Literature in modern Scotland isliterature written inScotland, or byScottish writers, since the beginning of the twentieth century. It includes literature written inEnglish,Scottish Gaelic andScots in forms including poetry, novels, drama and the short story.

In the early twentieth century there was a new surge of activity in Scottish literature, influenced bymodernism and resurgent nationalism, known as theScottish Renaissance. The leading figure,Hugh MacDiarmid, attempted to revive the Scots language as a medium for serious literature in poetic works including "A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle" (1926), developing a form ofSynthetic Scots. Other writers connected with the movement includedEdwin Muir andWilliam Soutar. Writers that emerged after the Second World War writing in Scots includedRobert Garioch andSydney Goodsir Smith. Those working in English includedNorman MacCaig, George Bruce,Maurice Lindsay andGeorge Mackay Brown. The parallel revitalisation of Gaelic poetry, known as theScottish Gaelic Renaissance was largely due to the work ofSorley Maclean. The generation of poets that grew up in the postwar period includedDouglas Dunn,Tom Leonard,Liz Lochhead. The 1980s and 1990s saw the emergence of a new generation of Scottish poets that became leading figures on the UK stage, includingDon Paterson,Robert Crawford,Carol Ann Duffy,Kathleen Jamie andJackie Kay.

Among the most important novels of the early twentieth century wasThe House with the Green Shutters byGeorge Douglas Brown, which broke with theKailyard tradition.^[1]John Buchan played a major role in the creation of the modernthriller withThe Thirty-Nine Steps andGreenmantle. The Scottish Renaissance increasingly focused on the novel. Major figures includedNeil Gunn,George Blake,A. J. Cronin,Eric Linklater andLewis Grassic Gibbon. There were also a large number of female authors associated with the movement, who includedCatherine Carswell,Willa Muir,Nan Shepherd andNaomi Mitchison. Many major Scottish post-war novelists, such asRobin Jenkins,Jessie Kesson,Muriel Spark,Alexander Trocchi andJames Kennaway spent most of their lives outside Scotland, but often dealt with Scottish themes. Successful mass-market works included the action novels ofAlistair MacLean and the historical fiction ofDorothy Dunnett. A younger generation of novelists that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s includedAllan Massie,Shena Mackay andAlan Spence. Working class identity continued to be explored byArchie Hind,Alan Sharp,George Friel andWilliam McIlvanney. From the 1980s Scottish literature enjoyed another major revival, with figures includingAlasdair Gray,James Kelman,Irvine Welsh,Alan Warner,Janice Galloway,A. L. Kennedy,Iain Banks,Andrew Crumey,Candia McWilliam,Frank Kuppner andAndrew O'Hagan. In genre fiction Iain Banks, writing as Iain M. Banks, produced ground-breakingscience fiction and Scottish crime fiction has been a major area of growth with the success of novelists includingFrederic Lindsay,Quintin Jardine,Val McDermid,Denise Mina,Christopher Brookmyre, and particularlyIan Rankin and hisInspector Rebus novels.^[2] The most successful author of Scottish origins in recent years has beenJ. K. Rowling, author of theHarry Potter series.^[3]

J. M. Barrie is often linked to the Kailyard tradition. His early plays deal with temporary inversions of the normal social order and his later works focus on historical themes. After Barrie the most successful Scottish playwrights of the early twentieth century were John Brandane andJames Bridie. Bridie was a prolific playwright and a major figure in developing modern Scottish drama. The early twentieth century saw the emergence of a tradition of popular or working class theatre. Hundreds of amateur groups were established, particularly in the growing urban centres of the Lowlands. Amateur companies encouraged native playwrights, includingRobert McLellan. The shift to drama that focused on working class life in the post-war period gained momentum with Robert McLeish'sThe Gorbals Story and the work ofEna Lamont Stewart,Robert Kemp and George Munro. A Scottish theatrical renaissance has been perceived between 1963 and 1971. In the 1970s a large number of plays explored the nature of Scottish identity, including the work ofStewart Conn, Hector Macmillan,Bill Bryden andRoddy McMillan. A new form of independent and politically committed community theatre was begun by7:84 with their 1973 production ofJohn McGrath's (1935–2002)The Cheviot, the Stag, and the Black Black Oil. The 1960s and 1970s also saw the flourishing of Scottish Gaelic drama, with key figures including Iain Crichton Smith, Tormod Calum Dòmhnallach, Fionnlagh MacLeòid, Donaidh MacIlleathain and Iain Moireach. The political and funding climate changed radically in the 1980s. TheScottish Theatre Company achieved critical success but suffered financial setbacks. By the last two decades of the twentieth century a substantial body of Scottish theatrical writing had built up. Now multiple companies drew on a community of writers. Scottish play writing became increasingly internationalised, with Scottish writers such as Liz Lochhead and Edwin Morgan adapting classic texts, whileJo Clifford andDavid Greig investigated European themes.

In the early twentieth century there was a new surge of activity in Scottish literature, influenced bymodernism and resurgent nationalism, known as theScottish Renaissance.^[2] The leading figure in the movement wasHugh MacDiarmid (the pseudonym of Christopher Murray Grieve, 1892–1978). MacDiarmid attempted to revive the Scots language as a medium for serious literature in poetic works including "A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle" (1926), developing a form ofSynthetic Scots that combined different regional dialects and archaic terms.^[2] Other writers that emerged in this period, and are often treated as part of the movement, include the poetsEdwin Muir (1887–1959) andWilliam Soutar (1898–1943), who pursued an exploration of identity, rejecting nostalgia and parochialism and engaging with social and political issues.^[2] Some writers that emerged after the Second World War followed MacDiarmid by writing in Scots, includingRobert Garioch (1909–81) andSydney Goodsir Smith (1915–75). Others demonstrated a greater interest in English language poetry, among themNorman MacCaig (1910–96), George Bruce (1909–2002) andMaurice Lindsay (1918–2009).^[2]George Mackay Brown (1921–96) from Orkney, wrote both poetry and prose fiction shaped by his distinctive island background.^[2] The Glaswegian poetEdwin Morgan (1920–2010) became known for translations of works from a wide range of European languages. He was also the firstScots Makar (the officialnational poet), appointed by the inaugural Scottish government in 2004.^[4]

The parallel revitalisation of Gaelic poetry, known as theScottish Gaelic Renaissance was largely due to the work ofSorley Maclean (Somhairle MacGill-Eain, 1911–96). A native of Skye and a native Gaelic speaker, he abandoned the stylistic conventions of the tradition and opened up new possibilities for composition with his poemDàin do Eimhir (Poems to Eimhir, 1943). His work inspired a new generation to take upnea bhardachd (the new poetry). These includedGeorge Campbell Hay (Deòrsa Mac Iain Dheòrsa, 1915–1984), Lewis-born poetsDerick Thomson (Ruaraidh MacThòmais, 1921–2012) andIain Crichton Smith (Iain Mac a' Ghobhainn, 1928–98). They all focused on the issues of exile, the fate of the Gaelic language and bi-culturalism.^[5]

The generation of poets that grew up in the postwar period includedDouglas Dunn (b. 1942), whose work has often seen a coming to terms with class and national identity within the formal structures of poetry and commenting on contemporary events, as inBarbarians (1979) andNorthlight (1988). His most personal work is contained in the collection ofElegies (1985), which deal with the death of his first wife from cancer.^[6]Tom Leonard (b. 1944), works in theGlaswegian dialect, pioneering the working class voice in Scottish poetry, although what has been described as his finest work "A priest came on at Merkland Street" is in English.^[7] Like his friend Leonard,Aonghas MacNeacail (Angus Nicolson, b. 1942), amongst the most prominent post-war Gaelic poets, was influenced by new American poetry, particularly theBlack Mountain School.^[8]Liz Lochhead (b. 1947) also explored the lives of working-class people of Glasgow, but added an appreciation of female voices within a sometimes male dominated society.^[6] The 1980s and 1990s saw the emergence of a new generation of Scottish poets that became leading figures on the UK stage, includingDon Paterson (b. 1953),Robert Crawford (b. 1959),Carol Ann Duffy (b. 1955),Kathleen Jamie (b. 1962) andJackie Kay (b. 1961).^[2]Dundonians Paterson and Crawford have both produced esoteric work, which includes Paterson's ironically self-aware verse and Crawford's a metaphorically colourful re-imagining of Scottish history.^[6] Kathleen Jamie has explored female aspirations, drawing on her experiences growing up in ruralRenfrewshire andJackie Kay has drawn on her experiences as a black child adopted by a working class Glasgow family.^[6] Glasgow-born Duffy was named asPoet Laureate in May 2009, the first woman, the first Scot and the first openly gay poet to take the post.^[9] A new group of Scottish poets have come up, chief among them isBashabi Fraser. Fraser's poetry tries to see Scotland as it is; ahospitable land where everyone is welcome.^[10]

Among the most important novels of the early twentieth century wasThe House with the Green Shutters (1901) byGeorge Douglas Brown (1869–1902), arealist work that broke with the Kailyard tradition to depict modern Scottish society, usingScots language and disregarding nostalgia.^[11] Also important was the work ofJohn Buchan (1875–1940), who played a major role in the creation of the modernthriller withThe Thirty-Nine Steps (1915) andGreenmantle (1916). His prolific output included the historical novelWitchwood (1927), set in seventeenth-century Scotland, and the posthumously publishedSick Heart River (1941), a study of physiological breakdown in the wilderness of Canada (of which Buchan wasgovernor general from 1936 until his death). His work was an important link between the tradition of Scot and Stevenson and the Scottish Renaissance.^[3]

The Scottish Renaissance increasingly concentrated on the novel, particularly after the 1930s when Hugh MacDiarmid was living in isolation in Shetland and its leadership moved to novelistNeil Gunn (1891–1973). Gunn's novels, beginning withThe Grey Coast (1926), and includingHighland River (1937) andThe Green Isle of the Great Deep (1943), were largely written in English and not the Scots preferred by MacDiarmid, focused on the Highlands of his birth and were notable for their narrative experimentation.^[3] Other major figures associated with the movement includeGeorge Blake (1893–1961),A. J. Cronin (1896–1981),Eric Linklater (1899–1974) andLewis Grassic Gibbon (1901–35). There were also a large number of female authors associated with the movement, who demonstrated a growing feminine consciousness. They includedCatherine Carswell (1879–1946),Willa Muir (1890–1970),^[3]Nan Shepherd (1893–1981)^[2] and most prolificallyNaomi Mitchison (1897–1999).^[3] All were born within a fifteen-year period and, although they cannot be described as members of a single school, they all pursued an exploration of identity, rejecting nostalgia and parochialism and engaging with social and political issues.^[2] Physician A. J. Cronin is now often seen as sentimental, but his early work, particularly his first novelHatter's Castle (1931) and his most successfulThe Citadel (1937) were a deliberate reaction against the Kailyard tradition, exposing the hardships and vicissitudes of the lives of ordinary people.^[12] He was the most translated Scottish author in the twentieth century.^[13] George Blake pioneered the exploration of the experiences of the working class in his major works such asThe Shipbuilders (1935). Eric Linklater produced comedies of the absurd includingJuan in America (1931) dealing withprohibition America, and a critique of modern war inPrivate Angelo (1946). Lewis Grassic Gibbon, the pseudonym of James Leslie Mitchell, produced one of the most important realisations of the ideas of the Scottish Renaissance in his trilogyA Scots Quair (Sunset Song, 1932,Cloud Howe, 1933 andGrey Granite, 1934), which mixed different Scots dialects with the narrative voice.^[3] Other works that investigated the working class included James Barke's (1905–58),Major Operation (1936) andThe Land of the Leal (1939) andJ. F. Hendry's (1912–86)Fernie Brae (1947).^[3]

World War II had a greater impact on the novel than in poetry. It ended the careers of some novelists and delayed the start of others.^[3] Many major Scottish post-war novelists, such asRobin Jenkins (1912–2005),Jessie Kesson (1916–94),Muriel Spark (1918–2006),Alexander Trocchi (1925–84) andJames Kennaway (1928–68) spent much or most of their lives outside Scotland, but often dealt with Scottish themes.^[2] Jenkins major novels such asThe Cone Gatherers (1955),The Changeling (1958) andFergus Lamont (1978) focused on working-class dilemmas in a world without spiritual consolation. Very different in tone, Spark produced novels that explored modern social life as in her only two overtly Scottish novelsThe Ballad of Peckham Rye (1960) and the Edinburgh-setThe Prime of Miss Jean Brodie (1961).^[3] Successful mass-market works included the action novels ofAlistair MacLean (1922–87), and the historical fiction ofDorothy Dunnett (b. 1923).^[2] A younger generation of novelists that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s includedAllan Massie (b. 1938),Shena Mackay (b. 1944) andAlan Spence (b. 1947).^[2] Massie's work often deals with historical themes while aware of the limitations of historical objectivity, as in hisAugustus (1986),Tiberius (1991) andThe Ragged Lion (1994).^[3] Working class identity continued to be a major theme in the post-war novel and can be seen inArchie Hind's (1928–2008)The Dear Green Place (1966),Alan Sharp's (1934–2013)A Green Tree in Gedde (1965),George Friel's (1910–75)Mr Alfred M.A. (1972) andWilliam McIlvanney's (b. 1936)Docherty (1975).^[3]

From the 1980s Scottish literature enjoyed another major revival, particularly associated with a group of Glasgow writers focused around meetings in the house of critic, poet and teacherPhilip Hobsbaum (1932–2005). Also important in the movement wasPeter Kravitz, editor ofPolygon Books.^[2] These includedAlasdair Gray (b. 1934), whose epicLanark (1981) built on theworking class novel to explore realistic and fantastic narratives.James Kelman’s (b. 1946)The Busconductor Hines (1984) andA Disaffection (1989) were among the first novels to fully utilise a working class Scots voice as the main narrator.^[3] In the 1990s major, prize winning, Scottish novels that emerged from this movement included Gray'sPoor Things (1992), which investigated the capitalist and imperial origins of Scotland in an inverted version of theFrankenstein myth,^[3]Irvine Welsh's (b. 1958),Trainspotting (1993), which dealt with the drug addiction in 1980s Leith, Edinburgh,Alan Warner’s (b. 1964)Morvern Callar (1995), dealing with death and authorship and Kelman'sHow Late It Was, How Late (1994), astream of consciousness novel dealing with a life of petty crime.^[2] These works were linked by a reaction toThatcherism that was sometimes overtly political, and explored marginal areas of experience using vivid vernacular language (including expletives and Scots dialect).^[2]

Other notable authors to gain prominence in this period includedJanice Galloway (b. 1956) with work such asThe Trick is to Keep Breathing (1989) andForeign Parts (1994);A. L. Kennedy (b. 1965) withLooking for the Possible Dance (1993) andSo I Am Glad (1995);Iain Banks (1954–2013) withThe Crow Road (1992) andComplicity (1993);Candia McWilliam (b. 1955) withDebatable land (1994);Frank Kuppner (b. 1951) withSomething Very Like Murder (1994); andAndrew O'Hagan (b. 1968) withOur Fathers (1999).^[3] In genre fiction Iain Banks, writing as Iain M. Banks, produced ground-breakingscience fiction.^[3] Scottish crime fiction, known asTartan Noir,^[14] has been a major area of growth with the success of novelists includingFrederic Lindsay (1933–2013),Quintin Jardine (b. 1945),Val McDermid (b. 1955),Denise Mina (b. 1966),Christopher Brookmyre (b. 1968), and particularly the success of Edinburgh'sIan Rankin (b. 1960) and hisInspector Rebus novels.^[2] The most successful author of Scottish origins in recent years has beenJ. K. Rowling (b. 1965), author of theHarry Potter children's fantasy novels.^[3]

J. M. Barrie (1860–1937) was amongst the most successful of Scottish literary exports, spending most of his career in England. HisPeter Pan (1904), which began life as a play, is one best known stories in English. Barrie is often linked to the Kailyard movement and his early plays such asQuality Street (1901) andThe Admirable Crichton (1902) deal with temporary inversions of the normal social order. His later works, such asDear Brutus (1917) andMary Rose (1920), focused on historical themes.^[15] After Barrie the most successful Scottish playwrights of the early twentieth century were John Brandane andJames Bridie, the pseudonyms, respectively, of doctors John Macintyre (1869–1947) and Osborne Mavor (1888–1951). Brandane's plays were often humorous explorations of the clash between modernity and tradition in Highland society, as inThe Glen is Mine (1925).^[12] Bridie emerged as a prolific playwright and a major figure in developing modern Scottish drama. As well as drawing on his medical experience, as inThe Anatomist (1930), his plays included middle class satires such asThe Sunlight Sonata (1928) and often called on biblical characters such as devils and angels, as inMr. Bolfry (1943).^[16] He was a member of theScottish National Players (1924–43), who performed several of his plays and which aimed to produce a Scottish national theatre, but his view that they should become a professional company meant he resigned from the board.^[17] He was a founder and first president of theGlasgow Citizens' Theatre (1943), a member of the body that became theScottish Arts Council and was its first President (1947). He founded the College of Drama within theRoyal Scottish Academy of Music, Glasgow (1951).^[16]

The early twentieth century saw the emergence of a tradition of popular or working class theatre. Hundreds of amateur groups were established, particularly in the growing urban centres of the Lowlands. Many were offshoots of the Workers' Theatre Movement (WTM) and the Unity Theatre Society (UTS). Among the most important were the Fife Miner Players (1926–31), Glasgow Workers' Theatre Group (1937–41) andGlasgow Unity Theatre (1941–51), which lay the ground for modern popular theatre groups.^[18] Important playwrights in the movement included former minerJoe Corrie (1894–1968), whose plays includedIn Time o' Strife (1927), based on the events of the general strike the year before.^[19] The Scottish Repertory Theatre was the first Scottish company to encourage native playwrights. In the interwar period its aim was taken up by other amateur companies, particularly theCurtain Theatre, Glasgow,^[18] who "discovered" the work ofRobert McLellan (1907–85), including his first full-length playToom Byers (1936) and his best known workJamie the Saxt (1936). A talented comic dramatist, his commitment to the use ofLallans limited his impact on the wider theatrical world.^[20]

The shift to drama that focused on working class life in the post-war period gained momentum with Robert McLeish'sThe Gorbals Story (1946), which dealt with the immense social problems of urban Scotland.^[21] Similarly,Ena Lamont Stewart'sMen Should Weep (1947) focused on the impact ofthe depression in Scotland.^[22] Other major Scottish playwrights of the era includedRobert Kemp (1908–67), who produced work includingThe Heart is Highland (1959), and George Munro (1902–68) whose plays includedVineyard Street (1949).^[21]

TheEdinburgh Festival was founded in 1947 as a substitute for festivals atGlyndebourne,Munich andSalzburg, which could not be held in the aftermath of World War II.^[23] TheEdinburgh Festival Fringe began when eight theatre companies, who had not been included in the programme, organised their own performances in small and converted theatres. Until the 1960s relations with between the two co-existing festivals were strained. Together they are now the largest, and among the most prestigious, arts festivals in the world, and have included large and small-scale theatrical productions.^[24]

A Scottish theatrical renaissance has been perceived by Ian Brown as occurring between the opening of theTraverse Theatre in Edinburgh in 1963 and the foundation of theScottish Society of Playwrights in 1973.^[25] TheTheatres Act 1968 abolished the system of censorship of the stage by theLord Chamberlain that had existed in Great Britain since 1737. This allowed much greater artistic freedom, but local authorities in Scotland still retained the ability to prosecute "obscene performances" under local by-laws and statutes.^[26]

In the 1970s a large number of plays explored the nature of Scottish identity.^[27] Historical dramas includedStewart Conn's (b. 1936)The Burning (1971) and Hector Macmillan's (b. 1929)The Rising (1973). Workplace dramas includedBill Bryden's (b. 1942)Willy Rough (1975) andRoddy McMillan'sThe Bevellers (1973). These plays opened the way for a new form of independent and politically committed community theatre. The trend was kicked off by7:84 (1971–2008), with their 1973 production ofJohn McGrath's (1935–2002)The Cheviot, the Stag, and the Black Black Oil. McGrath's work, such asThe Game's a Bogey (1974), was socialist in intent and took the part of resurgent Scottish nationalism. Independent theatre companies that formed along the lines of this model includedTAG (1967–),^[3]Borderline Theatre Company (1974–) and Wildcat Stage Productions (1978–).^[18]

The 1960s and 1970s also saw the flourishing of Scottish Gaelic drama. Key figures included Iain Crichton Smith, whose plays explored wide-ranging themes. Often humorous, they also dealt with serious topics such as the betrayal of Christ inAn Coileach (A Cockerel, 1966) of the Highland Clearances inA' Chùirt (The Court, 1966).^[28] Iain Moireach's plays also used humour to deal with serious subjects, as inFeumaidh Sinn a Bhith Gàireachdainn (We Have to Laugh, 1969), which focused on threats to the Gaelic language. Other major figures included Tormod Calum Dòmhnallach (1927–2000), whose work includedAnna Chaimbeul (Anna Campbell, 1977), which was influenced by JapaneseNoh theatre. Fionnlagh MacLeòid's (Finley Macleod) work includedCeann Cropic (1967), which was strongly influenced by thetheatre of the absurd. Similarly, Donaidh MacIlleathain (Donnie Maclean), made use of absurd dialogue inAn Sgoil Dhubh (A Dark School, 1974). Many of these authors continued writing into the 1980s and even the 1990s, but this was something of a golden age for Gaelic drama that has not been matched.^[29]

The political and funding climate changed radically after the failure of thedevolution referendum of 1979 and the election of a Conservative government underMargaret Thatcher. TheScottish Arts Council encouraged theatre companies to function as business, finding funding in ticket sales and commercial sponsorship. In 1981 the actorEwan Hooper was given £50,000 to found theScottish Theatre Company based in Glasgow and designed to promote the work of Scottish writers. The company found touring difficult as there were insufficient large venues that could generate the necessary income outside of the major cities. Works in the first season included McGrath'sAnimal (1979) and Bryden'sCivilians (1981). Artistic successes were accompanied by financial disaster and the company was £120,000 in debt by the end of its second season. Despite some critical triumphs, the company was wound down in 1987. 7:84 also encountered a period of financial instability, but new structures, new management and an emphasis on encouraging new writing led to works such asRona Munro's (b. 1959)Bold Girls (1990).^[30] By the last two decades of the twentieth century a substantial body of Scottish theatrical writing had built up. There was also a change from a habit of one writer working with one company to several companies drawing on a community of writers. Scottish play writing became increasingly internationalised, with Scottish writers adapting classic texts such Liz Lochhead's version ofMolière'sTartuffe (1985) andThe Misanthrope (1973/2005) or Edwin Morgan's translation ofCyrano de Bergerac (1992). Scottish playwrights were also increasingly preoccupied with wider European culture, as can be seen in Jo Clifford's (b. 1955)Losing Venice (1985) andDavid Greig's (b. 1969)Europe (1995).^[31]

• History of literature in Scotland

• Use dmy dates from March 2020