Egypt was continually governed, at least in part, by native pharaohs for approximately 2500 years, until it was conquered by theKingdom of Kush in the late 8th century BC, whose rulers adopted the pharaonic titulature and became the25th Dynasty. Following 100 years of Kushite rule, Egypt experienced another century of independent native rule before being conquered by thePersian Achaemenid Empire. The last native pharaoh wasNectanebo II of the short-lived30th Dynasty, which ended when the Persians conquered Egypt for a second time in 342 BC. The Persians were in turn conquered by theMacedonian Greeks ofAlexander the Great in 332 BC, after which Egypt was ruled by theHellenic pharaohs of thePtolemaic dynasty. Their rule came to an end with theRoman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC, and pharaonic Egypt cesased to be an independent monarchy. However,Roman emperors continued to beaccorded pharaonic titles by the Egyptians until the reign ofMaximinus Daza in 313 AD.
The dates provided for most of Egypt's early history are only approximate and may vary depending on the author, sometimes by centuries. The names and order of kings is mostly based on the Digital Egypt for Universities database developed by thePetrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology.[4] For royal titles and hieroglyphs, see the handbook ofJürgen von Beckerath,[5] as well as the websitePharaohs of Ancient Egypt, which itself contains extensive bibliography.[6]
Regnal numbers did not exist in Ancient Egypt and is a modern way to distinguish pharaohs who shared the samepersonal name.
Modern lists of pharaohs are based on historical records, including Ancient Egyptian king lists and later histories, as well as archaeological evidence. Concerning ancient sources, Egyptologists and historians alike call for caution regarding their credibility, exactitude, and completeness, many of which were written long after the reigns they report. An additional problem is that ancient king lists are often damaged, inconsistent with one another, and/or selective.
Astronomical events, mainly theSothic cycle, have also been used to try to fix "absolute dates", but these have their own set of problems.Richard Parker dated the accession of the 12th-dynasty pharaohSenusret III to 1878 BC (with his 7th year falling in 1872 BC).[12][16] However, other authors such asRolf Krauss have refuted Parker's computations; Krauss instead dates Senusret's accession to 1837/36 BC (7th year in 1831/30 BC). Similarly, the accessionAmenhotep I was datedc. 1550–1515 BC (9th yearc. 1541–1506 BC).[17] Scholars often use the Egyptian "high" chronology, which assumes these astronomical observations were made in a single place (atMemphis). While there is debate on its accuracy,[iii] the high chronology used by scholars such asIan Shaw appears to be closer to the dates implied byradiocarbon dating.[23][24][iv]
Most pharaohs' reigns are not fully documented, leading to many discrepancies in reign lengths. A formal regnal dating system was not adopted until theMiddle Kingdom, and the day following a coronation was automatically recorded as "Year 1", meaning that regnal years alone can't be use to calculate exactJulian years.[v] Thus, it is impossible to determine exact dates even when some events can be securely dated. Dates with some certainty can only be given for theNew Kingdom onwards, and only dates from theLate Period can be securely dated and synchronized with other ancient chronologies.
Royal lists after theFifth Dynasty give only thethrone name of each pharaoh, which has often led to confusion in identifying particular kings. The most detailed king lists, theAbydos,Saqqara andTurin canons, date to theNew Kingdom, also known as the Ramesside period. Unfortunately, most of these Ramesside lists are of little value for the early dynasties (from which they are separated by over 1000 years), as they feature corrupted names and often disagree with contemporary sources. Complete king lists were certainly made after the 20th dynasty, but they have been lost.
Turin King List (19th Dynasty,c. 1250 BC); written on apapyrus dating to the reign ofRamesses II. Listed every known king with their exact reign length, and divided some of them into groups similar toManetho's dynasties. The document itself is a sloppy copy of a much more detailed original, which is in turn based on much older sources. The document is today damaged and incomplete, with most of the last sections missing. The papyrus lists 223 kings, but only about1⁄3 of the names have survived. The original likely included further kings until Ramesses II.[29][30][31]
The content of theAegyptiaca must be treated with caution. Manetho likely blended historical tradition with mythology, and later Christian authors are known to have altered Manetho's figures, especially for theSecond Intermediate Period, to accommodate events into theBiblical narrative.[38] Additional distortion arose from the transmission of Egyptian royal names into Greek and from repeated copying over centuries (Greek, likeLatin, was written usingscriptio continua, with no spaces or punctuation between words). Despite these limitations, Manetho remains a foundational source for Egyptian chronology, provided his data are critically evaluated and corroborated with archaeological and contemporary evidence.
TheTurin King List records 207 kings up to the end ofDynasty XVI. In addition, it preserves 16 damaged names thatKim Ryholt associates with the so-calledAbydos Dynasty, totaling 223 kings in the preserved papyrus.[29] The original document, however, likely extended until the reign ofRamesses II, just as theSaqqara andRamesseum king lists. On this basis, the Turin King List probably listed at least 27 additional rulers: nine ofDynasty XVII, fifteen ofDynasty XVIII, and the first three kings ofDynasty XIX, yielding a minimum total of 250 kings.
The papyrus also contains severallacunae, explicit gaps marked by the Ramesside scribes when names in their sources were illegible. Ryholt estimates that theselacunae represent at least 12 missing kings: six forDynasty XIII, and at least six forDynasty XIV.[42] In addition, there is alacuna in Column 5.15 that very likely corresponds to Manetho'sDynasty VII, consisting of 10 additional kings recorded only in theAbydos King List.[43][44] There are also two instances of fictitious kings, both inDynasty IV (likely Manetho'sBikheris andThamphthis). Taking this into account, the total rises to at least 227 kings up to the end ofDynasty XVI, 243 up to the end of theAbydos Dynasty, and 270 until Ramesses II. Even these figures likely remain conservative, since a small number of ephemeral or disputed rulers —such asSneferka orBa at the end ofDynasty I— were probably omitted altogether.
Including the subsequent periods of native and foreign rule, the total of kings reaches more than 300 before the firstPersian conquest, which closely aligns withHerodotus' statement that, followingMenes, Egypt was ruled by "three hundred and thirty kings, whose names the priests recited from a papyrus roll".[39]:100[viii] Manetho's own total of kings is roughly 360 kings in 5470 years, but the sum of individual reigns amounts to more than 500 kings in 5370 years.[ix]Diodorus Siculus writes that mortal kings have ruled Egypt for "a little less than five thousand years".[41]
The first Egyptian kings were known by theirHorus name (serekh), with additionalNebty andGolden Horus honorifics. From the lateFirst Dynasty onwards, kings began to use athrone name known in English as theprenomen (nswt-bjtj ornisut-bity, "Sedge and Bee"), which was the main name used during theFourth Dynasty as well as the royal name found in most king-lists. The next dynasty introduced thenomen (Sa-Ra, "son ofRa"), which is often understood as apersonal name. This is the name used by scholars after theFifth Dynasty, as well as the name used byManetho for most pharaohs. Given the confusing nature of royal names, only kings who are recorded with their twocartouche names (prenomen andnomen) can be securely identified. Throne names assigned to pre-Fifth Dynasty pharaohs are sometimes referred to as "personal names" by scholars, as there was probably no distinction between throne and personal names at the time.[45] For a listing and description of all royal names, from Predynastic toPtolemaic times, seeLeprohon 2013.
TheProtodynastic Period of Egypt spans from the formation of the first Egyptian states about 3300 BC to about 3000 BC, when Egypt was first unified as a single kingdom by the rulers ofUpper Egypt. Before this, both Lower and Upper Egypt were divided into several small kingdoms. The terms "Lower Egypt" and "Upper Egypt" are based on the direction of theNile's flow, which is north. Consequently, "Lower Egypt" is located north (downstream), while "Upper Egypt" is located south (upstream).
ThePalermo Stone mentions 14 predynastic pharaohs by their Horus name fromLower Egypt. These may be mythical kings or semi-gods preserved through oral tradition, or posthumous names of earlier pharaohs. The original document likely contained rulers for Upper Egypt as well.
While the early dynasties were aware of their pre-dynastic history, this appears to have been all but forgotten by the Ramessid period. Later sources refer to theMenes/Narmer as the first "human king", succeeding the gods that ruled Egypt for times immemorial. Later tradition also identified him as the founder ofMemphis, when in fact the city had existed since before the reign ofIry-Hor.[58]
The sole "contemporary" source for early dynastic chronology is thePalermo Stone and its associated fragments. TheTurin King List, is not considered reliable for this period, as it often contradicts contemporary sources. The annals are badly damaged, and only a few names are explicitly recorded, leading to several and divergent reconstructions over the decades. Unless otherwise noted, the reconstruction followsHornung, Krauss & Warburton 2006.[xi] Lastly, it's worth noting that virtually alltransliterations are just approximations (Egyptian is anextinct language); certain spellings may change depending on the author.
Ancient sources, includingManetho, assign eight rulers to the First Dynasty, a fact confirmed by the records in the necropolis ofQa'a, the last pharaoh.[64] The tombs of all pharaohs, including queenMerneith, are located in the necropolis ofUmm El Qa'ab,Abydos. The first two dynasties originated from thelost city ofThinis, and ruled fromMemphis according to later traditions.[65]
Manetho correctly assigns eight kings to this dynasty, but his order and naming are troublesome.[xii]Ramesside king lists, made 1000 years later, identify all eight kings with throne names, but none of them match contemporary records. Throne names were introduced by the fifth king, so the first names must be later additions, possibly posthumous epithets.[xiii] As noted before, the dynasty must have begunc.3100 BC, ± 150 years.[12][14][xi]
Began his rule as king of Upper Egypt; calledMenes byManetho.[xvi] His name is attested as far as modernIsrael. According to Manetho, he was killed by a hippopotamus after ruling 62 years.[69]
Thought by some scholars to be the first pharaoh.[70][50] Campaigned as far asNubia, modernSudan. According toradiocarbon dating studies, his reign likely beganc. 3111–3045 BC,[14] but possibly about a century earlier.[15] Recorded asTeti in the Ramesside lists. Manetho calls himAthotís.
His tomb was later thought to be the tomb ofOsiris, god of the afterlife. Recorded asIti in the Ramesside lists.[71] One of the few kings to be directly named in theRoyal Annals, which givesIti as hisGolden Horus name.[67] Manetho calls himUenéphes.
Most documented pharaoh of the dynasty. Introduced theprenomen anddouble crown. Celebrated twoSed festivals, indicating a long reign. Succeeded as a child and began his reign under the regency of his motherMerneith. His campaigns in the northeast are attested on thePalermo Stone, which also records a national census.[73] His prenomenKhasty was later misread asSepti andQenti.[66][xii] Manetho calls himKénkenes.
TheTurin King List gives him a lifespan of 74 years. Perhaps co-ruled with his father and/or succeeded at a late age, as he had an implausible Sed festival. His prenomenMerbiap was later misread asMerybiape andMerygeregipen.[74] Manetho calls himMiebidós.
His full reign is preserved on thePalermo Stone. TheTurin King List gives him a lifespan of 72 years.[75] His prenomenIry was later misread asSemsu andSemsen.[66] Manetho calls himSemempsés.
Celebrated two Sed festivals. TheTurin King List gives him a lifespan of 63 years. His name was later corrupted intoQebeh.[76] Last pharaoh to havehuman sacrifices dedicated to him.[77] Manetho calls himBienéches.
Two obscure names associated with the end of Qaa's reign. Correct chronological position unknown, perhaps ephemeral rivals, usurpers, or alternative names of previous (or later) pharaohs.[78]
The following table follows the royal records of theSaqqara andTurin lists, which coincide with Manetho in recording nine kings. Following the reign ofNynetjer, the country was split and remained so until the reign ofKhasekhemwy.[84] The five Ramesside names between Nynetjer and Khasekhemwy cannot be securely correlated with contemporary rulers, leading to much confusion in the correct identification of rulers. The tombs of the first three pharaohs were found inSaqqara, while those ofSeth-Peribsen and Khasekhemwy were found inUmm El Qa'ab.
Chose to be buried atSaqqara to be closer to the capital. His Horus name was misread asBedjau during the 5th dynasty.[86] Manetho calls himBoethos. The Turin King List gives him 95 years, likely his lifespan.[87][xvii]
CalledRaneb in older scholarship. Recorded under the nameKakau in the Ramesside lists.[90] Manetho calls himKaiekhos. Thought by some scholars to be the Horus name ofWeneg.[85]
Egypt was divided by the end of his reign. His name was later misread asBanetjer. Known to have put down a rebellion in his 13th year.[91] Manetho calls himBinothris. The Turin King List gives him 95 years, likely his lifespan.[xvii]
40 years
The following names are only attested in Ramesside lists:
The Turin King List gives him a lifespan of 70 years.[88] Thought by some scholars to be the same asWeneg,[92] orSeth-Peribsen.[93][94] Manetho calls himTlas.
The Turin King List gives him a lifespan of 54 years.[88] While poorly attested in contemporary sources, he developed a cult following that survived up until theTwenty-sixth Dynasty,c. 600 BC.[95] Thought by some scholars to be the same person as eitherHorus Sa[96][85] orSeth-Peribsen.[97] Manetho calls himSethenes.
The Turin King List gives him a lifespan of 70 years.Ryholt proposes that "Neferkara" is a misreading ofSneferka, who ruled at the end of the First Dynasty.[88] Excluded from theAbydos King List for unknown reasons. Manetho calls himKhaires.
Reigned 8 years and 3 months according to the Turin King List; nothing else known.[88] Excluded from the Abydos King List for unknown reasons. Manetho calls himNephercheres.
Name lost but still included in king lists asHudjefa (meaning "missing" or "erased"). The Turin King List gives him a reign of 11 years, 8 months, and 4 days, and a lifespan of 34 years.[88] Excluded from the Abydos King List for unknown reasons. Manetho calls himSesôchris.
–
The position and identity of the following pharaohs is unknown:
Tomb found atAbydos, attested only inUpper Egypt. His serekh notably featuresSet, notHorus.[85][100] May have been Nynetjer's direct successor in Upper Egypt.[93] His name notably appears alongsideSenedj in a tomb dating to the Fourth Dynasty.[101][85]
Hisserekh name is unique for presenting bothHorus andSet, possibly indicating the end of a religious strife that began underSeth-Peribsen. Likely began as king ofUpper Egypt (under the nameKhasekhem) before reuniting the two lands. He was one of Egypt's first master builders, best known for his funerary enclosure, theShunet El Zebib. His name was later misread asDjadjay andBebety.[102] Manetho calls himKheneres. Died at the age of 40 according to the Turin King List, which would place his accession at age 23.[88]
The history of ancient Egypt is divided into three "golden ages" (Old,Middle, andNew Kingdom), interspersed between three periods of fragmentation known as "intermediate periods". The capital during the period of the Old Kingdom was alsoMemphis. According toradiocarbon dating, the Old Kingdom began sometime around the mid-27th century BC, possibly between 2676 and 2643 BC, but with more certainty between 2691 and 2625 BC.[24]
Ancient sources assign five rulers to the Third Dynasty, but there is uncertainty regarding their exact order and chronology. Both the Turin and Abydos king lists claim that the Third Dynasty was founded byNebka, hence his position in some modern lists. However, archeological evidence has shown that the founder was in fact Djoser, who is correctly identified as its first king in theSaqqara Tablet. The dynasty ruled 74 years according to the Turin King List, but its numbers do not match with the earlierPalermo Stone; the actual duration may be as low as 50 years.[105]
Best known under his posthumous name ofDjoser;[xix] recorded in contemporary sources asNetjerikhet. Possibly a son ofKhasekhemwy. Commissioned thefirst Pyramid, created by chief architectImhotep, who was later deified.[109] According to radiocarbon dating, his reign began in the range of 2691–2625 BC.[24]
Brother of Djoser; almost certainly the Horus name ofNebka, the 3rd ruler in theSaqqara Tablet. Sometimes placed 4th.[111] The Turin King List places Nebka and Djoser as the first pharaohs and gives them the same reign length, which is likely a copyist error.
Ramessid sources do not give the name of the 4th ruler, instead using the placeholderSedjes andHudjefa. It may refer to Horus-Khaba (although some scholars link that name withHuni). Commissioned the unfinishedLayer Pyramid during his short reign.[113]
The Fourth Dynasty is renowned for its colossal monuments and pyramids, most notably theGreat Pyramid of Giza, one of theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World. While the first four kings are well attested, there is some uncertainty regarding the successors of Khafre in later sources. However, the tomb ofSekhemkare, vizier and son ofKhafre, records the correct succession from KhafreSahure. Sekhemkare supposedly lived under five pharaohs, which implies that the latter kings did not reign long. Some tales of this period were recorded by the Greek historianHerodotus, although he notably places itafter the New Kingdom period.
The exact chronology of this dynasty is disputed, as scholars disagree whethercattle counts were made annually or biennially at this time. The following numbers assume most were annual.[115]
Possibly a son ofHuni; reigned long enough to complete theMeidum,Bent, andRed Pyramids. Campaigned into Libya, Nubia, and the Sinai.Cartouche names were standardized during his reign.[119] According to radiocarbon dating, his reign began in the range of 2649–2582 BC.[24]
Son of Sneferu; builder of theGreat Pyramid of Giza and protagonist of the 13th-dynastyWestcar Papyrus. Fought campaigns in the Sinai and initiated several building projects around Memphis. Also known by the Hellenized nameCheops byHerodotus, who describes him as a tyrant.[122] According to radiocarbon dating, his reign began in the range of 2629–2558 BC.[24]
His name is alternatively read asRadjede. Son of Khufu; first pharaoh to use anomen. He also commissioneda pyramid at Abu Rawash, which was never fully completed.[124]
Brother of Djedefre;his pyramid is the second largest inGiza. Believed to be the builder of theGreat Sphinx. His funerary complex was the largest at the Giza plateau.[125]Herodotus calls himChephren and mistakenly refers to him asKhufu's brother.[39]
Son of Khafre;his pyramid is the third and smallest inGiza. His sarcophagus was lost at sea while being shipped to Europe.[126] Herodotus calls himMycerinus, and refers to him as a son ofKhufu (rather than his grandson).[39]
Son of Menkaure; finished his father's pyramid and mortuary complex. Commissioned the Tomb ofMastabat al-Fir'aun, Saqqara, which was left unfinished.[127] He was possibly succeeded by his wifeKhentkaus I as regent.[128] According to radiocarbon dating, his reign began in the range of 2556–2476 BC.[24]
Recorded by Manetho as the sixth king, most likelyBaufra, son of Khafre. Recorded in the shortWadi Hammamat king list (12th dynasty) as a successor of Khafre alongsideDjedefhor, son ofKhufu. Contemporary sources only refer to them as princes, so their inclusion must be an error.[129]
Recorded by Manetho as the eighth and final king. The Turin King List likewise records eight pharaohs, possibly other sons of Khufu. TheSaqqara Tablet notably recordsnine kings, but only the first four names are preserved.
Starting with the reign ofNeferirkare Kakai, pharaohs became mainly known by two names, a regnal (prenomen) and personal (nomen) name. The pharaohs of the Sixth Dynasty onwards are generally known by their nomen alone.
All variants of Manetho refer to the Fifth Dynasty as "kings fromElephantine". This is probably a misreading of "Sakhebu", a city nearHeliopolis that was likely the hometown ofUserkaf.[132]
His name is alternatively read asRaneferef. Also constructedan unfinished pyramid.[139] Beckerath records his nomen asIsi,[140] but Hornung uses this name for Shepseskare without explanation.[135] Bunson usesIni for Shepseskare andIzi for Nyuserre, also without explanation.[8]
A prolific builder, mainly known for his massive sun temple inAbu Gorab.[141] Also built several pyramidsfor himself and his family, all in the necropolis ofAbusir.
By the Fifth Dynasty, the religious institution had established itself as the dominant force in society; a trend of growth in the bureaucracy and the priesthood, and a decline in the pharaoh's power had been established duringNeferirkare Kakai's reign. DuringDjedkare Isesi's rule, officials were endowed with greater authority—evidenced by the opulent private tombs they constructed—eventually leading to the creation of a feudal system in effect. These established trends—decentralization of authority, coupled with growth in bureaucracy—intensified during the three decades ofUnas's rule, which also witnessed economic decline.
MarriedIput I, a daughter of Unas. He was murdered by his bodyguards according to Manetho.Build a pyramid in Saqqara.[148] According to radiocarbon dating, his reign began in the range of 2423–2335 BC.[24]
Son of Teti and grandson ofUnas, began his reign as a child. Faced conspiracies and political troubles, yet became the most prolific builder of his dynasty.His pyramid complex, namedMn-nfr, led to the Greek wordMemphis.[151]Hiku Ptah, one of Memphis' epithets, would become the GreekAigyptos.[152]
Possibly the longest-reigning monarch in history. According to Manetho, he began his reign at the age of 6 and lived 100 years. The Turin King List gives him a reign of 90+ years, but his last known document is dated to his 63rd year, implying 64 years of rule. Decentralization grew during his long reign asnomarchs grew in power, and his largepyramid complex (the last of its kind) drained Egypt's treasury.[154][155]
Last ruler according to Manetho, who attributes to her the"Third Pyramid". According toHerodotus, she ruled after her brother's murder. The story is almost certainly fiction, and Manetho'sNitocris appears to be a convolutedconflation of three different kings:Netjerkare Siptah,Menkare, andMenkaure.[156][xxix]
According to Africanus, the total sum for the kings of the First through Sixth dynasties amounts to 1497 years, but the actual sum of items gives 1478. Eusebius closely follows Africanus and records 1498 total years, but the actual sum of his numbers is 1504. This may imply that the summation figures are more accurate than the individual reigns.[35]
TheTurin King List records a total of 52 kings up toNeferirkare, that is, 45 kings fromMenes toMerenre Nemtyemsaf II,[63] although the list includes two fictitious kings in theFourth Dynasty, thus totaling 43 kings. Africanus records a total of 48 kings, while Eusebius records about 70. This discrepancy is the result of a misunderstanding of the text, as later both Eusebius and Africanus record 192 kings before the Twelfth Dynasty.[35]
TheOld Kingdom rapidly collapsed after the death ofPepi II Neferkare, who supposedly reigned up to 94 years, longer than any monarch in history. The latter years of his reign were probably marked by inefficiency because of his advanced age. This was further exacerbated by the4.2-kiloyear event, a climate shift around 2200 BC which caused widespread desertification andfamine.
The kings of the 7th and 8th Dynasties, who represented the successors of the 6th Dynasty, tried to hold onto some power in Memphis but owed much of it to powerfulnomarchs. After a couple of decades, they were overthrown by a new line of pharaohs based inHeracleopolis Magna. Some time after these events, a rival line based atThebes revolted against their Northern overlords and unitedUpper Egypt. The Theban pharaohMentuhotep II, the son and successor ofIntef III, defeated the Herakleopolitan pharaohs and reunited the Two Lands, thereby starting the Middle Kingdom.
Africanus andEusebius record 70 kings in 70 days, which is clearly an embellishment.[155] Some historians dismiss the existence of a Seventh Dynasty, while others argue it could correspond to the "lacuna of 6 years" recorded in theTurin King List.[44] The following tables are based onBeckerath 1999, pp. 66–69 & 284, which is itself based on theAbydos King List. The Turin King List only recordsNetjerkare Siptah and the last 6 names.[63] This line ruled fromMemphis, and it is thought that it lasted only about one generation, or about 30 years.[157] Manetho reports 27 kings for the Eighth Dynasty;[155] the number may be a corruption of "17 kings", the total of kings for this line.
Africanus records 19 kings for 409 years, but only lists oneAchthoes, a tyrant who was killed by a crocodile. Meanwhile, Eusebius records 4 kings in 100 years. For the next dynasty, they both record 19 kings for 185 years, but list none.[155] It is possible that the 9th and 10th dynasties were in fact a single dynasty that was duplicated by Manetho (or one of his scribes), resulting in twoHeracleopolean dynasties of 19 kings.[161][162][163][164] TheTurin King List records an unbroken line of 18 kings, but almost all names, as well as the sum of regnal years, are damaged.[63] A break between dynasties, while still possible, can't be pinpointed with any certainty.
Name lost in the Turin list; name found in a damaged graffiti atHatnub.Hayes claims that the Turin King List records 5 kings for the Tenth Dynasty and places him as the founder.[167] However, there is no such division in the document and thus his position, as well as that of the supposed break between dynasties, is uncertain.[163] The exact reading of his name is disputed.[168]
Name lost in the Turin list; main rival of theTheban pharaohMentuhotep II. Hayes claims that the Turin King List records an additional ruler after him,[167] but this is certainly not the case.[163][169]
Theban nomarch and ancestor of the rest of the dynasty, was later considered a founding figure of the Eleventh Dynasty and was included in theKarnak King List, though his name is not written in a cartouche, indicating that he was not retroactively considered pharaoh likeMentuhotep I.
Listed as the first king in the Turin King List, probably did not bear the title of pharaoh but instead was a Theban nomarch that was later retroactively considered as the first king of the dynasty.[171]
Brother of Intef I, and buried with him in El-Tarif. Fought the forces of Heracleopolis atThinis, the old capital, which was ravaged. Also faced a famine in Upper Egypt.[172]
The Eleventh Dynasty consisted of sixteen kings ofDiospolis, who reigned for 43 years. In succession to these,Ammenemes ruled for 16 years. Here ends the First Book of Manetho. Total for the reigns of 192 kings, 2300 years 70 days.[xxxv]
Sometimes calledMentuhotep I. Son ofIntef III, completed the unification of Egypt during his first three decades as king, beginning the Middle Kingdom. Centralized the government in Thebes and revived great royal projects, such as his massive mortuary temple.[177]
Starting from the Twelfth Dynasty, pharaohs often appointed their heirs as co-rulers before their own death. This is one of the main obstacles when reconstructing the chronology of Ancient Egypt. According toradiocarbon dating, the dynasty certainly began between the years 2000 and 1950 BC, perhaps around 1980 BC.[24] The Turin King List gives the sum of years as 213, but does not take co-regencies into account.[62]
Vizier ofMentuhotep IV. Moved the capital fromThebes toItjtawy and was buried ina pyramid atLisht. Also formally introduced the concept of co-regencies in the monarchy. Like his predecessor, his reign ended with his assassination at the hands of court officials.[180]
Co-ruled 10 regnal years with his father, learned of his murder while campaigning inLibya and returned to the capital to avenge him, continuing to rule over a prosperous Egypt.[181]
Faced the opposition of powerful nomarchs who attempted to regain power.[182] Probably co-ruled 2–3 years with his father.[62] However, this has been refuted by some scholars.[183]
Co-ruled for 3 years with his father. Revitalized cultivation inFaiyum and gained the support of local elites. Also expanded Egyptian influence in the region, particularly over Syria and Nubia.[184]
His accession has been traditionally dated to 1878 BC, but this is rejected by modern scholars.[xxxvi]Radiocarbon dating provides the range 1889–1836 BC.[24] One of the most famed and powerful pharaohs, a great warrior and administrator.[185] Tales of his Nubian conquest were likely one of the origins of the legendarySesostris recorded byHerodotus.[186][xxxvii]
First confirmed female pharaoh. To strengthen her position she retroactively claimed to be her father's chosen heir and co-regent, while in reality she ascended the throne only after the death of herbrother-husband, in the absence of male heirs.[189] Perhaps the owner of theNorthern Mazghuna pyramid, although she did not use it.[190]
Reconstructing the chronology of theSecond Intermediate Period is even more difficult than theFirst, as there are very few and contradictory records. TheTurin King List is the only one to include rulers of this period, but it is badly damaged after the Twelfth Dynasty. This period is best known for the rule of theFifteenth Dynasty established by theHyksos people of West Asia. It was a time of political rather than social upheavals.[191]
At some point during the weakThirteenth Dynasty, the provincial ruling family inXois, located in theNile Delta, broke away to formFourteenth Dynasty. Around the same time, the Asiatic people known as theHyksos established themselves around the Delta, and soon after took control ofAvaris (modernTell el-Dab'a), beginningFifteenth Dynasty. The Hyksos took over most of Lower Egypt and ended the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasties. They were also known as the "Great Hyksos" because of their dominance.[192] The power vacuum in Upper Egypt enabled theSixteenth Dynasty to declare independence inThebes, only to be overrun by the Hyksos shortly thereafter. Subsequently, as the Hyksos withdrew from Upper Egypt, a new native Egyptian house in Thebes set itself up asSeventeenth. This dynasty eventually drove the Hyksos back into Asia, starting the New Kingdom.
As opposed to the previous dynasty, there are little to no historical records regarding this dynasty, with only a few kings leaving archeological records. The dynasty possibly originates fromCanaan, as some rulers (Sekhemkare,Hotepibre) are called "Asiatics".[193][194]Merneferre Ay, while not the final pharaoh, was the last king attested in Lower and Upper Egypt, later pharaohs are only attested in the south.[195] The earlier part of the dynasty until Ay is sometimes considered part of the Middle kingdom, but more often the whole dynasty is considered part of the Second Intermediate Period.
Manetho records "60 kings of Diospolis for 453 years". Notably, the number of kings appears to be somewhat correct, as theTurin King List records a minimum of51 kings, which Ryholt rises to57.[196][195] However, only the first half of the names survives, and the reign lengths are also damaged. Manetho's total of 453 years is sometimes emended as 153, but there is no definitive proof of this.[195] According to radiocarbon dating, the Thirteenth Dynasty began between the years 1800 and 1740 BC.[24] According to Hornung,Ay's reign ended around 1650 BC, at least 100 years after the beginning of the dynasty.[195]
The succession is based on the reconstruction ofKim Ryholt. Almost all kings reigned for a very short time, for about 1 to 3 years each.[197] Ryholt also suggests that the division by Manetho is based not on a familiar break, but because of the rise of theDynasty XIV.[198] The exact succession of rulers is highly disputed.[199]
Ryholt suggests that the first two kings were in fact sons ofAmenemhat IV, who he treats as an adoptive son ofAmenemhat III. This would explain their double name, which Ryholt treats as filiative nomina.[205]
Ryholt postulates that he was of non-royal birth.[206] The Hyksos were already established in theNile Delta by his reign. Bunson treats him as the same person asAmeny Qemau for unknown reasons.[193]
Not recorded in the Turin King List, possibly a son of Hor. Known for building the "Osiris Bed", a sarcophagus set up forOsiris in the tomb ofDjer. Later pharaohs erased his name.[209]
Proposed by Ryholt as successors of Djedkheperew; possibly did not exist. "Sebkay" may be a diminutive for throne name ofSedjefakare Kay Amenemhat VII,[195] but may also be the same king asSenebkay.
Possibly of non-royal birth.[212] Had a smallpyramid built for himself inSaqqara.[128] Three other unidentified small pyramids have been found near Khendjer's.[213]
Attested in several monuments in the Nile Valley. Bunson believes he was a native of Avaris and a vassal of the Hyksos.[220] Last pharaoh attested in Lower and Upper Egypt,[195] probably due to a rebellion.[220]
Drawing of an ancient Egyptian stele depictingMerdjefare, the only king of the 14th dynasty to leave a surviving portrait.
Manetho records "76 kings ofXois for 184 years". Ryholt argues that these kings ruled fromAvaris,[240] but there is no strong evidence for this.[241] Almost nothing is known about the dynasty, and all its rulers appear to have had very short reigns. The following is the royal succession according to theTurin King List.[242] The document records a minimum of51 kings (Ryholt raises the number to56),[243] many of whom ruled alongside Dynasties XIII and XV. They were also of Near Eastern origin.[244]
Only four rulers are contemporarily attested:Nehesy,Nebsenre,Merdjefare, andSekheperenre.[245] Beckerath, who mostly agrees with Ryholt, records 16 additional names of disputed identity.[246] This dynasty notably includes some of the shortest recorded reigns; the shortest being that ofSekheperenre (61–65 days), which is also the shortest reign of a native pharaoh.
The "Hyksos", literally meaning "rulers of foreign lands", were people who emerged from theFertile Crescent and conquered much ofLower Egypt, as well as parts ofMiddle Egypt. They were excluded from contemporary Egyptian sources because they were perceived as foreign usurpers. TheTurin King List records6 rulers of foreign lands ruling for roughly150 years,[xli] but the list is very damaged and much of the information is now lost.[250]Manetho, as quoted byJosephus, reported six "shepherd kings fromPhoenicia" ruling for 254 years (the term "shepherd kings" appears to be the result of pronunciation changes).[251] The following is the tentative reconstruction ofKim Ryholt, based on attested names bearing the title of "Hyksos".[252][xlii]
The versions of Manetho differ significantly for this period. Eusebius notably places the rulers of Africanus'Dynasty XV toDynasty XVII, likely to accommodate his Biblical chronology. According to Josephus, the Hyksos domination, that is, the period betweenDynasties XV until the end ofDynasty XVII, lasted 511 years, while Africanus attributes 518 years toDynasty XVI alone.[187][35] This is likely the summation of all three dynasties, because Josephus' sum of reigns for the Hyksos dynasty is actually 253 years and 10 months. This figure must be a century off, as the Turin King List only notes about 150 years.
According toBeckerath, the rulers of Dynasty XVI were vassals of the Hyksos.[263] According toRyholt, the 16th dynasty, ruling fromThebes, consisted of15 kings recorded in the Turin King List, although most names are lost.[231][250] Ryholt reconstruction has been criticized and it is not universally accepted.[264][265] Virtually nothing is known about these rulers.
The Turin King List records sixteen names after the Dynasty XVI, but the names do not match those of Dynasty XVII and thus likely refer to a different line. This dynasty is hypothesized byKim Ryholt to have been a short-lived local line contemporaneous with the other dynasties.[267][250] This has not been accepted by all scholars.[268]
TheTurin King List ends here, recording a total of 223 kings. According to the reconstructions used here, the original Egyptian annals recorded roughly 243 kings until this point (and 270 up toRamesses II). The whole section after Dynasty XVI is badly damaged, and thus Ryholt's reconstruction can't be proven with certainty. The total for Dynasty I–XVI thus amounts to227 kings for a period of1+1⁄2 millennia.
Kyholt identified 9 kings of this line, although the exact order is uncertain. Beckerath included 6 additional names belonging to kings that Ryholt placed on the previous dynasties (Sekhemre Sementawy Djehuty,Seankhenre Mentuhotepi,Nebiryraw I,Nebiryraw II,Semenre, andBebiankh).[275] Hornung postulates that the rulers between Dynasties XIII and XVIII ruled for roughly a century.[276]
Believed by Kyholt to be the founder of the dynasty.[276] Probably reigned close toSekhemrekhutawy Pantjeny andWepwawetemsaf, who producedstelas similar to his.[278] According to Bunson, he erected a pyramid at the necropolis of Thebes.[279]
Tomb and name discovered in 2012.[281] Previously thought to be namedTao, thus making his son and successorTao II.[282] Said to have been part of a "second group" of Dynasty XVII.[283]
Son of Tao and brother of Ahmose I. Achieved great military victories against the Hyksos. He died either of battle wounds or because of natural causes.[284] Adopted thehorse, introduced by the Hyksos, as part of the Egyptian military.[285]
The New Kingdom is considered the greatest period in Egyptian history. It began with the expulsion of theHyksos, and it saw Egypt's greatest territorial extent. The Egyptians expanded far intoNubia in the south, and held wide territories in theNear East. Three of the best-known pharaohs originate from this period. These areAkhenaten, whose exclusive worship of theAten is often interpreted as the first instance ofmonotheism,Tutankhamun, known for the discovery of his nearly intact tomb, andRamesses II the Great, who attempted to recover the territories in theLevant that had been held in the Eighteenth Dynasty. His reconquest led to theBattle of Kadesh, where he led the Egyptian armies against the Hittite kingMuwatalli II. The ensuingEgyptian–Hittite peace treaty is the oldest of its kind.
The Eighteenth dynasty lasted roughly 250 years and was the longest-reigning nativeEgyptian dynasty.[xliii] It started as a continuation of the Seventeen dynasty, withAhmose I being the brother ofKamose. However, the death ofAmenhotep I without known children ended the male line, bringing the common-bornThutmose I to the throne. Thutmose probably married into the royal family by marrying two presumed daughters of Ahmose I,Ahmose andMutnofret.[287][288] If the identification of Mutnofret as a child of Ahmose is correct, that would mean that–via her issue–the family composed of members of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth dynasties ruled Egypt for nearly three centuries, untilTutankhamun's death.
Proposed dates: 1550–1307 BC (243 years),[146] 1550–1295 BC (255 years),[289] 1550–1292 BC (258 years),[4][277] 1539–1292 BC (247 years).[286] Regnal years may still be off by one or two years at most.[286]
Son of Ahmose I andAhmose-Nefertari, who probably ruled as regent briefly. Rebuilt several temples in Upper Egypt, particularly inKarnak. Was also the first pharaoh to separate his tomb from his mortuary temple and burial complex.[293] Died aged around 35, which would place his accession at age 15.[294] Left anintact mummy that has never been unwrapped.[295]
Possible son-in-law ofAhmose I by his marriages toQueen Ahmose andQueen Mutnofret. Continued the building and military projects of his predecessor, but further expanded Egyptian power over foreign territories, campaigning into theLevant.[296] His mummy was once thought to have been recovered, but it turned out to be incompatible with Thutmose I.[297]
Second known female ruler of Egypt, called the "most successful queen-pharaoh". Began as regent of his stepson Thutmose III, but quickly sidelined him and adopted masculine titles. Reigned over a prosperous Egypt and conducted several grand building projects, such as herMortuary Temple atDeir el-Bahari. Probably died of natural causes. Later pharaohs tried to erase the memory of her reign, perhaps as a rejection of female rule.[299]
28 April 1479– 3 February 1457 BC (including regency)[xliv] (21 years, 281 days, de jure~14–19 years)
Began his rule as child under the regency and co-rule of Hatshepsut. One of the most powerful pharaohs, he conquered much of the Near East from theEuphrates toNubia, marking the geographical peak of the Egyptian empire. His multiple military campaigns are recorded in detail in theAnnals of Thutmose III.[302] Tales of his military conquest are possibly one of the origins of the legendary kingSesostris recorded byHerodotus.[xxxvii]
28 April 1479– 25 March 1425 BC[xlv] (53 years, 331 days)
Considered one of the greatest pharaohs; ruled at the peak of the Egyptian Empire, when the country reached its economic, artistic, and military height. Some of his foreign affairs are recorded in theAmarna letters.[306]
Sometimes called the firstmonotheist. Began his reign asAmenhotep IV, but quickly changed it to express his devotion to the sun-godAten, whom he placed at the top of the Egyptian pantheon. Also built a new capital, Akhetaten (nowAmarna). His religious reforms were not widely accepted, and later pharaohs tried to erase all memory of his reign. Was also a patron of the distinctiveAmarna art.[307]
Disputed family background and sex, viewed variously as Akenaten's son, brother, or wife. Sometimes identified with female PharaohNeferneferuaten who ruled from Thebes. Attested mainly in Amarna. Might have been Akhenaten's co-regent.[309][310][311][312]
Third female pharaoh of Egypt. She is sometimes identified with King Smenkhkare, who shared the male form of her throne name. "Neferneferuaten" is believed to be a regnal name adopted most likely byNefertiti, Akhenaten's main wife.[313][314][312]
Arguably the most famous pharaoh in modern times.His tomb was found almost intact thanks to the entrance being buried in antiquity. Born asTutankhaten to uncertain parents (possiblyAkhenaten andhis sister),[315] his reign saw the reversal of several of Akhenaten's policies. He changed his name and abandoned Amarna in favour ofThebes, where he died aged 18.[316]
Vizier since the reign ofAkhenaten, speculated to be his father-in-law as possible father to QueenNefertiti; marriedTutankhamun's wifeAnkhesenamun, who might have been also his own granddaughter. His tomb was later destroyed by his successor.[317]
Senior official; marriedMutnedjmet, speculated to be sister ofNefertiti and daughter ofAy. Initiated a vigorous campaign ofdamnatio memoriae ("condemnation of memory") against the Armana rulers, even dating his own reign from the death ofAmenhotep III, effectively erasing 34 years of history.[318]
Also served as vizier and military commander before succeeding his father. Led several military campaigns and faced theHittites. His tomb is the largest in theValley of the Kings.[322]
Regarded as one of the most powerful pharaohs of Egypt, as well as its longest-reigning and longest-living monarch, possibly only behindPepi II Neferkare. Also had one of thelongest reigns in recorded history. Conducted more military campaigns and built more monuments than any other pharaoh. Also known by the Greek nameOzymandias, after his prenomenUsermaatre. Known to have had about100 children. He was also one of the few pharaohs to bedeified in their lifetime.[325]
31 May 1279– 13 August 1213 BC[li] (66 years, 74 days)
Faced an internal coup orchestrated by his son or brother Amenmesse at the beginning of his reign, but defeated him and erased him from official records.[329][330]
Son ofSeti II (orAmenmesse),[333] installed by ChancellorBay under the regency ofTausret.[334] Began his reign asRamesses Siptah, but quickly changed it, possibly to claim direct descent fromMerneptah.[335]
Fourth female ruler of Egypt and last native queen regnant.Seti II's widow, initially regent for Siptah, then briefly sole pharaoh after his death. LikeHatshepsut before her, records of her reign were destroyed by later pharaohs.[336]
Here ends the Second Book ofManetho, which records 96 kings, ruling for 2121 years according to Africanus (92 kings in 1121 years according to Eusebius). However, the correct sum of Africanus' dynasties comes to a puzzling 246 kings for 2221 years.[35][187] The reconstructed chronology forDynasties XII toXIX shows that about 190 kings ruled for roughly 560 years.
An elderly man of unknown origin, perhaps a descendant of Ramesses II. Presented himself as a restorer after the unpopular reign of Queen Tausret. May have taken the throne after a brief period of anarchy.[339]
Arguably the last great Egyptian pharaoh, he reigned during theLate Bronze Age collapse that saw the collapse of several neighboring civilizations. Defended Egypt from theSea Peoples, but ended up being assassinated during theHarem conspiracy led by QueenTiye and their sonPentawer.[340]
Son of Ramesses III and uncle of Ramesses V, he likely usurped the throne after a civil war, which further contributed to the economic decline of Egypt.[340]
Grandson of Ramesses III thru his fatherMontuherkhopshef, last pharaoh to rule over Nubia. By this time, theHigh Priest of Amun had already become thede facto rulers of Egypt.[340]
Theorized by Ian Mladjov to have been a short-lived king. Only attested in a single inscription, which is itself the subject of much debate.[342] May be a variant ofRamesses II's name.[343]
–
For the Twentieth Dynasty, Africanus records 12 kings ruling for 135 years. This actually coincides perfectly with the period betweenMerneptah (1213 BC) and Ramesses XI (1078 BC).[286] The sum of reigns is roughly 110 years.
While not as chaotic as the previous two intermediate periods, the lack of official king lists makes it difficult to reconstruct the exact succession of rulers. The only surviving king list is that ofManetho, which is likely based on a biased source dated to the Kushite period.[344] Note that the sum of items does not match the stated total of years.[35]
Took the throne after the death of Ramesses XI and married his daughter. Ruled alongsidePinedjem I, theHigh Priest of Amun and effective pharaoh atThebes, from his 16th year onwards.[349]
Scholars initially doubted his existence, hence the lack of a regnal number.[355] Left no surviving monuments.[356] His accession almost certainly took place in the year992 BC, based on an astronomical calculation.[348]
TheHigh Priests of Amun atThebes were thede facto rulers ofUpper Egypt during theTwenty-first dynasty, writing their names incartouches, being buried in royal tombs, and passing their office to their sons. They likely did not consider themselves actual pharaohs, but their use of royal titles implied an equivalent level of authority. Dates are taken from Payraudeau (2020),[359] which may not perfectly align with Hornung's. There is insufficient evidence to reconstruct a reliable chronology of these rulers.[360]
Previously believed to be a son-in-law ofHerihor,[361] but the evidence for this has been refuted, and scholars now believe that Piankh actually ruled before Herihor.[362][360][363][364][359] According to another theory, Piankh may have served as High Priest during Herihor's reign,[365] but this is also uncertain.[366]
Officer under Ramesses XI, adopted royal titulary atThebes, possibly after the death ofRamesses XI,[363] thus becoming ruler in the South alongside the Tanite pharaoh in the North.[367]
The succession of kings of this dynasty is highly disputed; the following reconstruction is mostly based on Hornung, but dates followFrédéric Payraudeau (2020).[lxvii] Other scholars date the dynastyc. 945–715 BC, after Shaw.[376][146][377] Despite the political turmoil of this period, this dynasty managed to last for roughly 200 years, being exceeded only by theThutmoside andPtolemaic dynasties.
Son of a Libyan chief and nephew ofOsorkon the Elder, married a daughter ofPsusennes II. Appointed his children as High Priests of Amun and other relevant offices. Ruled fromBubastis and thenTanis; almost certainly the "PharaohShishak" of theHebrew Bible.[378] His campaign against inIsrael andJudah can be securely dated to the year926 or925 BC.[374]
Son of Osorkon I, initially High Priest of Amun. Died suddenly from an infected head wound.[381] Buried in the intact tomb ofPsusennes I.[353] Perhaps Osorkon's successor.[374]
Son of Takelot I; his cousin and High PriestHarsiese usurped power at Thebes. Believed by some scholars to have been succeeded byTakelot II[383] instead of Shoshenq III.[384][374]
The designation "Twenty-Third Dynasty" is applied variously by scholars to branches of the Twenty-Second Dynasty ruling in mostly Upper Egypt (at least intermittently atThebes), to various local rulers based atHeracleopolis Magna,Hermopolis,Leontopolis, and to a line of kings who succeeded the Twenty-Second Dynasty atTanis, all ofLibyan origin. The following is the most recent reconstruction by Frédéric Payraudeau (2020). There are roughly 20 kings attested around this period, but this may vary significantly depending on the author (compare the lists given above). See also the discussion of David Aston[390] andKarl Jansen-Winkeln.[391]
An obscure rival pharaoh at Thebes; sometimes placed in Dynasty XXII. Bunson identifies him as a son ofShoshenq II and an ally of the usurperPedubast I.[393]
Revolted in Year 11 ofTakelot II and briefly took over Thebes between Years 15 and 25.[391] Initially thought to be the first king of the 23rd Dynasty, having previously been High Priest under Takelot II.[395] Records show that he may have ruled with the support ofShoshenq III of the 22nd dynasty.[396]
Son of Takelot II; recovered Thebes, then proclaimed himself king. Manethos' king "Psammous" may be based on his daughter,Shepenupet I, theGod's Wife of Amun.[344]
An obscure Theban pharaoh who ruled as far asElephantine. Chronology uncertain; either the successor ofRudamun or a vassal underPiye, the founder of the Kushite 25th Dynasty. Suffered adamnatio memoriae, possibly after the uprising ofTefnakht I.[399]
Possibly a son ofOsorkon III that proclaimed himself king after his death.[404] Joined the coalition ofTefnakht of Sais. Submitted toPiye, as depicted in theStele of Piye, and was allowed to rule as the local governor of Hermopolis.[405]
Took the throne after the death ofShoshenq V, the last king of the 22nd dynasty. Manetho calls himPetoubatēs, and records that "in his reign theOlympic festival (776 BC) was first celebrated."[409] He is mentioned in Assyrian records around the reign ofAshurbanipal.[396]
Manetho calls himOsorkhō and records that "the Egyptians called himHeracles".[409] Submitted to Piye, as depicted in theStele of Piye, and was allowed to rule as the local governor of Tanis.[395]
Possibly Manetho'sPsammous. Precise dating and position uncertain.[408] Rebelled againstShebitku, but was ultimately defeated byShabaka. Most likely the same as the obscure Tanite kingNeferkare.[410][411]
Manetho calls himBocchoris and assigns him 6 years, while also recording him as the sole member of the dynasty.[409] Likely a brother of Tefnakht, he was defeated in battle byPiye. He was initially allowed to rule in Sais, but Piye's successor,Shebitku, hunted him down and burned him alive.[420]
Following the collapse of the New Kingdom, theNubians, a people located around Southern Egypt, founded theKingdom of Kush. One of its rulers,Piye, invaded Lower Egypt and took the title of pharaoh, although the Nubians already controlled Upper Egypt in the early years of his reign.Kashta, Piye's father, is sometimes also listed as part of the dynasty. The capital during this dynasty wasMemphis.
Manetho claims that the 25th Dynasty ruled for 40 years, but this is about half of its actual duration. This dynasty is also mentioned byHerodotus, who records "eighteen Ethiopian kings", and byDiodorus Siculus, who writes that "four Ethiopians held the throne, not consecutively but with intervals between, for a little less than thirty-six years in all."[39]:100[41]:44 The accession ofTaharqa can be securely dated to690 BC, marking the first certain year in Egyptian history according to Hornung.[374] Dates follow Payraudeau.[359]
Also calledPiankhi; likely Manetho'sSet recorded at the end of Dynasty XXIII.[344] Son of the Kushite kingKashta; conqueredThebes and defeated the coalition of Egyptian kings led byTefnakht. Presented himself not as a conqueror, but as a restorer. His dynasty saw a renaissance of Egyptian arts, and its rulers revived the old tradition of pyramid building (seeNubian pyramids).[421]
Son ofPiye; fought and eventually lost to the Assyrian kingEsarhaddon, whotook and sacked Memphis. Taharqa fled to the south and failed to regain Memphis fromAshurbanipal, Esarhaddon's successor. Retired to Nubia shortly before his own death.[426]
Nephew and co-ruler of Taharqa. RecoveredThebes,Aswan, and Memphis, but was defeated again by the Assyrians. Thebes was looted, and he retired to Nubia.[427] Not recorded by Manetho.[409]
While modern scholars recognizePsamtik I as the founder of the 26th Dynasty, Manetho records four kings before him. They likely correspond to local rulers and Nubian/Assyrian vassals.
Identity and chronology highly disputed; possibly a local ruler or pretender. Beckerath dates him to the 25th dynasty,[430] but Kitchen dates him to an unspecified period after the 26th dynasty.[431]
The chronology starting fromTaharqa, the penultimate Nubian king, can be fixed thanks to theCanon of Kings ofPtolemy, which is itself based on ancientBabylonian sources and fits perfectly with Manetho's reign lengths. The only period with disputed chronology is the restored native Egyptian rule between the 27th and 31st Dynasties; all other dates are fixed.
The 26th Dynasty was the last great native Egyptian dynasty and ruled from 664 to 525 BC. Many of these pharaohs are better known by their Hellenized names; native Egyptian names are given in smallitalics.
One of the longest-reigning pharaohs; also known asPsammetichus. Son ofNecho I, reunified Egypt by his 9th year with the assistance of the Assyrians and Greek mercenaries. He aided the Assyrians during their war against the Persians, although this did not stop theFall of Nineveh in 612 BC.[433]
His campaigns in Jerusalem are recorded in theBooks of Kings of the Bible. Refurbished the Egyptian navy with Greek mercenaries and sent a fleet to circumnavigate Africa. HisCanal of the Pharaohs pre-empted theSuez Canal by 2500 years.[434]
CalledApries by Herodotus[39] andOuaphris by Manetho.[35] Continued to assert Egyptian influence in the Near East, involving Egypt in the affairs of the Babylonians, Libyans, and Greeks. He was overthrown and killed after a mutiny of dissatisfied troops.[436]
Also known by his Greek nameAmasis, nicknamed "Philhellene", meaning "he who loves the Greeks". Usurped the throne with a military coup, but was later remembered as a great ruler.[437]
Son of Amasis; was defeated and captured by the Persians. He was initially allowed to live inSusa, the Persian capital, but was later accused of treachery and executed.[442] Documents dated to his reign may belong to the rebelPsammetichus IV instead.[432]
Son ofCyrus the Great, founder of theAchaemenid Empire. Reigned from December 530 BC and conquered Egypt after defeatingPsamtik III at theBattle of Pelusium. Described as a tyrant in both Egyptian and Greek sources. Died in uncertain circumstances while traveling to crush a rebellion in Syria.[440][444]
Also called "Gaumata theMagi" (priest), claimed by Darius I to be an usurper who impersonated the son ofCyrus the Great. Revolted on 11 March 522 BC and briefly took the throne from Cambyses.[445][446][441] Not included in most modern king lists.[447][lxxiii]
Alleged son of Cambyses, took the throne after killing his rivals. Died in October 486, at the age of 64, while traveling to put down an Egyptian revolt.[449][450]
29 September 522– October 486 BC (36 years, 1 month)
Recorded by ancient chronographers as an ephemeral king who ruled for 7 months, but was actually only thepower behind the throne.[453] Not included in any of the modern king lists.[454]
Ruled 2 months according to Manetho,[409] more precisely, 45 days around December 425 BC.[456] The second-shortest-reigning pharaohs, only behind the 18 days ofPtolemy XI Alexander II.
Son of Artaxerxes I, usurped the throne from the rightful heir and fought against the Persian aristocracy to maintain control. The Egyptians successfully revolted after his death.[450]
Only listed in theAegyptiaca; most likely a mistake by Manetho or his scribes. Alternatively, another claimant to the throne during the reign ofHakor.[461]
Son ofArtaxerxes II and grandson ofDarius II, invaded Egypt in 351 BC. Described as a cruel tyrant by ancient sources; he was poisoned with his sons by a court official.[471]
Cousin of Arses, took the throne after forcing Bagoas to drink his own poison. Faced the invading forces of Alexander III of Macedon and was defeated at theBattles of Issus and thenGaugamela. Was ultimately murdered by his own men.[473]
TheMacedonians (Greeks) underAlexander the Great ushered in theHellenistic period with his conquest of Persia and Egypt in 332 BC, creating one of thelargest empires in history. However, this empire quickly fragmented after his sudden death in 323 BC, which led to the chaoticWars of the Diadochi.Ptolemy, one of Alexander's generals, claimed the pharaonic titles and established thePtolemaic Kingdom, the last and longest-reigning dynasty of Egypt. The former Persian territories were absorbed into the HellenicSeleucid Empire, which bordered Egypt to the East. Both states would eventually fall to theRoman Republic over the course of the 1st century BC.
TheArgeads ruled Egypt from 332 to 305 BC. Like their predecessors, the Hellenistic rulers used theSa-Ra title (nomen) to display their Egyptized personal names.
Succeeded his fatherPhilip II of Macedon in 336 BC, at the age of 20. Conquered most of the known world at the time; he was received in Egypt as a liberator. Founded the city ofAlexandria, the new capital and the first of many with his name. Died suddenly inBabylon, allegedly from a fever.Ptolemy I Soter buried him in Alexandria, althoughhis tomb has not been found.[475]
November 332–11 June 323 BC[lxxv] (8 years, 7 months)
The secondHellenistic dynasty, thePtolemaic, ruled Egypt for nearly 275 years, from 305/4 BC to 30 BC. It was the longest-reigning dynasty of Egypt, followed closely by theEighteenth. The most famous member of this dynasty was Cleopatra VII, better known simply asCleopatra, who was successively the lover ofJulius Caesar and, after his death, ofMark Antony, having children with both of them. She strove to create a dynastic and political union with Rome, but the assassination of Caesar and the defeat of Antony doomed their plans. Egypt was ultimatelyconquered by the Romans under Octavian, who would become theRoman emperorAugustus.All members of the Ptolemaic dynasty shared the same names, but adopted one or several Greekepithets on accession. Regnal numbers are only a modern convention.
Son ofPtolemy I Soter andBerenice I, named co-ruler in 284. Initially married toArsinoe I, namedPhiladelphus ("sibling-loving") after marrying his own sister,Arsinoe II. Completed his father's projects in Alexandria. Died at the age of 62.[485]
Son ofPtolemy IV Philopator andArsinoe III, born and named co-ruler in 210 BC. Succeeded in August 204 and ruled under successive regencies until November 197 BC.[489]
November 210– September 180 BC (29 years, 10 months)
Son ofPtolemy V Epiphanes andCleopatra I Syra. Succeeded at age 6 and ruled under the regency of her mother until October 177 BC, but was only declared of age in about January 169 BC. Was briefly deposed byPtolemy VIII Physcon in late 164 BC, but was quickly restored with Roman aid. Died after falling from his horse.[490]
Daughter ofPtolemy IX Soter. Named co-ruler with her uncle-husbandPtolemy X Alexander I. Was expelled in 88 BC, but was allowed to return in 81 BC as co-ruler of her father. Briefly ruled as sole monarch for 4 months in 80 BC before being killed byPtolemy XI Alexander II.[500]
The shortest-reigning pharaoh. Son ofPtolemy X Alexander I andBerenice III, installed as king with the support of the Roman dictatorSulla. Was killed on his 19th day by the Alexandrian mob after murdering his mother.[501]
Son ofPtolemy IX Soter and a concubine (possiblyCleopatra IV); nicknamed "the Flautist" (Auletes). Deposed byCleopatra VI after an unpopular reign; later restored with the help of the Roman generalPompey. Left his official will in Rome.[502]
De facto last pharaoh. Daughter ofPtolemy XII Auletes, succeeded aged 18 and ruled as senior pharaoh with her brothers and eldest son. In 48 BC she fought and defeated her sisterArsinoe IV with the support of Roman dictatorJulius Caesar, who fathered her first-born son and heir (Caesarion). AfterCaesar's assassination in 44 BC, she allied with and marriedMark Antony during the wars of theSecond Triumvirate. Their actions ledOctavian, Caesar's heir, to declare war in 32 BC; both were defeated and later committed suicide.[505]
Sister of Cleopatra; rebelled with the help ofGanymedes and then tookAlexandria for a few months. Was betrayed, sent to Rome, and later executed byMark Antony.[509]
Son of Cleopatra andJulius Caesar, crowned co-ruler at the age of 3, better known asCaesarion ("little Cesar"). Nominally the last pharaoh; was executed byOctavian after the fall of Alexandria.[511]
2 September 44–August 30 BC (13 years, 11 months)
Native rebellions The following rebellions took place inUpper Egypt and were centered inThebes.
Successor (or possibly an alternate regnal name) of Howennefer. Took advantage of the invasion ofAntiochus III the Great in Egypt's Eastern provinces. Captured and later executed byPtolemy V Epiphanes.[512]
Egyptian relief depicting the Roman emperorTrajan (right,r. 98–117 AD) in full pharaonic style.
Egypt became a client kingdom ofRome in the reign ofPtolemy X Alexander I (r. 107–88 BC)[520] but it was not until thedeath of Cleopatra (and defeat ofMark Antony) in 30 BC, that Egypt became aRoman province. TheRoman emperors were accorded the title of pharaoh by the Egyptians, but the title was not acknowledged outside the province. The last Roman emperor known from a pharaonic titulary isMaximinus Daza (r. 310–313 AD). Royal cartouches are attested as late as 340 AD, but the pagan Egyptians chose to posthumously use cartouches ofDiocletian (r. 284–305 AD) rather than acknowledging the later Christian emperors.[521] This was around the same time that the knowledge and understanding ofhieroglyphs began to be forgotten; the last known inscription of its kind, known as theGraffito of Esmet-Akhom, dates to the year 394.
Roman rule in Egypt continued almost uninterrupted until the 7th century, when Rome's provinces in Africa fell to theArab conquests, whereafter Egypt was ruled by the successivecaliphates.
^A 2013 study placed the accession ofAha, the second pharaoh, most likely between 3111 and 3045 BC (with 68% confidence), with a broader range of 3218 to 3035 BC (with 95% confidence).[14] However,radiocarbon dating only gives broad approximations subject to several external factors. For instance, while the aforementioned study placedDen in the range of 2945–2904 BC, a 2023 study placed his accession earlier, in the range of 3011–2921 BC, nearly a century earlier.[15]
^The 7th year of Sensuret III would be 1830 BC if the astronomical observation was made atElephantine.[18] According to one independent study, the date should be 1840 BC,[19] or, according to another, 1879 BC.[20] Others have even proposed 1980 BC.[21] It has been argued that Sothic dates should not be consulted in the first place given their lack of certainty.[22]
^During the Middle Kingdom, "Year 1" began on the same day as a pharaoh's accession, but "Year 2" began on New Year's Day (IAkhet, day 1). This system was changed in the New Kingdom, where "Year 2" began on the actual anniversary of the pharaoh, but reverted back in theLate Period.[27]
^Some authors have questioned the chronological placement of Manetho: he is not mentioned by any author beforeJosephus, and his negative depiction of theHyksos could be interpreted asantisemitism, which did not exist during Ptolemaic times.[32] This view is not commonly accepted; the identification of the Hyksos as Jews, while treated as fact by Josephus, was most likely not present in Manetho's original work.[33] One papyrus dated to 241/0 BC mentions one "Manetho" that possibly corresponds to the Egyptian historian.[34]
^ForDynasty II, Africanus and Eusebius record 9 kings, but only Africanus provides all names. Similarly, Africanus records 8 kings forDynasty III, while Eusebius records 17 and names only one. Africanus records all 9 kings of theDynasty V, but Eusebius records 31 kings and lists two names that are actually copied from the Sixth Dynasty. The 12th dynasty is also preserved only by Africanus.[35]
^Herodotus states that Egypt was ruled by 330 kings untilSesostris, yet several kings in his narrative—such as Sesostris himself—appear to be unhistorical. Elsewhere, he reports that Egyptian priests told him that the interval between Min (Menes) and Sethos (Shebitku) comprised "three hundred and forty-one generations of men," equated with the same number of kings and high priests, totaling 11,340 years by Herodotus' own calculations.[39]:142 These figures are highly problematic; the number of 341 kings appears to be a simple addition of the 330 kings mentioned earlier and the 11 rulers listed by Herodotus before Sethos. However, some of these rulers correspond to pharaohs of theOld Kingdom, which chronologically belong to some of Egypt's earliest dynasties.[40] Their placement after the period supposedly spanning hundreds of kings indicates a fundamental misunderstanding of the data provided by the priests, and the reference to a single papyrus containing the entire list further suggests that this figure was intended to represent the total number of pharaohs before the Persian conquest.
^For Manetho's first two books, Julius Africanus records 192 kings in 2300 years and 96 kings in 2121 years, respectively. Book III lists 64 kings, totaling 361 kings in 5471 years. However, the actual sum of kings and years gives roughly 511 kings in 5368 years.[35] As noted before, the stated totals often disagree with the actual sum of items. Ultimately, none of the years given by Africanus nor Eusebius are useful, as Manetho originally recorded both yearsand months (see the comparison table below theEighteenth Dynasty section).
^There is some confusion on the exact identity of the king depicted in theScorpion Macehead.Hornung, Krauss & Warburton 2006, p. 91 refer to this king as "Scorpion I" andBunson 2002, p. 356 adds that he "was followed by an obscureScorpion II". According toGünter Dreyer, the Scorpion (I) buried inU-j is a different king from the Scorpion (II) of the macehead, with the former ruling before Iry-Hor.[49] This ruler is otherwise referred to simply as "Scorpion".[60]
^abcIt is virtually impossible to establish the exact chronology of the early dynasties. According to Hornung, the First Dynasty lasted a minimum of 150 years, and only the reigns ofAha andNarmer remain unspecified.[61] None ofManetho's figures match the historical records and hence must be discarded. The chronology of the Second Dynasty is even more uncertain because Egypt was divided during most of its duration. TheTurin King List does not acknowledge co-regencies for the Twelfth Dynasty,[62] and thus likely did not for the Second Dynasty either. This must have resulted in an inflated total of years, meaning that the "955 years"[63] given for the duration of the first eight dynasties must also be inflated.
^abDen's throne nameKhasty was misread in later times asQenqen, leading to Manetho'sKenkenes. The same signs forKhasty could be alternatively read asSemty (orSepaty). This is likely the origin of Manetho'sOusaphaidos (afterHesepty). The nameOuenephes probably derives from Όννωφρις (Ónnofris), a synonym for the godOsiris, who was associated withDjer's tomb. Thus, the correct order of the first 5 pharaohs should beMenes →Athotis →Ouenephes → (Djet) →Kenkenes, the latter being the same asOusaphaidos.[66] Whether the regnal years are also mixed is uncertain.
^The nameMeni, for instance, means "He who endures", likely referring to his position as the supposed founder of Egypt.[66] Others appear to be corruptions or misreadings.Djer's supposed throne name,Itti, does appear in thePalermo Stone, but it is rendered as aGolden Horus name.[67][68]
^abThrone names for the first three dynasties follow those found in the official king lists of theNew Kingdom. However, none of them match contemporary records and are mostly corruptions or misreadings. Original throne names are given in small brackets.
^abcdeThe figures for the early dynasties correspond toregnal years, which denote accession-based counting and do not necessarily correspond to full calendar years of rule.
^abThe names ofHotepsekhemwy andNynetjer, albeit written with different characters, are both pronounced asBaunetjer in theTurin list.[88] They are both given a lifespan of 95 years, which implies a duplication mistake. TheGiza list of theOld Kingdom recorded Hotep's name as "Bedjau", likely a corruption of his Horus name, while the RamessideAbydos list corrupted Nynetjer's name into "Banetjer".[86] TheSaqqara list further corrupted "Bedjau" into "Baunetjer", which lead to the Turin list recording both kings with similar sounding names (b3w-nṯr andb3-n-nṯr).[89]
^As recorded in thePalermo Stone.[103] TheTurin King List gives him a reign of 27 years, 2 months and 1 day, and a lifespan of 40 years (i.e. he would have started his reign at the age of 13 according to the Turin List). The "27 years" figure must be a corruption of "17 years", thus we must assume he stared his reign at 23 instead.[88]
^According to Wilkinson, thePalermo Stone records 28 complete or partial years forDjoser,[107] which closely matches Manetho's figure of "29 years". TheTurin King List gives "19 years";Khasekhemwy's reign was similarly changed from "17 years" to "27 years". Ramesside scribes may have erroneously attributed the first 10 years of Djoser's reign to Khasekhemwy's.
^As recorded in the Palermo Stone and Manetho (who calls himTyreis, after his posthumous nameTeti). The Turin King List records 6 years and x months and repeats the same figure for his successor, which may or may not be another copyist mistake.
^Mesochris andSoyphis appear to be duplicated names from Dynasty IV (Mencheres andSouphis), whileTosertasis appears to be a duplicate ofTesorthros. The next namesAches,Sephouris andKerpheres, are of unknown origin, but may as well be duplicates.
^A minimum of 24 years can be deduced from his cattle counts, but other evidence points to a minimum reign of 27 years. The Turin King List precisely gives him 24 years, but this is considered too short.[115] According to one reconstruction of the Annals, he reigned for a minimum of 34 years.[120] Some argue that he reigned up to 50 years.[121]
^Perhaps 26 years;[115] a recent finding suggests that he died shortly before completing 30 years.[123] Turin records 23 years, Herodotus 50, Africanus 63.
^The Turin King List records 18 or 28 years, and contemporary evidence points to at least 11 years. However, Hornung argues that the Palermo Stone gives him a short reign of only 6 years, which also coincides with Herodotus' figure.[115]
^Eusebius records 17 kings but mentions only Suphis (Khufu). Africanus gives the first three kings as Sneferu, Khufu, and Khafre, all of which were buried in theGiza pyramid complex. This suggests that Manetho's source was already corrupted or misread, as the three are given similar names (Soris/Souphis) and a reign length of about 60 years each (the number was likely the sum of several kings). The name "Suphis" (Σoυφις) is likely a corruption of "Kuphis" (Χoυφις).
^Eusebius' fifth dynasty kings actually belong to the sixth, and Eusebius simply added 100 years for this dynasty in the total with the previous dynasties. This suggests that the epitomist misread, misunderstood, or accidentally skipped to the subsequent dynasty while copying the text.[35]
^The name "Nitocris" possibly derives from the male kingNetjerkare Siptah, later misunderstood as feminine. According toFlinders Petrie, Netjerkare was likely conflated with his successorMenkare, who was in turn merged withMenkaure, the well-known builder of the "Third Pyramid", due to the similarity of their names.[156]
^The Turin King List gives bothQakare Ibi andNeferkauhor a reign of 2 years, 1 month, and 1 day.
^Bunson credits thePyramid of Neferkare Neby to Neferkaure instead, and lists him as the founder of the Eight Dynasty, as well as the predecessor of Qakare.[158]
^This is the numbering adopted by Bunson.[165] Leprohon, using an older reconstruction, records seven kings named "Khety". He refers to Wahkare as "Khety V", Nebkaure as "Khety VII", and Merybre as "Khety VIII".[166]
^TheTurin King List is considered more reliable from the Eleventh Dynasty onwards, as most of its figures match archeological records. The years given correspond tofull years.
^"Sixteen kings for 43 years" is clearly a corruption of "six kings for 143 years", as stated in theTurin King List. The king list also includes a lacuna of 7 years that corresponds to the reign ofMentuhotep IV, whose name was lost.[173] Africanus and Eusebius both record the same number of kings and years (Eusebius writes 79 days). The actual sum of Africanus' kings is 200, and that of his years is 2292. This is over twice the number of kings and years calculated by Egyptologists.Amenemhat I, the founder of the Twelfth Dynasty, was moved to this place for unknown reasons, most likely a misunderstanding of the original text.
^1878 was the date calculated byParker in 1977,[16] but it has been shown that his "sequencing of the Illahun lunar dates was wrong".[17] Various dates have been proposed over the years, all around 1850 BC: Hornung argues for1837/6,[17] while two independent studies argue for1847[19] or1886.[20]
^abThe tale ofSesostris, who supposedly campaigned as far as Europe, was likely an Egyptian narrative to present an ideal ruler. According to Herodotus, Sesostris created a massive empire that stretched into Europe. Needless to say, pretty much all of Sesostris' deeds are believed to be unhistorical. He is thought to be aconflation of Egypt's greatest rulers (theSenusrets,Thutmose III andRamesses II). Manetho identifies this "Sesostris" withSenusret III, the third king of his Twelfth Dynasty (omittingAmenemhat I andSenusret II).[187]
^Ryholt adds 13 rulers of uncertain position and chronology; some may be vassals under the 15th Dynasty and not actual kings, while others may be kings lost in the twolacunae of the Turin King List. They are mostly attested only by theirscarab seals. By far the most attested king isSheshi, who is attested in hundreds of seals.[248]
^Thomas Schneider claims that the total is 108 years, but the editor notes that another reading could give 140 instead.[249] The number could be as high as 189.[250]
^Another obscure ruler,Anat-her, is also attested with the title ofHyksos in his seals, but he lacks the complete royal titulary, mainly the nomen and prenomen. Beckerath places him in the 16th dynasty,[253] but Ryholt argues that the lack of cartouche names suggests that he was only a chiefman of foreign origin.[252]
^She became pharaoh between Year 2 and 7 of Thutmose III;[300] her official regnal count retroactively included into her reign the time she had served as regent of Thutmose III, therefore his date of ascension to the throne–Year 1, IShemu (9th month), day 4, which has been equated to 28 April 1479 BC, a date of "chronological certainty"–officially also became hers.[301] Hatshepsut's rule probably ended on Year 22, IIPeret (6th month), day 10, which Hornung dates to 1458 BC.[286] However, the actual sum of days shows that her reign ended early in the following year. Her official reign was 21 years, 9 months, 11 days according to the Egyptian calendar, whichdoes not match with theGregorian calendar. Each of the 12 months was exactly 30 days, and there was anintercalary month of 5 days to complete the 365-cycle.
^Thutmose III's reign is known to the day thanks to official records and astronomical calculations. His reign began in Year 1, IShemu (9th month), day 4, and ended in Year 54, IIIPeret (7th month), day 30.[301][286] Beckerath claims that it is a "chronological certainty" that his accession was on 28 April 1479, and then calculates that his death occurred on 11 March 1425.[303] However, the actual length between the two dates is 53 years and 331 days (10 months + 26 days + 5intercalary days), giving 25 March if reckoning from 28 April 1479. The sole reign of Thutmose III began on Year 22, II Peret, day 10,[286] and thus lasted 32 years and 50 days.
^It is unclear ifAmenhotep began his rule as co-ruler for a couple of years. If he was named co-ruler, his reign likely began the day after his father's death, i.e. Year 1 IV Peret (8th month), day 1. If not, it may have begun in Year 3, III Shemu (9th month), day 15.[286]
^The reign ofAkhenaten began on the first 8 days of Peret (5th month) and likely ended on Year 17, II Akhet (2nd month), a date "corresponding to August 22 to September 20 [Julian] in 1336 BC".[308]
^This is the sum of Josephus' figures; the subdivision is only found in Africanus and Eusebius. Josephus' total, excluding QueenHatshepsut, is 71 years, 8 months. The original text likely counted the years between Ahmose I and the beginning ofThutmose III's sole reign, acknowledging that Hatshepsut ruled as senior co-ruler. However, Manetho's scribes misunderstood the text. Africanus' subtotal is notably off by several years, while Eusebius completely omits Hatshepsut.
^abcThe name "Chebren" is a corruption ofKheperen, derived from the throne name of Thutmose I and II. The name "Mephres" is a corruption ofMenkheperre, the throne name of Thutmose III.[319] Most scholars believe that "Chebron" refers to Thutmose II.[286]Mephramouthosis is thus probably a corruption ofMenkheperre Thutmosis (Thutmose III). His reign probably corresponds to Josephus' "30 years", itself derived from his sole reign.[286]
^It is often stated that his coronation took place on III Shemu 24,[323] although it may refer to his death.[324]
^Ramesses II began his reign on Year 1, III Shemu (11th month), day 27, which Beckerath equals to 31 May 1279 BC,[326] and died on Year 67, II Akhet (2nd month), day 6.[324] This equates to a total of 66 years, 2 months, 14 days according to the Egyptian calendar, or 66 years and 74 days.
^Merneptah's accession took place between 19/I Akhet and 13/II Akhet,[328] which perfectly aligns with Ramesses II's death on 6/II Akhet. His highest date is likely 7/IV/ Akhet year 10. Beckerath calculates his death as 3 May 1203, but notes that the chronology of his succession is disputed.[326] Because this, his exact date of death remains uncertain.[328]
^The accession ofSeti II probably took place on, or shortly after, the 29th day of II Peret (6th month). His death was announced in Thebes in Year 6, I Peret (5th month), day 19. His successor began his reign on I Peret, day 1–3, which places Seti's death at the end of IV Akhet (4th month).[328] The exact chronology of events surrounding Amenmesse's usurpation is not clear. Beckerath proposes that the reign of Seti II actually beganafter Amenmesse's,c. December 1200/1199.[326]
^Amenmesse's accession took place around II Shemu (10th month), more precisely between 27/I/Shemu and 18/III/ Shemu. His last known date is Year 4, 29/III/ Shemu.[328] Beckerath proposes that the reign of Amenmesse began on 3 May 1203, immediately after that of Merneptah.[326]
^Siptah began his reign on I Peret (5th month), day 1–3, and died on Year 7, II Akhet, day 10–12. Some authors argue that he died on Year 6.[328]
^Tausret probably died on I Shemu (9th month), Year 8. While her reignde jure lasted 2–4 years, she retroactively reckoned it as a continuation of Siptah's, who reigned from the start of I Peret (5th month).[328][337]
^The main difficulty in determining the exact duration of the dynasty is the lack of data for the first two pharaohs. The simple sum of total years gives 99 years, but the addition of months raises this figure to roughly 102 years, while the subtraction of dates (1292–1191) gives 101 years. Manetho's original number was probably "104 years", which was corrupted into "204" by Africanus, and "194" by Eusebius.
^Setnakhte probably began his reign on II Shemu and died on Year 3, I Shemu, day 25, shortly before completing his 3rd regnal year.[328]
^Ramesses III began his reign on I Shemu, day 26, and likely died in Year 32, III Shemu, day 14.[328]
^Ramesses IV began his reign on III Shemu (11th month), day 15, and died in Year 7, around IV Peret (8th month). There is uncertainty about the exact chronology; his death may have occurred as early as I Peret (5th month).[328]
^Ramesses V began his reign between I Peret (5th month) and IV Peret (8th month), and ended in Year 3, II Peret (6th month). Krauss assigns him a reign of 3 years 10 months, accepting an accession date in IV Peret.[328]
^Ramesses VI began his reign around II Peret, day 8, and died sometime after Year 8, II Peret, day 11. Additional evidence points to a reign of 7 years and 9 months.[328]
^abThe accession date ofRamesses VII is highly disputed. Beckerath dates it to the end of III Peret (7th month). His highest known date may have been Year 8, IV Shemu, day 25, but it has been argued that it belongs toRamesses IX instead. The accession date ofRamesses VIII is also disputed, having been dated between I Peret (5th month) and I Akhet (1st month), or potentially earlier. He died on I Akhet, day 20, potentially having reigned for a full year.[328]
^The reign ofRamesses IX probably began on I Akhet (1st month), day 21, and ended in Year 19, I Peret (5th month), day 26.[328]
^The reign ofRamesses X probably began on I Peret (5th month), day 26, and ended sometime after Year 3, IV Akhet (4 month). However, he may have ruled until Year 4.[328] A figure of 3 years and 10 months have been proposed by Demarée.[341]
^The reign ofRamesses XI probably began on III or IV Shemu (11th or 12th month), and ended sometime after his 28th year; the exact date is uncertain.[328]
^In the table of rulers at the end of his book, Hornung follows Beckerath in listing 9 kings for Dynasty 22. However, the individual chapter discussing the same dynasty gives a different succession.[374][375] There,Karl Jansen-Winkeln explains that three kings named "Shoshenq" should be placed betweenOsorkon andTakelot I. However, the dates in the table of rulers followRolf Krauss, who placed a single "Shoshenq II" after Takelot and gave him a single regnal year.[290]Frédéric Payraudeau places two kings named "Shoshenq" after Takelot and gives them about 8 years of combined rule. As a result, the reign of Osorkon II is given as 865–830 by Payraudeau, and 872–842 by Krauss.[359] The chronology of the first two kings is more certain, the combined reign ofShoshenq I andOsorkon I is given as 943–987 and 943–988, respectively.[359][374]
^Payraudeau gives the reign ofBakenranef as 716–712 BC.[359] However, this does not match the contemporary evidence. One stela records Year 8 of Tefnakht (some authors have argued that the king should be identified asTefnakht II, but this seems unlikely), and another records Year 6 of Bakenranef, which matches Manetho's figure.[415] Payraudeau follows Anthony Spalinger in dating the end of the Kushite conquest to 712 BC. However, he seemingly dismisses Bakenranef’s stela and assigns him only 4 years. Spalinger gives his reign as 718–712 BC, which implies that Tefnakht began his reign in 726 BC.[416]
^The reign ofNecho II began sometime between 23 January and 19 November 610 BC and ended sometime between 4 May 595 BC and 19 January 594 BC. His successorPsamtik I died on Month 1 Day 23 of his Year 7, which equals 9 February 589 BC.[432]
^abcThe earliest document of Ahmose II is dated to July 570 BC.[432] Cambyses was declared pharaoh on or shortly before August 525 BC (outdated sources dated his first document to 29 May 525 BC)[438][439] and died shortly after 1 July 522 BC.[440][441]
^Babylonian documents confirm the brief rule of Bardiya,[441] but he does not appear in any Egyptian records. However, it's still possible that news of Bardiya's accession reached Egypt at some point. For instance, the reign of emperorsGordian I andGordian II lasted only 20 days. Still, news of their accession managed to travel from Rome to Alexandria in time to be included in official documents for roughly one month (such travel took around 25 days by ship).[448]
^The date of the end of the Thirtieth Dynasty is universally given as 343/342 BC (late 343 to early 342).[465] Leo Depuydt proposed 340/339 BC as a new date for the second Persian conquest.[466] The summation of Manetho's reigns for the 28th to 30th Dynasties, assuming they are all correct, amounts to 64 years,[409] which closely matches the 65 years between 404 BC and 339 BC. However, Depuydt's rearrangement has not been widely adopted. Damien Agut-Labordère has labeled it as "not convincing",[467] while Payraudeau has also favoured 342 BC.[468]
^TheSiege of Gaza, at Egypt's eastern frontier, took place in October 332 BC, after which Alexander spent several months in Egypt.[476] His coronation therefore cannot have occurred earlier than November. Notably, this timing would have aligned his accession with the Egyptian New Year, which fell on 14 November in 332 BC.[477] His death certainly took place on 11 June 323 BC.[478][479]
^Some scholars have argued that he was killed around 310 BC, but continued to be posthumously recognized as king. He was probably killed in 305/304, around the same time that Ptolemy claimed the title of king.[481]
^Also called Cleopatra Philometor Soteira when associated with her sonPtolemy IX Soter
^Most authors date Claeopatra's accession to 51 BC. Some authors have proposed a brief co-regency with her father in 52 BC, but the evidence isn't conclusive. Her reign was technically interrupted by a few months during 48 BC.[506] Cleopatra almost certainly died on the 17th day of the Egyptian monthMesori, which corresponds to 10 August in the olderRoman calendar, and 12 August in theJulian calendar.[507]
^Clayton 2001, p. 205. "When Egypt fell to the Persians in 343 BC, the reign of Nectanebo II, the last Egyptian pharaoh, came to an end; he was also the last Egyptian to rule Egypt for 2300 years untilGeneral Neguib and the 1952 Revolution".
^Tyldesley, Joyce (2009).Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt. Profile Books. pp. 3 of paperback edition, 20–21 of e-book edition.ISBN978-1-86197-901-8.The Ptolemies believed themselves to be a valid Egyptian dynasty, and devoted a great deal of time and money to demonstrating that they were the theological continuation of all the dynasties that had gone before. Cleopatra defined herself as an Egyptian queen and drew on the iconography and cultural references of earlier queens to reinforce her position. Her people and her contemporaries accepted her as such.
^Hratch Papazian (2015)."The State of Egypt in the Eighth Dynasty". In Peter Der Manuelian; Thomas Schneider (eds.).Towards a New History for the Egyptian Old Kingdom: Perspectives on the Pyramid Age. Harvard Egyptological Studies. BRILL.
^Barry Kemp, Andrew Boyce and James Harrell, (2000)The Colossi from the Early Shrine at Coptos in Egypt, in:Cambridge Archaeological Journal Volume 10, Issue 2, p. 233
^Ludwig David Morenz (2004). « Bild-Buchstaben und symbolische Zeichen. Die Herausbildung der Schrift der hohen Kultur Altägyptens »,Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, Fribourg, vol. 205, p. 91-ISBN3-7278-1486-1
^Hornung, Krauss & Warburton 2006, p. 123. "Beckerath's recent calculation allows only 24 years for all three remaining kings, in clear contradiction ofTC which gives 24 years to Huni alone plus six more forHu-djefa".
^Donald B. Redford (1986):Pharaonic king-lists, annals, and day-books: a contribution to the study of the Egyptian sense of history (=SSEA publication, Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities. Band 4). Benben, Indiana,ISBN0920168078, p. 237.
^Hawass, Zahi (2010). "The excavation of the headless pyramid, Lepsius XXIX".Perspectives on ancient Egypt: studies in honor of Edward Brovarski. Cairo: Supreme Council of Antiquities. pp. 153–170.ISBN978-977-704-087-7.
^abHayes, William (2006) [1971]."The Heracleopolitan Kingdom". In Edwards, I.E.S.; Gadd, C.J. (eds.).The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 1 (Part 2). CUP. pp. 464–468.
^Bennett, Chris (2002). "A Genealogical Chronology of the Seventeenth Dynasty".Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt.39:123–155.doi:10.2307/40001152.ISSN0065-9991.JSTOR40001152.
^Bennett, Chris (2006). "Genealogy and the Chronology of the Second Intermediate Period".Ägypten und Levante / Egypt and the Levant.16:231–243.ISSN1015-5104.JSTOR23790286.
^abMarcel Marée (2010):A sculpture workshop at Abydos from the late Sixteenth or early Seventeenth Dynasty, in: Marcel Marée (editor):The Second Intermediate period (Thirteenth-Seventeenth Dynasties), Current Research, Future Prospects, Leuven, Paris, Walpole, MA.ISBN978-90-429-2228-0. p. 247, 268
^Schneider, T. (2009). "Das Ende der kurzen Chronologie: Eine kritische Bilanz der Debatte zur absoluten Datierung des Mittleren Reiches und der Zweiten Zwischenzeit".Ägypten und Levante.18:275–314.doi:10.1553/aeundl18s275.ISSN1015-5104.
^Prášek, Justin Václav (1909). "Über den Anfang des persischen Achämenidenjahres [On the beginning of the Persian Achaemenid year]". InHilprecht Anniversary Volume. Studies in Assyriology and Archaeology Dedicated to Hermann V. Leipzig. pp. 14–19.
^abDandamayev, Muhammad A. (1990)."Cambyses II".Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 7. pp. 726–729.
^abcBriant, Pierre (2000),"Gaumāta",Encyclopedia Iranica, vol. X, fasc. 3, New York: Routledge, Kegan Paul, pp. 333–335.
^Kaper, Olaf E. (2015)."Petubastis IV in the Dakhla Oasis". In Silverman, Jason M.; Waerzeggers, Caroline (eds.).Political memory in and after the Persian empire (SLB monograph, no. 13). Society of Biblical Literature. pp. 125–149.ISBN978-0-88414-089-4.
^Bunson 2002, p. 156, 312. Bunson contradicts himself by first referring to Psammuthes (whom he erroneously calls "Psammetichus") as "the designated son and heir of Nephrites I", but later claims that he "[set] aside the designated heir".
^Hornung, Krauss & Warburton 2006, pp. 280, 594. Achoris (Hakor) is first placed as the immediate successor of Nepherites I, but later as the successor of Psammuthis.
^Mørkholm, Otto (2001) [1991].Early Hellenistic Coinage: From the Accession of Alexander to the Peace of Apamea (336-188 B.C.). Cambridge University Press. p. 197.ISBN0-521-39504-6.
^Depuydt, Leo (1997). "The Time of Death of Alexander the Great: 11 June 323 B.C. (−322), ca. 4:00–5:00 PM".Die Welt des Orients.28:117–135.ISSN0043-2547.JSTOR25683643.
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