.[101][102]
Because of its reactivity with water, and especially nitrogen, lithium metal is usually stored in a hydrocarbon sealant, oftenpetroleum jelly. Although the heavier alkali metals can be stored undermineral oil, lithium is not dense enough to fully submerge itself in these liquids.[40]
Lithium has adiagonal relationship withmagnesium, an element of similar atomic andionic radius. Chemical resemblances between the two metals include the formation of anitride by reaction with N2, the formation of anoxide (Li 2O) and peroxide (Li 2O 2) when burnt in O2,salts with similarsolubilities, and thermal instability of thecarbonates and nitrides.[49][103] The metal reacts with hydrogen gas at high temperatures to producelithium hydride (LiH).[104]
Lithium forms a variety of binary and ternary materials by direct reaction with the main group elements. TheseZintl phases, although highly covalent, can be viewed as salts of polyatomic anions such as Si44-, P73-, and Te52-. With graphite, lithium forms a variety ofintercalation compounds.[103]
Lithium forms salt-like derivatives with allhalides and pseudohalides. Some examples include the halidesLiF,LiCl,LiBr,LiI, as well as thepseudohalides and related anions. Lithium carbonate has been described as the most important compound of lithium.[103] This white solid is the principal product ofbeneficiation of lithium ores. It is a precursor to other salts including ceramics and materials for lithium batteries.
The compoundsLiBH 4 andLiAlH 4 are usefulreagents. These salts and many other lithium salts exhibit distinctively high solubility in ethers, in contrast with salts of heavier alkali metals.
In aqueous solution, thecoordination complex [Li(H2O)4]+ predominates for many lithium salts. Related complexes are known with amines and ethers.
Hexameric structure of then-butyllithium fragment in a crystal
Organolithium compounds are numerous and useful. They are defined by the presence of abond betweencarbon and lithium. They serve as metal-stabilizedcarbanions, although their solution and solid-state structures are more complex than this simplistic view.[105] Thus, these are extremely powerfulbases andnucleophiles. They have also been applied in asymmetric synthesis in the pharmaceutical industry. For laboratory organic synthesis, many organolithium reagents are commercially available in solution form. These reagents are highly reactive, and are sometimespyrophoric.
Like its inorganic compounds, almost all organic compounds of lithium formally follow theduet rule (e.g.,BuLi,MeLi). However, it is important to note that in the absence of coordinating solvents or ligands, organolithium compounds form dimeric, tetrameric, and hexameric clusters (e.g., BuLi is actually [BuLi]6 and MeLi is actually [MeLi]4) which feature multi-center bonding and increase the coordination number around lithium. These clusters are broken down into smaller or monomeric units in the presence of solvents likedimethoxyethane (DME) or ligands liketetramethylethylenediamine (TMEDA).[106] As an exception to the duet rule, a two-coordinate lithate complex with four electrons around lithium, [Li(thf)4]+[((Me3Si)3C)2Li]–, has been characterized crystallographically.[107]
Lithium is one of the elements critical in a world running on renewable energy and dependent on batteries. This suggests that lithium will be one of the main objects ofgeopolitical competition, but this perspective has also been criticised for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production.[111]
Reserves and occurrence
Scatter plots of lithium grade and tonnage for selected world deposits, as of 2017
The small ionic size makes it difficult for lithium to be included in early stages of mineral crystallization. As a result, lithium remains in the molten phases, where it gets enriched, until it gets solidified in the final stages. Such lithium enrichment is responsible for all commercially promising lithiumore deposits.Brines (and dry salt) are another important source of Li+. Although the number of known lithium-containing deposits and brines is large, most of them are either small or have too low Li+ concentrations. Thus, only a few appear to be of commercial value.[112]
TheUS Geological Survey (USGS) estimated worldwide identified lithium reserves in 2022 and 2023 to be 26 million and 28 milliontonnes, respectively.[58][57] An accurate estimate of world lithium reserves is difficult.[113][114] One reason for this is that most lithium classification schemes are developed for solid ore deposits, whereas brine is afluid that is problematic to treat with the same classification scheme due to varying concentrations and pumping effects.[115]
In 2019, world production of lithium from spodumene was around 80,000t per annum, primarily from theGreenbushes pegmatite and from someChinese andChilean sources. The Talison mine in Greenbushes is reported to be the largest and to have the highest grade of ore at 2.4% Li2O (2012 figures).[116]
Lithium triangle and other brine sources
The world's top four lithium-producing countries in 2019, as reported by the US Geological Survey, wereAustralia,Chile,China andArgentina.[58]
The three countries ofChile,Bolivia, andArgentina contain a region known as theLithium Triangle. The Lithium Triangle is known for its high-quality salt flats, which include Bolivia'sSalar de Uyuni, Chile'sSalar de Atacama, and Argentina'sSalar de Arizaro. As of 2018[update], the Lithium Triangle had been estimated to contain over 75% of then known lithium reserves.[117] Deposits found in subsurface brines have also been found in the United States (southwest Texas and Arkansas)[118] and South America throughout theAndes mountain chain. In 2010, Chile was the leading producer, followed by Argentina. Both countries recover lithium from brine pools. According to USGS, Bolivia'sUyuni Desert has 5.4 million tonnes of lithium.[119][120] Half the world's known reserves as of 2022 were located inBolivia along the central eastern slope of the Andes. The Bolivian government invested US$900 million in lithium production by 2022, and in 2021 successfully produced 540 tons.[121][119] The brines in the salt pans of the Lithium Triangle vary widely in lithium content.[122] Concentrations can also vary over time as brines are fluids that are changeable and mobile.[122]
Extracting lithium from brine deep in Wyoming'sRock Springs Uplift has been proposed as revenue source to make atmosphericcarbon sequestration economically viable.[123] Additional deposits in the same formation were estimated to be as much as 18 million tons if economic means of recovery can be employed.[124] Similarly in Nevada, theMcDermitt Caldera hosts lithium-bearing volcanic muds that consist of the largest known deposits of lithium within the United States.[125]
Since 2018 theDemocratic Republic of Congo is known to have the largest lithiumspodumene hard-rock deposit in the world.[128] The deposit located inManono,DRC, may hold up to 1.5 billion tons of lithium spodumene hard-rock. The two largest pegmatites (known as the Carriere de l'Este Pegmatite and the Roche Dure Pegmatite) are each of similar size or larger than the famous Greenbushes Pegmatite inWestern Australia. Thus, theDemocratic Republic of Congo is expected to be a significant supplier of lithium to the world with its high grade and low impurities.
On 16 July 2018 2.5 million tonnes of high-grade lithium resources and 124 million pounds of uranium resources were found in the Falchani hard rock deposit in the regionPuno, Peru.[129]In 2020, Australia granted Major Project Status (MPS) to theFinniss Lithium Project for a strategically important lithium deposit: an estimated 3.45 million tonnes (Mt) of mineral resource at 1.4 percentlithium oxide.[130][131] Operational mining began in 2022.[132]
In Russia the largest lithium deposit Kolmozerskoye is located inMurmansk region. In 2023, Polar Lithium, a joint venture between Nornickel andRosatom, has been granted the right to develop the deposit. The project aims to produce 60,000 tonnes oflithium carbonate and hydroxide per year and plans to reach full design capacity by 2030.[134]
Other sources
Another potential source of lithium as of 2012[update] was identified as the leachates ofgeothermal wells, which are carried to the surface.[135] Recovery of this type of lithium has been demonstrated in the field; the lithium is separated by simple filtration.[136][137] Reserves are more limited than those of brine reservoirs and hard rock.[138]
Pricing
This sectionneeds expansion with: more recent description of the Lithium market after 2022. You can help bymaking an edit requestadding to it.(July 2025)
A 2012Business Week article projected that global lithium consumption could increase to 300,000 metric tons a year by 2020, from about 150,000 tons in 2012, to match the demand for lithium batteries that had then been growing at about 25% a year, outpacing the late-2000s 4% to 5% overall gain in lithium production.[141][needs update]
The price information service ISE – Institute of Rare Earths Elements and Strategic Metals – gives for various lithium substances in the average of March to August 2022 the following kilo prices stable in the course: Lithium carbonate, purity 99.5% min, from various producers between 63 and 72 EUR/kg. Lithium hydroxide monohydrate LiOH 56.5% min, China, at 66 to 72 EUR/kg; delivered South Korea – 73 EUR/kg. Lithium metal 99.9% min, delivered China – 42 EUR/kg.[142]
Extraction
Analyses of the extraction of lithium from seawater, published in 1975
Lithium and its compounds were historically isolated and extracted from hard rock. However, by the 1990smineral springs,brine pools, and brine deposits had become the dominant source.[143] Most of these were in Chile, Argentina and Bolivia and the lithium is extracted from the brine by evaporative processes.[57] Large lithium-clay deposits under development in the McDermitt caldera (Nevada, United States) require concentrated sulfuric acid to leach lithium from the clay ore.[144]
By early 2021, much of the lithium mined globally came from either "spodumene, the mineral contained in hard rock formations found in places such as Australia and North Carolina"[145] or from salty brine pumped directly out of the ground, as it is in locations in Chile, Argentina, and Arkansas.[145][122][127]
In Chile'sSalar de Atacama, the lithium concentration in the brine is raised by solar evaporation in a system of ponds.[122] The enrichment by evaporation process may require up to one-and-a-half years, when the brine reaches a lithium content of 6%.[122] The final processing in this example is done inSalar del Carmen andLa Negra near the coastal city ofAntofagasta where purelithium carbonate,lithium hydroxide, andlithium chloride are produced from the brine.[122]
Direct Lithium Extraction (DLE) technologies are being developed as alternatives to the evaporitic technology long used to extract lithium salts frombrines. The traditional evaporitic technology is a long duration process requiring large amounts of land and intensive water use, and can only be applied to the large continental brines. In contrast, DLE technologies are proposed to tackle the environmental and techno–economic shortcomings by avoiding brine evaporation.[146][147] Some recent lithium mining projects in the United States are attempting to bring DLE into commercial production by these non-evaporative DLE approaches.[127]
One method of direct lithium extraction, as well as other valuableminerals, is to process geothermal brine water through an electrolytic cell, located within a membrane.[148][149]
The use ofelectrodialysis and electrochemical intercalation was proposed in 2020 to extract lithium compounds from seawater (which contains lithium at 0.2parts per million).[150][151][152][153] Ion-selective cells within a membrane in principle could collect lithium either by use ofelectric field or a concentration difference.[153] In 2024, a redox/electrodialysis system was claimed to offer enormous cost savings, shorter timelines, and less environmental damage than traditional evaporation-based systems.[154]
The manufacturing processes of lithium, including the solvent andmining waste of particular extraction processes can present environmental and health hazards.[155][156][157]Lithium extraction done poorly can be fatal to aquatic life due towater pollution.[158] The surface brine evaporation process has been known to cause surface water contamination, drinking water contamination, respiratory problems, ecosystem degradation and landscape damage,[155] and could lead to unsustainable water consumption in arid regions (1.9 million liters per ton of lithium), such as in northwestern Argentina.[159][155] Massive byproduct generation of evaporative surface lithium extraction also presents unsolved problems, such as large amounts ofmagnesium andlime waste.[160]
Although lithium occurs naturally, it is anon-renewable resource[better source needed] yet is seen as crucial in the transition away fromfossil fuels, and the extraction process has been criticised for long-term degradation of water resources.[161][162] In the southern reaches ofSalar de Atacama lithium-producing companyAlbemarle Limitada reached aconcialiatory agreement in 2024 to make reparations freshwater uptake that would have contributed –along with the uptake of copper mining companies– to dry meadows locatede in the traditional lands of the indigenousAtacameño people.[163][164][165] In its defense Albemarle Limitada have asserted that its use is minimal compared to that of the nearby copper mining companies.[166]
During 2021, aseries of mass protests broke out in Serbia against the construction of a lithium mine in Western Serbia by theRio Tinto corporation.[168] In 2024, an EU backed lithium mining project created large scale protests in Serbia.[169]
Some animal species associated with salt lakes in theLithium Triangle (in Argentina, Bolivia and Chile) are particularly threatened by the damages of lithium production to the localecosystem, including theAndean flamingo[170] andOrestias parinacotensis, a small fish locally known as "karachi".[171]
Human rights issues
Reporting on lithium extraction companies andindigenous peoples in Argentina found that the state may did not always protect indigenous peoples' right tofree prior and informed consent, and that extraction companies generally controlled community access to information and set the terms for discussion of the projects and benefit sharing.[159][172]
In Argentina'sPuna region, in 2023, two mining companies (Minera Exar and Sales de Jujuy) extracted over 3.7 billion liters of fresh water, over 31 times the annual water consumption of the local community of Susques department.[159]
Extraction of lithium-rich brines inSalar de Atacama in Chile led to conflict aboutwater use with local communities.[170] The local indigenous population ofLikan Antay have a history of both opposing lithium extraction and negotiating forshared benefits with lithium companies.[173] Negotiations occur under the framework of theIndigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention which Chile signed in 2008.[173] It is argued that in Chile "[a]greements between Indigenous organizations and lithium companies have brought significant economic resources for community development, but have also expanded the mining industry's capacity for social control in the area.".[173]
In Zimbabwe, the global increase in lithium prices in the early 2020s triggered a 'lithium fever' that led to displacement of locals and conflicts between small-scale artisanal miners and large-scale mining companies. Some local farmers agreed to relocate and were satisfied with their compensation.[174] Artisanal miners occupied parts of theSandawana mines and a privately owned lithium claim area inGoromonzi, a rural area close to the capitalHarare. The artisanal miners were later evicted after the area was cordoned off and shut down by Zimbabwe's Environmental Management Agency.[175]
Development of theThacker Pass lithium mine in Nevada, United States, has met with protests and lawsuits from several indigenous tribes who have said they were not provided free prior and informed consent and that the project threatens cultural and sacred sites.[176] They have also expressed concerns that development of the project will create risks to indigenous women, because resource extraction is linked tomissing and murdered Indigenous women.[177] Protestors have been occupying the site of the proposed mine since January 2021.[178][167]
Applications
Pie chart of how much lithium was used and in what way globally in 2020[179]
Lithium oxide is widely used as aflux for processingsilica, reducing themelting point andviscosity of the material and leading toglazes with improved physical properties including low coefficients of thermal expansion. Worldwide, this is one of the largest use for lithium compounds.[180][181] Glazes containing lithium oxides are used for ovenware.Lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) is generally used in this application because it converts to the oxide upon heating.[182]
Over the years opinions have been differing about potential growth. A 2008 study concluded that "realistically achievable lithium carbonate production would be sufficient for only a small fraction of futurePHEV andEV global market requirements", that "demand from the portable electronics sector will absorb much of the planned production increases in the next decade", and that "mass production of lithium carbonate is not environmentally sound, it will cause irreparable ecological damage to ecosystems that should be protected and thatLiIon propulsion is incompatible with the notion of the 'Green Car'".[59]
The third most common use of lithium is in greases. Lithium hydroxide is a strongbase, and when heated with a fat, it produces a soap, such aslithium stearate fromstearic acid. Lithium soap has the ability tothicken oils, and it is used to manufacture all-purpose, high-temperaturelubricating greases.[22][186][187]
Metallurgy
Lithium (e.g. as lithium carbonate) is used as an additive tocontinuous casting mould flux slags where it increases fluidity,[188][189] a use which accounts for 5% of global lithium use (2011).[58] Lithium compounds are also used as additives (fluxes) tofoundry sand for iron casting to reduce veining.[190]
Lithium (aslithium fluoride) is used as an additive to aluminium smelters (Hall–Héroult process), reducing melting temperature and increasing electrical resistance,[191] a use which accounts for 3% of production (2011).[58]
Lithium has been found effective in assisting the perfection of silicon nano-welds in electronic components for electric batteries and other devices.[195]
Lithium is used in flares andpyrotechnics is due to its rose-red flame.[196]
Lithium chloride andlithium bromide arehygroscopic and are used asdesiccants for gas streams.[22] Lithium hydroxide andlithium peroxide are the salts most commonly used in confined areas, such as aboardspacecraft andsubmarines, for carbon dioxide removal and air purification. Lithium hydroxide absorbscarbon dioxide from the air by forming lithium carbonate, and is preferred over other alkaline hydroxides for its low weight.
Lithium peroxide (Li2O2) in presence of moisture not only reacts with carbon dioxide to form lithium carbonate, but also releases oxygen.[198][199] The reaction is as follows:
Lithium fluoride, artificially grown ascrystal, is clear and transparent and often used in specialist optics forIR,UV and VUV (vacuum UV) applications. It has one of the lowestrefractive indices and the furthest transmission range in the deep UV of most common materials.[201] Finely divided lithium fluoride powder has been used forthermoluminescent radiation dosimetry (TLD): when a sample of such is exposed to radiation, it accumulatescrystal defects which, when heated, resolve via a release of bluish light whose intensity is proportional to theabsorbed dose, thus allowing this to be quantified.[202] Lithium fluoride is sometimes used in focal lenses oftelescopes.[22][203]
Metallic lithium and its complexhydrides, such as lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4), are used as high-energy additives torocket propellants.[40] LiAlH4 can also be used by itself as asolid fuel.[210]
TheMark 50 torpedo stored chemical energy propulsion system (SCEPS) uses a small tank ofsulfur hexafluoride, which is sprayed over a block of solid lithium. The reaction generates heat, creatingsteam to propel the torpedo in a closedRankine cycle.[211]
Lithium deuteride was used as fuel in theCastle Bravo nuclear device.
Lithium deuteride was thefusion fuel of choice in early versions of thehydrogen bomb. When bombarded byneutrons, both6Li and7Li producetritium — this reaction, which was not fully understood whenhydrogen bombs were first tested, was responsible for the runaway yield of theCastle Bravonuclear test. Tritium fuses withdeuterium in afusion reaction that is relatively easy to achieve. Although details remain secret, lithium-6 deuteride apparently still plays a role in modernnuclear weapons as a fusion material.[215]
Lithium fluoride, when highly enriched in the lithium-7 isotope, forms the basic constituent of the fluoride salt mixture LiF-BeF2 used inliquid fluoride nuclear reactors. Lithium fluoride is exceptionally chemically stable and LiF-BeF2 mixtures have low melting points. In addition,7Li, Be, and F are among the fewnuclides with low enoughthermal neutron capture cross-sections not to poison the fission reactions inside a nuclear fission reactor.[note 4][216]
In conceptualized (hypothetical) nuclearfusion power plants, lithium will be used to produce tritium inmagnetically confined reactors usingdeuterium andtritium as the fuel. Naturally occurring tritium is extremely rare and must be synthetically produced by surrounding the reactingplasma with a 'blanket' containing lithium, where neutrons from the deuterium-tritium reaction in the plasma will fission the lithium to produce more tritium:
6Li + n →4He +3H.
Lithium is also used as a source foralpha particles, orhelium nuclei. When7Li is bombarded by acceleratedprotons8Be is formed, which almost immediately undergoes fission to form two alpha particles. This feat, called "splitting the atom" at the time, was the first fully human-madenuclear reaction. It was produced byCockroft andWalton in 1932.[217][218] Injection of lithium powders is used in fusion reactors to manipulate plasma-material interactions and dissipate energy in the hot thermo-nuclear fusion plasma boundary.[219][220]
In 2013, the USGovernment Accountability Office said a shortage of lithium-7 critical to the operation of 65 out of 100 American nuclear reactors "places their ability to continue to provide electricity at some risk." The problem stems from the decline of US nuclear infrastructure. The equipment needed to separate lithium-6 from lithium-7 is mostly a cold war leftover. The US shut down most of this machinery in 1963, when it had a huge surplus of separated lithium, mostly consumed during the twentieth century. The report said it would take five years and $10 million to $12 million to reestablish the ability to separate lithium-6 from lithium-7.[221]
Reactors that use lithium-7 heat water under high pressure and transfer heat through heat exchangers that are prone to corrosion. The reactors use lithium to counteract the corrosive effects ofboric acid, which is added to the water to absorb excess neutrons.[221]
Lithium metal iscorrosive and requires special handling to avoid skin contact. Breathing lithium dust or lithium compounds (which are oftenalkaline) initiallyirritate thenose and throat, while higher exposure can cause a buildup of fluid in thelungs, leading topulmonary edema. The metal itself is a handling hazard because contact with moisture produces thecausticlithium hydroxide. Lithium metal is safely stored in non-reactive compounds such asnaphtha.[226]
^abAppendixesArchived 6 November 2011 at theWayback Machine. By USGS definitions, the reserve base "may encompass those parts of the resources that have a reasonable potential for becoming economically available within planning horizons beyond those that assume proven technology and current economics. The reserve base includes those resources that are currently economic (reserves), marginally economic (marginal reserves), and some of those that are currently subeconomic (subeconomic resources)."
^Beryllium and fluorine occur only as one isotope,9Be and19F respectively. These two, together with7Li, as well as2H,11B,15N,209Bi, and the stable isotopes of C, and O, are the only nuclides with low enough thermal neutron capture cross sections aside fromactinides to serve as major constituents of a molten salt breeder reactor fuel.
^abcArblaster, John W. (2018).Selected Values of the Crystallographic Properties of Elements. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International.ISBN978-1-62708-155-9.
^Li(–1) has been observed in the gas phase; seeR. H. Sloane; H. M. Love (1947). "Surface Formation of Lithium Negative Ions".Nature.159 (4035):302–303.Bibcode:1947Natur.159..302S.doi:10.1038/159302a0.
^Weast, Robert (1984).CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton, Florida: Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. pp. E110.ISBN0-8493-0464-4.
^"Lithium".World Nuclear Association. 1 December 2023. Retrieved25 June 2025.The majority of mined lithium (about three-quarters) is used for batteries.
^abcdefKrebs, Robert E. (2006).The History and Use of Our Earth's Chemical Elements: A Reference Guide. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.ISBN978-0-313-33438-2.
^Sonzogni, Alejandro."Interactive Chart of Nuclides". National Nuclear Data Center: Brookhaven National Laboratory.Archived from the original on 23 July 2007. Retrieved6 June 2008.
^Seitz, H. M.; Brey, G. P.; Lahaye, Y.; Durali, S.; Weyer, S. (2004). "Lithium isotopic signatures of peridotite xenoliths and isotopic fractionation at high temperature between olivine and pyroxenes".Chemical Geology.212 (1–2):163–177.Bibcode:2004ChGeo.212..163S.doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2004.08.009.
^Woo, Marcus (21 February 2017)."The Cosmic Explosions That Made the Universe".earth. BBC.Archived from the original on 21 February 2017. Retrieved21 February 2017.A mysterious cosmic factory is producing lithium. Scientists are now getting closer at finding out where it comes from
^Moores, S. (June 2007). "Between a rock and a salt lake".Industrial Minerals.477: 58.
^Taylor, S. R.; McLennan, S. M.; The continental crust: Its composition and evolution, Blackwell Sci. Publ., Oxford, 330 pp. (1985). Cited inAbundances of the elements (data page)
^Bliss, Dominic (28 May 2021)."National Geographic".In Cornwall, ruinous tin and copper mines are yielding battery-grade lithium. Here's what that means. Archived fromthe original on 13 June 2021. Retrieved13 June 2021.
^Chassard-Bouchaud, C.; Galle, P.; Escaig, F.; Miyawaki, M. (1984). "Bioaccumulation of lithium by marine organisms in European, American, and Asian coastal zones: microanalytic study using secondary ion emission".Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, Série III.299 (18):719–24.PMID6440674.
^Berzelius (1817)."Ein neues mineralisches Alkali und ein neues Metall" [A new mineral alkali and a new metal].Journal für Chemie und Physik.21:44–48.Archived from the original on 3 December 2016. From p. 45:"HerrAugust Arfwedson, ein junger sehr verdienstvoller Chemiker, der seit einem Jahre in meinem Laboratorie arbeitet, fand bei einer Analyse des Petalits von Uto's Eisengrube, einen alkalischen Bestandtheil, … Wir haben esLithion genannt, um dadurch auf seine erste Entdeckung im Mineralreich anzuspielen, da die beiden anderen erst in der organischen Natur entdeckt wurden. Sein Radical wird dann Lithium genannt werden." (Mr.August Arfwedson, a young, very meritorious chemist, who has worked in my laboratory for a year, found during an analysis of petalite from Uto's iron mine, an alkaline component … We've named itlithion, in order to allude thereby to its first discovery in the mineral realm, since the two others were first discovered in organic nature. Its radical will then be named "lithium".)
Arfwedson, Aug. (1818)"Afhandlingar i fysik, kemi och mineralogi". 1818. Archived from the original on 25 November 2017. Retrieved27 July 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link),Afhandlingar i Fysik, Kemi och Mineralogi,6 : 145–172. (in Swedish)
^Gmelin, C. G. (1818)."Von dem Lithon" [On lithium].Annalen der Physik.59 (7):238–241.Bibcode:1818AnP....59..229G.doi:10.1002/andp.18180590702.Archived from the original on 9 November 2015.p. 238 Es löste sich in diesem ein Salz auf, das an der Luft zerfloss, und nach Art der Strontiansalze den Alkohol mit einer purpurrothen Flamme brennen machte. (There dissolved in this [solvent; namely, absolute alcohol] a salt that deliquesced in air, and in the manner of strontium salts, caused the alcohol to burn with a purple-red flame.)
^abEnghag, Per (2004).Encyclopedia of the Elements: Technical Data – History –Processing – Applications. Wiley. pp. 287–300.ISBN978-3-527-30666-4.
^Brande, William Thomas (1821)A Manual of Chemistry, 2nd ed. London, England: John Murray, vol. 2,Brande, William Thomas (1821)."A manual of chemistry". Archived from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved13 August 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^abOber, Joyce A. (1994)."Commodity Report 1994: Lithium"(PDF). United States Geological Survey.Archived(PDF) from the original on 9 June 2010. Retrieved3 November 2010.
^Deberitz, Jürgen; Boche, Gernot (2003). "Lithium und seine Verbindungen – Industrielle, medizinische und wissenschaftliche Bedeutung".Chemie in unserer Zeit.37 (4):258–266.doi:10.1002/ciuz.200300264.
^Bauer, Richard (1985). "Lithium – wie es nicht im Lehrbuch steht".Chemie in unserer Zeit.19 (5):167–173.doi:10.1002/ciuz.19850190505.
^Ober, Joyce A. (1994)."Minerals Yearbook 2007: Lithium"(PDF). United States Geological Survey.Archived(PDF) from the original on 17 July 2010. Retrieved3 November 2010.
^Kogel, Jessica Elzea (2006)."Lithium".Industrial minerals & rocks: commodities, markets, and uses. Littleton, Colo.: Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. p. 599.ISBN978-0-87335-233-8.Archived from the original on 7 November 2020. Retrieved6 November 2020.
^Institute, American Geological; Union, American Geophysical; Society, Geochemical (1 January 1994)."Geochemistry international".Google Books.31 (1–4): 115.Archived from the original on 4 June 2016.
^Nichols, Michael A.; Williard, Paul G. (1 February 1993). "Solid-state structures of n-butyllithium-TMEDA, -THF, and -DME complexes".Journal of the American Chemical Society.115 (4):1568–1572.Bibcode:1993JAChS.115.1568N.doi:10.1021/ja00057a050.ISSN0002-7863.
^"How is lithium mined?".MIT Climate Portal. 15 September 2021. Retrieved25 June 2025.Reserves are more limited than those of brine reservoirs and hard rock.
^Schwager, Mike (12 December 2021)."Lithium Resources and Extraction"(PDF).Stanford University. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 1 November 2022. Retrieved25 June 2025.By the 1990s mineral springs, brine pools, and brine deposits had become the dominant source.
^Voskoboynik, D.M.; Andreucci, D. (2022). "Greening extractivism: environmental impact of direct lithium extraction from brines".Nature Reviews Earth & Environment.4:149–165.
^Gaynor, Sean P. (10 May 2023)."Direct Lithium Extraction and Lithium Hydroxide Production from Geothermal Brine".University of Virginia Libra ETD Repository. Retrieved25 June 2025.One method direct lithium extraction, as well as other valuable minerals, is to process geothermal brine water through an electrolytic cell, located within a membrane.
^Chong Liu; Yanbin Li; Dingchang Lin; Po-Chun Hsu; Bofei Liu; Gangbin Yan; Tong Wu Yi Cui; Steven Chu (2020). "Lithium Extraction from Seawater through Pulsed Electrochemical Intercalation".Joule.4 (7):1459–1469.Bibcode:2020Joule...4.1459L.doi:10.1016/j.joule.2020.05.017.S2CID225527170.
^Álvarez Amado, Fernanda; Poblete González, Camila; Matte Estrada, Daniel; Campos Quiroz, Dilan; Tardani, Daniele; Gutiérrez, Leopoldo; Arumí, José Luis (2023).¿Cómo se forman las aguas ricas en litio en el Salar de Atacama? [How does the lithium-rich waters of Salar de Atacama form?]. Serie Comunicacional CRHIAM (in Spanish).Universidad de Concepción. p. 22.
^The Theory and Practice of Mold Fluxes Used in Continuous Casting: A Compilation of Papers on Continuous Casting Fluxes Given at the 61st and 62nd Steelmaking Conference, Iron and Steel Society
^Lu, Y. Q.; Zhang, G. D.; Jiang, M. F.; Liu, H. X.; Li, T. (2011). "Effects of Li2CO3 on Properties of Mould Flux for High Speed Continuous Casting".Materials Science Forum.675–677:877–880.doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.675-677.877.S2CID136666669.
^Haupin, W. (1987), Mamantov, Gleb; Marassi, Roberto (eds.), "Chemical and Physical Properties of the Hall-Héroult Electrolyte",Molten Salt Chemistry: An Introduction and Selected Applications, Springer, p. 449
^Koch, Ernst-Christian (2004). "Special Materials in Pyrotechnics: III. Application of Lithium and its Compounds in Energetic Systems".Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics.29 (2):67–80.doi:10.1002/prep.200400032.
^Mulloth, L.M. & Finn, J.E. (2005). "Air Quality Systems for Related Enclosed Spaces: Spacecraft Air".The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry. Vol. 4H. pp. 383–404.doi:10.1007/b107253.ISBN978-3-540-25019-7.
^Markowitz, M. M.; Boryta, D. A.; Stewart, Harvey (1964). "Lithium Perchlorate Oxygen Candle. Pyrochemical Source of Pure Oxygen".Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Product Research and Development.3 (4):321–30.doi:10.1021/i360012a016.
^"Organometallics".IHS Chemicals. February 2012.Archived from the original on 7 July 2012. Retrieved2 January 2012.
^Yurkovetskii, A. V.; Kofman, V. L.; Makovetskii, K. L. (2005). "Polymerization of 1,2-dimethylenecyclobutane by organolithium initiators".Russian Chemical Bulletin.37 (9):1782–1784.doi:10.1007/BF00962487.S2CID94017312.
^Quirk, Roderic P.; Cheng, Pao Luo (1986). "Functionalization of polymeric organolithium compounds. Amination of poly(styryl)lithium".Macromolecules.19 (5):1291–1294.Bibcode:1986MaMol..19.1291Q.doi:10.1021/ma00159a001.
^Hughes, T.G.; Smith, R.B. & Kiely, D.H. (1983). "Stored Chemical Energy Propulsion System for Underwater Applications".Journal of Energy.7 (2):128–133.Bibcode:1983JEner...7..128H.doi:10.2514/3.62644.
^Yacobi S; Ornoy A (2008). "Is lithium a real teratogen? What can we conclude from the prospective versus retrospective studies? A review".Isr J Psychiatry Relat Sci.45 (2):95–106.PMID18982835.
^"Lithium 265969".Sigma-Aldrich.Archived from the original on 13 March 2021. Retrieved1 October 2018.
_NIST_ASD_emission_spectrum.png)
![[icon]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWiki_letter_w_cropped.svg)
_MK-50_Torpedo_is_launched_from_guided_missile_destroyer_USS_Bulkeley_(DDG_84).jpg)
