TheIslamic Golden Age was a period of cultural, economic and scientific flourishing in thehistory of Islam, traditionally dated from the eighth century to the fourteenth century, with several contemporary scholars[who?] dating the end of the era to the fifteenth or sixteenth century.[3][4][5] This period is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of theAbbasid caliphHarun al-Rashid (786 to 809) with the inauguration of theHouse of Wisdom inBaghdad, where scholars from various parts of the world with different cultural backgrounds were mandated to gather and translate all of the world's classical knowledge into theArabic language and subsequently development in various fields of sciences began.Science and technology in the Islamic world adopted and preserved knowledge and technologies from contemporary and earlier civilizations, including Persia, Egypt, India, China, and Greco-Roman antiquity, while making numerous improvements, innovations and inventions.
Arabesque: The distinctive Arabesque style was developed by the 11th century, having begun in the 8th or 9th century in works like theMshatta Facade.[8][9]
ModernOud: Although string instruments existed before Islam, theoud was developed inIslamic music and was the ancestor of the Europeanlute.[15]
Sulfur-mercury theory of metals: First attested in pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana'sSirr al-khalīqa ("The Secret of Creation", c. 750–850) and in the works attributed toJabir ibn Hayyan (written c. 850–950),[16] the sulfur-mercury theory of metals would remain the basis of all theories of metallic composition until the eighteenth century.[17]
Tin-glazing: The earliest tin-glazed pottery appears to have been made inAbbasid Iraq/Mesopotamia in the 8th-century.[18] The oldest fragments found to-date were excavated from the palace ofSamarra about 80 kilometres (50 miles) north of Baghdad.[19]
Algebra discipline:Al-Khwarizmi is considered the father of the algebra discipline. The wordAlgebra comes from the Arabic الجبر (al-jabr) in the title of his bookIlm al-jabr wa'l-muḳābala. He was the first to treat algebra as an independent discipline in its own right.[22]
Algebraicreduction and balancing,cancellation, andlike terms:Al-Khwarizmi introduced reduction and balancing inalgebra. It refers to the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation, that is, the cancellation oflike terms on opposite sides of the equation, which the termal-jabr (algebra) originally referred to.[23]
Automatic controls: "Although theBanu Musa took Greek models as their starting point, they went well beyond anything achieved by Hero or Philo. In particular, it is their preoccupation with automatic controls that distinguishes them not only from their Greek predecessors but from their Islamic successors."[24]: 23
Chessmanual: The oldest known chess manual was in Arabic and dates to 840–850, written by Al-Adli ar-Rumi (800–870), a renowned Arab chess player, titledKitab ash-shatranj (Book of Chess). During theIslamic Golden Age, many works onshatranj were written, recording for the first time the analysis ofopening moves,game problems, theknight's tour, and many more subjects common in modern chess books.[26]
Automatic crank: The non-manual crank appears in several of the hydraulic devices described by the Banū Mūsā brothers in theirBook of Ingenious Devices.[27] These automatically operated cranks appear in several devices, two of which contain an action which approximates to that of acrankshaft, anticipatingAl-Jazari's invention by several centuries and its first appearance in Europe by over five centuries. However, the automatic crank described by the Banu Musa would not have allowed a full rotation, but only a small modification was required to convert it to a crankshaft.[24]: 23–24
Conicalvalve: A mechanism developed by theBanu Musa, of particular importance for future developments, was the conicalvalve, which was used in a variety of different applications.[24]: 23
Cryptanalysis andfrequency analysis: Incryptology, the first known recorded explanation ofcryptanalysis was given byAl-Kindi (also known as "Alkindus" in Europe), inA Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages. This treatise includes the first description of the method of frequency analysis.[28][29]
Lusterware: Lustre glazes were applied to pottery inMesopotamia in the 9th century; the technique soon became popular inPersia andSyria.[31] Earlier uses of lustre are known.
Hardsoap: Hard toilet soap with a pleasant smell was produced in theMiddle East during theIslamic Golden Age, when soap-making became an established industry. Recipes for soap-making are described byMuhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (c. 865–925), who also gave a recipe for producingglycerine fromolive oil. In the Middle East, soap was produced from the interaction offatty oils andfats withalkali. InSyria, soap was produced using olive oil together with alkali andlime. Soap was exported from Syria to other parts of theMuslim world and to Europe.[32]
Kerosene distillation: Although the Chinese made use of kerosene through extracting and purifying petroleum, the process of distilling crude oil/petroleum into kerosene, as well as other hydrocarbon compounds, was first written about in the 9th century by the Persian scholarRāzi (or Rhazes). In hisKitab al-Asrar (Book of Secrets), the physician and chemist Razi described two methods for the production of kerosene, termednaft abyad ("white naphtha"), using an apparatus called analembic.[34][35]
Kerosene lamp: The first description of a simple lamp using crude mineral oil was provided byPersian alchemistal-Razi (Rhazes) in 9th centuryBaghdad, who referred to it as the "naffatah" in hisKitab al-Asrar (Book of Secrets).[36]
Minaret: The first known minarets appeared in the early 9th century underAbbasid rule.[37]
Kamal: The kamal originated withArab navigators of the late 9th century.[41] The invention of the kamal allowed for the earliest knownlatitude sailing, and was thus the earliest step towards the use ofquantitative methods innavigation.[42]
Alhazen's problem: A theorem by ibn al-Haytham solved only in 1997 by Neumann.
Arabic numerals: The modern Arabic numeral symbols originate from IslamicNorth Africa in the 10th century. A distinctive Western Arabic variant of theEastern Arabic numerals began to emerge around the 10th century in theMaghreb andAl-Andalus (sometimes calledghubar numerals, though the term is not always accepted), which are the direct ancestor of the modern Arabic numerals used throughout the world.[53]
Fountain pen: An early historical mention of what appears to be a reservoir pen dates back to the 10th century. According to Ali Abuzar Mari (d. 974) in hisKitab al-Majalis wa 'l-musayarat, theFatimidcaliphAl-Mu'izz li-Din Allah demanded a pen that would not stain his hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen that held ink in a reservoir, allowing it to be held upside-down without leaking.[60]
Muqarnas: The origin of the muqarnas can be traced back to the mid-tenth century in northeastern Iran and centralNorth Africa,[61] as well as the Mesopotamian region.[62]
Shale oil extraction: In the 10th century, the Arab physicianMasawaih al-Mardini (Mesue the Younger) described a method of extraction of oil from "some kind of bituminous shale".[67]
Snell's law: The law was first accurately described by the Persian scientistIbn Sahl at theBaghdad court in 984. In the manuscriptOn Burning Mirrors and Lenses, ibn Sahl used the law to derive lens shapes that focus light with no geometric aberrations.[68] According toJim al-Khalili, the law should be called ibn Sahl's law.[69]
Vertical-axlewindmill: A small wind wheel operating an organ is described as early as the 1st century AD byHero of Alexandria.[70][71] The first vertical-axle windmills were eventually built inSistan,Persia as described by Muslim geographers. These windmills had long verticaldriveshafts with rectangle shaped blades.[72] They may have been constructed as early as the time of the secondRashiduncaliphUmar (634-644 AD), though some argue that this account may have been a 10th-century amendment.[73] Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind grains and draw up water, and used in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries.[74] Horizontal axle windmills of the type generally used today, however, were developed in Northwestern Europe in the 1180s.[70][71]
Mechanicalflywheel: The mechanicalflywheel, used to smooth out the delivery of power from a driving device to a driven machine and, essentially, to allow lifting water from far greater depths (up to 200 metres), was first employed by Ibn Bassal (fl. 1038–1075), ofAl-Andalus.[80][81][82]
Optic chiasm: The crossing of nerve fibres, and the impact on vision that this had, was first clearly identified by Persian physician "Esmail Jorjani", who appears to beZayn al-Din Gorgani (1042–1137).[86] The optic chiasm was earlier theorized byIbn al-Haytham in the early 11th century.[87]
Paper packaging: The earliest recorded use of paper for packaging dates back to 1035, when aPersian traveler visiting markets inCairo noted that vegetables, spices and hardware were wrapped in paper for the customers after they were sold.[88]
Bridge mill: The bridge mill was a unique type ofwatermill that was built as part of thesuperstructure of a bridge. The earliest record of a bridge mill is fromCórdoba, Spain in the 12th century.[89]
Fritware: It refers to a type of pottery which was first developed in the Near East, beginning in the late 1st millennium, for whichfrit was a significant ingredient. A recipe for "fritware" dating to c. 1300 AD written by Abu’l Qasim reports that the ratio of quartz to "frit-glass" to white clay is 10:1:1.[90] This type of pottery has also been referred to as "stonepaste" and "faience" among other names.[91] A 9th-century corpus of "proto-stonepaste" fromBaghdad has "relict glass fragments" in its fabric.[92]
Mercury clock: A detailed account of technology inIslamic Spain was compiled underAlfonso X of Castile between 1276 and 1279, which included a compartmentedmercury clock, which was influential up until the 17th century.[93] It was described in theLibros del saber de Astronomia, aSpanish work from 1277 consisting of translations and paraphrases of Arabic works.[94]
Mariotte's bottle: TheLibros del saber de Astronomia describes awater clock which employs the principle of Mariotte's bottle.[93]
Metabolism: Although Greek philosophers described processes of metabolism,Ibn al-Nafees is the first scholar to describe metabolism as "a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment".[95]
Inheritance of hemophilia: First proposed byAbu Al-Zahrawi was first to record and suggest thathemophilia was an inherited disease.[97]
Anesthetic sponge: Invented by al-Zahrawi and Ibn Zuhr. Used a sponge soaked with narcotic drugs and placed it on patient's face.[98] These Muslim physicians were the first to use an anesthetic sponge.[99]
Water and weight driven mechanical clocks: By Spanish Muslim engineers sometime between 900 and 1200. According to historian Will Durant, a watch-like device was invented byIbn Firnas.
Hispano-Moresque ware: This was a style ofIslamic pottery created in Arab Spain, after theMoors had introduced two ceramic techniques to Europe:glazing with anopaque white tin-glaze, and painting in metallic lusters. Hispano-Moresque ware was distinguished from the pottery of Christendom by the Islamic character of its decoration.[107]
Polar-axissundial: Early sundials were nodus-based with straight hour-lines, indicating unequal hours (also called temporary hours) that varied with the seasons, since every day was divided into twelve equal segments; thus, hours were shorter in winter and longer in summer. The idea of using hours of equal time length throughout the year was the innovation ofAbu'l-Hasan Ibn al-Shatir in 1371, based on earlier developments intrigonometry byMuhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī (Albategni). Ibn al-Shatir was aware that "using agnomon that is parallel to the Earth's axis will produce sundials whose hour lines indicate equal hours on any day of the year." His sundial is the oldest polar-axis sundial still in existence. The concept later appeared in Western sundials from at least 1446.[108][109]
Variousautomatons:Al-Jazari's inventions included automaton peacocks, a hand-washing automaton, and a musical band of automatons.[111][112][113]
Candle clock withdial andfastening mechanism: The earliest reference of the candle clock is described in a Chinese poem by You Jiangu (AD 520), However the most sophisticated candle clocks known, were those ofAl-Jazari in 1206.[114] It included adial to display the time.[citation needed]
Design and construction methods: English technology historianDonald Hill wrote, "We see for the first time in al-Jazari's work several concepts important for both design and construction: thelamination of timber to minimize warping, thestatic balancing of wheels, the use of woodentemplates (a kind of pattern), the use ofpaper models to establish designs, thecalibration of orifices, the grinding of the seats and plugs of valves together withemery powder to obtain a watertight fit, and thecasting of metals in closedmold boxes withsand."[117]
Draw bar: The draw bar was applied to sugar-milling, with evidence of its use atDelhi in theMughal Empire by 1540, but possibly dating back several centuries earlier to theDelhi Sultanate.[118]
Minimisingintermittence: The concept of minimising the intermittence is first implied in one ofAl-Jazari'ssaqiya devices, which was to maximise the efficiency of the saqiya.[119]
Programmableautomaton anddrum machine: The earliest programmableautomata, and the first programmable drum machine, were invented byAl-Jazari, and described inThe Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, written in 1206. His programmable musical device featured four automaton musicians, including two drummers, that floated on a lake to entertain guests at royal drinking parties. It was a programmable drum machine where pegs (cams) bump into little levers that operated the percussion. The drummers could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns if the pegs were moved around.[120]
Tusi couple: The couple was first proposed by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi in his 1247 Tahrir al-Majisti (Commentary on the Almagest) as a solution for the latitudinal motion of the inferior planets. The Tusi couple is explicitly two circles of radii x and 2x in which the circle with the smaller radii rotates inside the Bigger circle. The oscillatory motion be produced by the combined uniform circular motions of two identical circles, one riding on the circumference of the other.
Coffee: Although there are early historical accounts of coffee consumption ( asqahwa) in Ethiopia, it is not clear whether it was "used" as a beverage.[125] The earliest historical evidence of coffee drinking appears in the middle of the 15th century, in theSufi monasteries of theYemen in southern Arabia.[126][127] FromMocha, coffee spread toEgypt and North Africa,[128] and by the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East,Persia andTurkey. From theMuslim world, coffee drinking spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, and coffee plants were transported by the Dutch to theEast Indies and to the Americas.[129]
Iznik pottery: Produced inOttomanTurkey as early as the 15th century AD.[130] It consists of a body,slip, and glaze, where the body and glaze are "quartz-frit."[131] The "frits" in both cases "are unusual in that they containlead oxide as well assoda"; the lead oxide would help reduce thethermal expansion coefficient of the ceramic.[132] Microscopic analysis reveals that the material that has been labeled "frit" is "interstitial glass" which serves to connect the quartz particles.[133]
Standing army withfirearms: The Ottoman military's regularized use of firearms proceeded ahead of the pace of their European counterparts. TheJanissaries had been an infantry bodyguard using bows and arrows. During the rule ofSultan Mehmed II they were drilled with firearms and became "the first standing infantry force equipped with firearms in the world."[134]
16th century
Firearm kneeling position: At theBattle of Mohács in 1526, the Janissaries equipped with 2000tüfenks (usually translated as musket) "formed nine consecutive rows and they fired their weapons row by row," in a "kneeling or standing position without the need for additional support or rest."[135] The Chinese later adopted the Ottoman kneeling position for firing.[136]
Steam jack: Asteam-poweredroasting jack was first described by the Ottoman polymath and engineerTaqi al-Din in hisAl-Turuq al-samiyya fi al-alat al-ruhaniyya (The Sublime Methods of Spiritual Machines), in 1551 CE (959 AH). It was an impulsesteam turbine with practical applications as a prime mover for rotating aspit, predatingGiovanni Branca's later impulse steam turbine from 1629.[141]
ClassicalOriental carpet: By the late fifteenth century, the design ofPersian carpets changed considerably. Large-format medallions appeared, ornaments began to show elaborate curvilinear designs. Large spirals and tendrils, floral ornaments, depictions of flowers and animals, were often mirrored along the long or short axis of the carpet to obtain harmony and rhythm. The earlier "kufic" border design was replaced by tendrils andarabesques. All these patterns required a more elaborate system of weaving, as compared to weaving straight, rectilinear lines. Likewise, they require artists to create the design, weavers to execute them on the loom, and an efficient way to communicate the artist's ideas to the weaver. Today this is achieved by a template, termed cartoon (Ford, 1981, p. 170[142]). How Safavid manufacturers achieved this, technically, is currently unknown. The result of their work, however, was whatKurt Erdmann termed the "carpet design revolution".[143] Apparently, the new designs were developed first by miniature painters, as they started to appear in book illuminations and on book covers as early as in the fifteenth century. This marks the first time when the "classical" design of Islamic rugs was established.[144]
Hookah orwater pipe: according to Cyril Elgood (PP.41, 110), the physician Irfan Shaikh, at the court of the Mughal emperorAkbar I (1542–1605) invented the Hookah or water pipe used most commonly for smokingtobacco.[145][146][147][148]
Metal cylinderrocket: In the 16th century,Akbar was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder rockets known asbans, particularly againstwar elephants, during the Battle of Sanbal.[149][better source needed]
Multi-barrelmatchlockvolley gun:Fathullah Shirazi (c. 1582), a Persian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked forAkbar, developed an early multi-shot gun. Shirazi's gun had multiplegun barrels that firedhand cannons loaded with gunpowder. It may be considered a version of a volley gun.[150] One such gun he developed was a seventeen-barrelled cannon fired with amatchlock.[151]
^Hassan, Ahmad Y (1996)."Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century". In Sharifah Shifa Al-Attas (ed.).Islam and the Challenge of Modernity, Proceedings of the Inaugural Symposium on Islam and the Challenge of Modernity: Historical and Contemporary Contexts, Kuala Lumpur, 1–5 August 1994. International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization (ISTAC). pp. 351–99. Archived fromthe original on 2 April 2015.
^Kraus, Paul (1942–1943).Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque. Cairo: Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale.ISBN9783487091150.OCLC468740510.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) vol. I, pp. xvii–lxv.
^Norris, John (2006). "The Mineral Exhalation Theory of Metallogenesis in Pre-Modern Mineral Science".Ambix.53 (1):43–65.doi:10.1179/174582306X93183.S2CID97109455.
^Mason, Robert B. (1995), "New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World",Muqarnas: Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture,XII, Brill Academic Publishers:1–10,doi:10.2307/1523219,ISBN90-04-10314-7,JSTOR1523219.
^Shepherd, William (2011).Electricity Generation Using Wind Power (1 ed.). Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. p. 4.ISBN978-981-4304-13-9.
^Gandz, S. (1936), "The Sources of Al-Khowārizmī's Algebra",Osiris,1:263–277,doi:10.1086/368426,S2CID60770737, page 263–277: "In a sense, al-Khwarizmi is more entitled to be called "the father of algebra" than Diophantus because al-Khwarizmi is the first to teach algebra in an elementary form and for its own sake, Diophantus is primarily concerned with the theory of numbers".
^Boyer, Carl B. (1991),A History of Mathematics (2nd ed.), John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,ISBN978-0-471-54397-8,The Arabic Hegemony, p. 229: "It is not certain just what the termsal-jabr andmuqabalah mean, but the usual interpretation is similar to that implied in the translation above. The wordal-jabr presumably meant something like "restoration" or "completion" and seems to refer to the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation; the wordmuqabalah is said to refer to "reduction" or "balancing" – that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation".
^Kraus, Paul (1942–1943).Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque. Cairo:Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale.ISBN9783487091150.OCLC468740510.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Vol. II, pp. 41–42. On the dating of the writings attributed to Jābir, see Kraus 1942−1943, vol. I, pp. xvii–lxv.
^A. F. L. Beeston, M. J. L. Young, J. D. Latham, Robert Bertram Serjeant (1990),The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature,Cambridge University Press, p. 266,ISBN0-521-32763-6{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Broemeling, Lyle D. (1 November 2011). "An Account of Early Statistical Inference in Arab Cryptology".The American Statistician.65 (4):255–257.doi:10.1198/tas.2011.10191.S2CID123537702.
^Al-Kadi, Ibrahim A. (1992). "The origins of cryptology: The Arab contributions".Cryptologia.16 (2):97–126.doi:10.1080/0161-119291866801.
^David A. King, "Islamic Astronomy", in Christopher Walker (1999), ed., Astronomy before the telescope, p. 167-168. British Museum Press.ISBN0-7141-2733-7.
^Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe",Technology and Culture46 (1): 1-30 [10-1 & 27]
^Berggren, J. Lennart (2007). "Mathematics in Medieval Islam".The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook. Princeton University Press. p. 518.ISBN978-0-691-11485-9.
^Bosworth, C. E. (1981). "A Mediaeval Islamic Prototype of the Fountain Pen?".Journal of Semitic Studies.26 (1):229–234.doi:10.1093/jss/26.2.229.We wish to construct a pen which can be used for writing without having recourse to an ink-holder and whose ink will be contained inside it. A person can fill it with ink and write whatever he likes. The writer can put it in his sleeve or anywhere he wishes and it will not stain nor will any drop of ink leak out of it. The ink will flow only when there is an intention to write. We are unaware of anyone previously ever constructing (a pen such as this) and an indication of 'penetrating wisdom' to whoever contemplates it and realises its exact significance and purpose. I exclaimed, 'Is this possible?' He replied, 'It is possible if God so wills'.
^Stephennie, Mulder (2014).The Shrines of the 'Alids in Medieval Syria : sunnis, shi'is and the architecture of coexistence. Edinburgh University Press.ISBN9780748645794.OCLC929836186.
^Forbes, Robert James (1970).A Short History of the Art of Distillation from the Beginnings Up to the Death of Cellier Blumenthal.Brill Publishers. pp. 41–42.ISBN978-90-04-00617-1.
^Rashed, Roshdi (1990). "A pioneer in anaclastics: Ibn Sahl on burning mirrors and lenses".Isis.81 (3):464–491.doi:10.1086/355456.S2CID144361526.
^abDietrich Lohrmann, "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle",Archiv für Kulturgeschichte, Vol. 77, Issue 1 (1995), pp.1-30 (10f.)
^Ahmad Y Hassan, Donald Routledge Hill (1986).Islamic Technology: An illustrated history, p. 54. Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-42239-6.
^Dietrich Lohrmann (199786543). "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle",Archiv für Kulturgeschichte77 (1), p. 1-30 (8).
^Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East",Scientific American, May 1991, pp. 64-9 (cf. Donald Routledge Hill,Mechanical EngineeringArchived 25 December 2007 at theWayback Machine)
^Parker, L. M., "Medieval Traders as International Change Agents: A Comparison with Twentieth Century International Accounting Firms,"The Accounting Historians Journal, 16(2) (1989): 107–118.
^MEDIEVAL TRADERS AS INTERNATIONAL CHANGE AGENTS: A COMMENT, Michael Scorgie, The Accounting Historians Journal, Vol. 21, No. 1 (June 1994), pp. 137-143
"Three scientists, Ibn al-Haytham, Khayyam and al-Tūsī, had made the most considerable contribution to this branch of geometry whose importance came to be completely recognized only in the 19th century. In essence their propositions concerning the properties of quadrangles which they considered assuming that some of the angles of these figures were acute of obtuse, embodied the first few theorems of the hyperbolic and the elliptic geometries. Their other proposals showed that various geometric statements were equivalent to the Euclidean postulate V. It is extremely important that these scholars established the mutual connection between this postulate and the sum of the angles of a triangle and a quadrangle. By their works on the theory of parallel lines Arab mathematicians directly influenced the relevant investigations of their European counterparts. The first European attempt to prove the postulate on parallel lines – made by Witelo, the Polish scientists of the 13th century, while revising Ibn al-Haytham'sBook of Optics (Kitab al-Manazir) – was undoubtedly prompted by Arabic sources. The proofs put forward in the 14th century by the Jewish scholarLevi ben Gerson, who lived in southern France, and by the above-mentioned Alfonso from Spain directly border on Ibn al-Haytham's demonstration. Above, we have demonstrated thatPseudo-Tusi's Exposition of Euclid had stimulated both J. Wallis's and G. Saccheri's studies of the theory of parallel lines."
^Kriss, Timothy C.; Kriss, Vesna Martich (April 1998). "History of the Operating Microscope: From Magnifying Glass to Micro neurosurgery".Neurosurgery.42 (4):899–907.doi:10.1097/00006123-199804000-00116.PMID9574655.
^Letcher, Trevor M. (2017).Wind energy engineering: a handbook for onshore and offshore wind turbines.Academic Press. pp. 127–143.ISBN978-0128094518.Ibn Bassal (AD 1038–75) of Al Andalus (Andalusia) pioneered the use of a flywheel mechanism in the noria and saqiya to smooth out the delivery of power from the driving device to the driven machine
^Maillard, Adam P. Fraise, Peter A. Lambert, Jean-Yves (2007).Principles and Practice of Disinfection, Preservation and Sterilization. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons. p. 4.ISBN978-0470755068.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Adam Robert, Lucas (2005). "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe".Technology and Culture.46 (1): 1–30 [10].doi:10.1353/tech.2005.0026.S2CID109564224.
^Davis, Matthew C.; Griessenauer, Christoph J.; Bosmia, Anand N.; Tubbs, R. Shane; Shoja, Mohammadali M. (1 January 2014). "The naming of the cranial nerves: A historical review".Clinical Anatomy.27 (1):14–19.doi:10.1002/ca.22345.ISSN1098-2353.PMID24323823.S2CID15242391.
^Diana Twede (2005)."The Origins of Paper Based Packaging"(PDF).Conference on Historical Analysis & Research in Marketing Proceedings.12: 288–300 [289]. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on July 16, 2011. RetrievedMarch 20, 2010.
^Lucas, Adam (2006),Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology, Brill Publishers, pp. 62 & 64,ISBN90-04-14649-0
^Bernsted, A.K. (2003), "Early Islamic Pottery: Materials and Techniques, London: Archetype Publications Ltd., 25; R.B. Mason and M.S. Tite 1994, The Beginnings of Islamic Stonepaste Technology",Archaeometry,36 (1):77–91,doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.1994.tb00712.x.
^abCosman, Madeleine Pelner; Jones, Linda Gale (2008).Handbook to Life in the Medieval World. Handbook to Life Series. Vol. 2.Infobase Publishing. pp. 528–530.ISBN978-0-8160-4887-8.
^Hunke S (1960).Allahs Sonne über dem Abendland: unser arabisches Erbe (in German) (2 ed.). Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt. pp. 279–80.ISBN978-3-596-23543-8. Retrieved13 September 2010.The science of medicine has gained a great and extremely important discovery and that is the use of general anaesthetics for surgical operations, and how unique, efficient, and merciful for those who tried it the Muslim anaesthetic was. It was quite different from the drinks the Indians, Romans and Greeks were forcing their patients to have for relief of pain. There had been some allegations to credit this discovery to an Italian or to an Alexandrian, but the truth is and history proves that, the art of using the anaesthetic sponge is a pure Muslim technique, which was not known before. The sponge used to be dipped and left in a mixture prepared from cannabis, opium, hyoscyamus and a plant called Zoan.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^Butt, Arthur J. (1956).Etiologic Factors in Renal Lithiasis. page 15
^Missori, Paolo; Brunetto, Giacoma M.; Domenicucci, Maurizio (2012). "Origin of the Cannula for Tracheotomy During the Middle Ages and Renaissance".World Journal of Surgery.36 (4):928–934.doi:10.1007/s00268-012-1435-1.PMID22311135.S2CID3121262.
^Aschoff, A; Kremer, Paul; Hashemi, Bahram; Kunze, Stefan (1999). "The scientific history of hydrocephalus and its treatment".Neurosurgical Review.22 (2–3):67–93.doi:10.1007/s101430050035.PMID10547004.S2CID10077885.
^Davila, Carl (2009). "Fixing a Misbegotten Biography: Ziryab in the Mediterranean World".Islam in the Medieval Mediterranean. Vol. 21, no. 2. Al-Masaq.
^Jones, Lawrence (December 2005). "The Sundial And Geometry".North American Sundial Society.12 (4).
^Howard R. Turner, Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction (University of Texas Press, 2006) p: 166
^Fowler, Charles B. (October 1967). "The Museum of Music: A History of Mechanical Instruments".Music Educators Journal.54 (2):45–49.doi:10.2307/3391092.JSTOR3391092.S2CID190524140.
^Streusand, Douglas E. (2011).Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals. Philadelphia: Westview Press. p. 83.ISBN978-0813313597.
^Ágoston, Gábor (2008),Guns for the Sultan: Military Power and the Weapons Industry in the Ottoman Empire, Cambridge University Press, p. 24,ISBN978-0521603911
^Needham, Joseph (1986),Science & Civilisation in China, vol. V:7:The Gunpowder Epic, Cambridge University Press, pp. 449–452,ISBN0-521-30358-3
^Bowles, Edmund A. (2006), "The impact of Turkish military bands on European court festivals in the 17th and 18th centuries",Early Music,34 (4), Oxford University Press:533–60,doi:10.1093/em/cal103,S2CID159617891
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^Roddam Narasimha (1985),Rockets in Mysore and Britain, 1750–1850 A.D.Archived 27 September 2007 at theWayback Machine, National Aeronautical Laboratory and Indian Institute of Science"Hyder Ali, prince of Mysore, developed war rockets with an important change: the use of metal cylinders to contain the combustion powder. Although the hammered soft iron he used was crude, the bursting strength of the container of black powder was much higher than the earlier paper construction. Thus a greater internal pressure was possible, with a resultant greater thrust of the propulsive jet. The rocket body was lashed with leather thongs to a long bamboo stick. Range was perhaps up to three-quarters of a mile (more than a kilometre). Although individually these rockets were not accurate, dispersion error became less important when large numbers were fired rapidly in mass attacks. They were particularly effective against cavalry and were hurled into the air, after lighting, or skimmed along the hard dry ground. Hyder Ali's son,Tippu Sultan, continued to develop and expand the use of rocket weapons, reportedly increasing the number of rocket troops from 1,200 to a corps of 5,000. In battles atSeringapatam in 1792 and 1799 these rockets were used with considerable effect against the British." – Encyclopædia Britannica (2008).rocket and missile.
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