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In principle, conspiracy theories might not always be false, andtheir validity depends on evidence as for any theory. However, they are often implausibleprima facie due to theirconvoluted and all-encompassing nature.[3] Conspiracy theories tend to be internally consistent and correlate with each other;[4] they are generally designed to resistfalsification either by evidence against them or a lack of evidence for them.[5]
Some theories claim that the dates of historical events have been deliberately distorted. These include thephantom time hypothesis of German conspiracy theorist[9] Heribert Illig, who in 1991 published an allegation that 297 years had been added to the calendar by establishment figures such asPope Sylvester II in order to position themselves at themillennium.[10]
A comparable theory,new chronology, is associated with Russian theoristAnatoly Fomenko, who holds that history is many centuries shorter than widely believed, numerous historical documents have been fabricated, and legitimate documents destroyed, all for political ends. Adherents have included chess grandmasterGarry Kasparov.[11]
TheMoriori were a group of Polynesians who left the New Zealand mainland for theChatham Islands in 1500AD.[14] Some historians in the 1800s proposed that the Moriori were a pre-Māori civilization which some theorists still believe to be true despite it being disproven.[15]
A 1680 map depicting an area labelled as Tartaria. Proponents of the theory suggest that the area shown is evidence of the Kingdom ofTartaria, whilst others refute this saying that it simply depictsTartary which is an area not part of any kingdom.[21]
Another claim is that world governments have hidden evidence for an advanced worldwide civilization with access to free energy and partially populated by giants called Tartaria, which was destroyed in the 1800s by a great "mud flood" cataclysm, causing its remains to be buried.[22]
This conspiracy theory emerged in the US in the 1960s. TheJohn Birch Society originally promoted[24] it, asserting that aUnited Nations force would soon arrive in black helicopters to bring the US under UN control. A similar theory concerning so-called "phantom helicopters" appeared in the UK in the 1970s.[25] The theory re-emerged in the 1990s during the presidency ofBill Clinton, and was "energetically" promoted by writerJim Keith in his bookBlack Helicopters Over America. By the 2000s, the term "black helicopters" became a shorthand for anti-government conspiracy theories that "stretch the bounds of credulity",[26] such as those espoused by militia groups and a number of guests of talk show hostGlenn Beck.[27][28]
A high-flying jet's engines leaving a condensation trail (contrail)
Also known as SLAP (Secret Large-scale Atmospheric Program), this theory alleges that water condensation trails ("contrails") from aircraft consist of chemical or biological agents, or contain a supposedly toxic mix ofaluminum,strontium andbarium,[29] under secret government policies. An estimated 17% of people globally believe the theory to be true or partly true. In 2016, theCarnegie Institution for Science published the first-ever peer-reviewed study of the chemtrail theory; 76 out of 77 participating atmospheric chemists and geochemists stated that they had seen no evidence to support the chemtrail theory or stated that chemtrail theorists rely on poorsampling.[30][31]
Korean Air Lines Flight 007
The destruction ofKorean Air Lines Flight 007 by Soviet jets in 1983 has long drawnthe interest of conspiracy theorists. The theories range from allegations of a planned espionage mission, to a US government cover-up, to the consumption of the passengers' remains by giant crabs.[32]
The disappearance ofMalaysia Airlines Flight 370 in southeast Asia in March 2014 has prompted many theories. One theory suggests that this plane was hidden away and reintroduced asFlight MH17 later the same year in order to be shot down over Ukraine for political purposes. American conspiracy theoristJames H. Fetzer has placed responsibility for the disappearance with the then Israeli prime ministerBenjamin Netanyahu.[33] HistorianNorman Davies has promoted the conspiracy theory that hackers remotely took over aBoeing Uninterruptible Autopilot, supposedly installed on board, remotely piloting the aircraft to Antarctica.[34][35]
Malaysia Airlines Flight MH17
Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 was shot down over Ukraine in July 2014. This event has spawned numerous alternative theories. These variously include allegations that it was secretlyFlight MH370, that the plane was actually shot down by theUkrainian Air Force toframe Russia, that it was part of a conspiracy to conceal the "truth" aboutHIV (seven disease specialists were on board), or that theIlluminati or Israel was responsible.[33][36]
Business and industry
Deepwater Horizon
Multiple conspiracy theories pertain toa fatal oil-rig industrial accident in 2010 in theGulf of Mexico, alleging sabotage by those seeking to promote environmentalism, or a strike by North Korean or Russian submarines. Elements of such theories had been suggested or promoted by US radio hostRush Limbaugh.[37][38]
A theory claims thatthe Coca-Cola Company intentionally changed to an inferior formula withNew Coke, with the intent either of driving up demand for the original product or permitting the reintroduction of the original with a new formula using cheaper ingredients.[39] Coca-Cola presidentDonald Keough rebutted this charge: "The truth is, we're not that dumb, and we're not that smart."[40]
Deaths and disappearances
Death of Nero
In ancient times, widespread conspiracy theories were circulated pertaining to thedeath of the Roman emperor Nero, who committed suicide in 68 AD.[41] Some of these theories claimed that Nero had actually faked his death and was secretly still alive, but in hiding, plotting to reestablish his reign.[41] In most of these stories, he was said to have fled to the East, where he was still influential.[41] Other theories held that Nero would return from the dead to retake his throne.[41] Manyearly Christians feared Nero's return to resume hisvicious anti-Christian persecutions.[41] TheBook of Revelation may allude to these conspiracy theories in its description of the slaughtered head returned to life.[41]
Multipleconspiracy theories concerning the assassination of John F. Kennedy in 1963 have emerged.[42]Vincent Bugliosi estimated that over 1,000 books had been written about the Kennedy assassination,[43] at least ninety percent of which are works supporting the view that there was a conspiracy.[43] As a result of this, the Kennedy assassination has been described as "the mother of all conspiracies".[44][45] The countless individuals and organizations that have been accused of involvement in the Kennedy assassination include theCIA, theMafia, sittingVice PresidentLyndon B. Johnson,Cuban Prime MinisterFidel Castro, theKGB, or even some combination thereof.[46][43] It is also frequently asserted that the United States federal government intentionally covered up crucial information in the aftermath of the assassination to prevent the conspiracy from being discovered.[46]
At approximately 12:20pm on 17 December 1967, then–Prime Minister of AustraliaHarold Holt disappeared while swimming atCheviot Beach, near the town ofPortsea inVictoria. While it is presumed that Holt drowned, the topic is still described as one of the biggest unsolved mysteries in Australian history and has spawned many conspiracy theories.[47] The conspiracy theories have been widely criticised by the public and by members of Holt's own family.
In 2007, television presenterRay Martin hosted the television specialWho Killed Harold Holt?, which first aired on theNine Network on 20 November 2007. While the special explored numerous theories about Holt's disappearance, it gave particular credence to the theory that he committedsuicide.[48] In the lead-up to the airing of the program, Holt's biographer,Tom Frame, described the allegations made in the special as "unjustified and contrary to all the evidence" in an opinion piece published inThe Australian newspaper, while Holt's son, Sam, said he was "amazed that people can still keep bringing up [these] fallacious theories".
The disappearance, and often presumed death, of an individual may also become a cause for conspiracy theorists. Theories of a cover-up surrounding the 1974disappearance of Lord Lucan following the murder of his family's nanny include, for example, allegations of a suicide plot whereby his body was fed to tigers atHowletts Zoo.[81][82][83] Numerous conspiracy theories have also attended the 2007 disappearance of English girlMadeleine McCann.[84]
The New World Order theory states that a group of international elites control governments, industry, and media organizations, with the goal of establishing global hegemony. They are alleged to be implicated in most of the major wars of the last two centuries, to carry out secretly staged events, and to deliberately manipulate economies.
Many theorists allege that the contents of fictional media, in a process called "predictive programming", are manipulated to reference plannedfalse flags, technological innovations, social changes, and other future events.[97] These references are understood to be a conditioning andbrainwashing tool, such that the public becomes more accepting of these events than they would be otherwise.[97][98] Predictive programming has been used to explain events such as theSeptember 11 attacks,COVID-19 pandemic, andthe assassination of Charlie Kirk has been connected with media such asDie Hard,The Simpsons,Contagion, and even anime (such asBlue Gender).[97][99]
Hungarian-American investorGeorge Soros has been thesubject of conspiracy theories since the 1990s. Soros has used his wealth to promote many political, social, educational and scientific causes, disbursing grants totaling an estimated $11 billion up to 2016. However, theories tend to assert that Soros is in control of a large portion of the world's wealth and governments, and that he secretly funds a large range of persons and organizations for nefarious purposes, such asantifa, which some conspiracy theorists claim is a single far-left militant group. Such ideas have been promoted byViktor Orbán,Donald Trump,[100]Rudy Giuliani,[101]Joseph diGenova,[102]Bill O'Reilly,Roy Moore,Alex Jones,Paul Gosar, andBen Garrison. Soros conspiracy theories are sometimes linked toantisemitic conspiracy theories.[103]
Conspiracy theories in Turkey started to dominate public discourse during the late reign of theJustice and Development Party andRecep Tayyip Erdoğan.[107] In 2014, Erdoğan coined the termüst akıl ("mastermind") to denote the alleged command and control institution, somewhat ambiguously placed with the government of the United States, in a comprehensive conspiracy to weaken or even dismember Turkey, by orchestrating every political actor and action perceived hostile by Turkey.[108][109][107] Erdoğan as well as theDaily Sabah newspaper have on multiple occasions alleged that very different non-state actors—like the Salafi jihadistIslamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), the libertarian socialistKurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) and supporters ofFethullah Gülen—were attacking Turkey at the same time in a well-coordinated campaign.[110]
One instance of promoting the "mastermind" conspiracy theory occurred in February 2017, when then-Ankara MayorMelih Gökçek claimed that earthquakes in the western province of Çanakkale could have been organized by dark external powers aiming to destroy Turkey's economy with an "artificial earthquake" near Istanbul.[111] In another example, in November 2017, theIslamist newspaperYeni Akit claimed that the fashion trend of "ripped denim" jeans was in fact a means of communication, via specific forms of rips and holes, between agents of foreign states and their collaborators in Turkey.[112]
There are conspiracy theories alleging that Israel uses animals to conduct espionage or to attack people. These are often associated with conspiracy theories aboutZionism. Matters of interest to theorists include a series ofshark attacks in Egypt in 2010,Hezbollah's accusations of the use of "spying" eagles,[113] and the 2011 capture of agriffon vulture carrying an Israeli-labeledsatellite tracking device.[114]
Conspiracy theories concerningMalala Yousafzai are widespread inPakistan, elements of which originate from a 2013 satirical piece inDawn. These theories variously allege that she is a Western spy, or that her attempted murder by theTaliban in 2012 was a secret operation to further discredit the Taliban, and was organized by her father and theCIA and carried out by actorRobert de Niro disguised as anUzbekhomeopath.[118][119][120][121]
Reptilian conspiracies, a prominent topic inufology theories, have also been linked to anti-semitism as "a very old trope with disturbing links to anti-immigrant and antisemitic hostilities dating to the 19th century."[76][133][134] Conspiracy authorDavid Icke suggested numerous Jewish political figures asreptilian shapeshifters stating that the JewishRothschild family is part of a bloodline of reptilian humanoids that secretly control the world".[135] Critics contend these theories to be antisemitic although Icke denies animosity towards Jewish people.[134] Other far-rightufologists speculate that theJewish race originated from genetic engineering by malevolent extraterrestrials engaged in an interstellar conflict withAnunnaki orPleiadians.[136]
Conspiracy theories that allege that the Armenians wield secret political power are prevalent inAzerbaijan[137] and have been promoted by the government,[138] including PresidentIlham Aliyev.[139][140][141] Turkish foreign ministerMevlüt Çavuşoğlu has claimed that the Russian media is run by Armenians.[142] American writer and disbarred lawyerSamuel Weems[143] has claimed that theArmenian genocide was a hoax designed to defraud Christian nations of billions of dollars, and that theArmenian Church instigates terrorist attacks.[144] Filmmaker Davud Imanov has accused the Armenians of plotting against Azerbaijan and has claimed that theKarabakh movement was a plot by theCIA to destroy theSoviet Union.[145]
Iran'sBaháʼí Faith minority has been the target of conspiracy theories alleging involvement with hostile powers. Iranian government officials and others have claimed that Baháʼís have been variously agents of theRussian,British,American orIsraeli governments.[146] An apocryphal and historically inaccurate book published in Iran, entitledThe Memoirs of Count Dolgoruki, details a theory that the Bahá'ís intend to destroy Islam. Such anti-Baháʼí accusations have been dismissed as having no factual foundation.[147][148][149]
Since the ProtestantReformation of the 16th century, theories about Catholic conspiracies have taken many forms, including the 17th-centuryPopish Plot allegations,[150] claims by persons such asWilliam Blackstone thatCatholics posed a secret threat to Britain, and numerous writings by authors such asSamuel Morse,Rebecca Reed,Avro Manhattan,Jack Chick andAlberto Rivera. Theorists often claim that thePope is theAntichrist, accuse Catholics of suppressing evidence incompatible with Church teachings, and describe Catholics as being involved with secret evil rituals, crimes, and other plots.
In 1853, the Scottish ministerAlexander Hislop published his anti-Catholic pamphletThe Two Babylons,[151] in which he claims that theCatholic Church is secretly a continuation of thepagan religion of ancientBabylon, the product of a millennia-old conspiracy founded by the Biblical kingNimrod and the Assyrian queenSemiramis.[151] It also claims that modern Catholic holidays, includingChristmas andEaster, are actually pagan festivals established by Semiramis and that the customs associated with them are pagan rituals. Modern scholars have unanimously rejected the book's arguments as erroneous and based on a flawed understanding of Babylonian religion,[151] but variations of them are still accepted among some groups ofevangelicalProtestants.[151] TheJehovah's Witnesses periodicalThe Watchtower frequently published excerpts from it until the 1980s.[152] The book's thesis has also featured prominently in the conspiracy theories ofracist groups, such asThe Covenant, The Sword, and the Arm of the Lord.[153]
During the 1930s and 1940s, neo-PaganHeinrich Himmler organized a branch of theSS to do an extensive survey of witch-hunt trial records across Europe, with the intention to use it asanti-Christian propaganda by claiming the inquisition had been a repression of an indigenousVölkisch Norse-Germanic nature religion, and using it as evidence for reconstructing that religion.[170]
Bible conspiracy theories posit that significant parts of theNew Testament are false, or have been omitted. Various groups both real (such as theVatican) and fake (such as thePriory of Sion) are said to suppress relevant information concerning, for example, the dating of theShroud of Turin.[177] Much of this line of conspiracy theory has been stimulated by a debunked book titledThe Holy Blood and the Holy Grail (1982), which claimed thatJesus andMary Magdalene were lovers and that their offspring and descendants were secretly hidden in Europe following the death of Jesus, from whom the then-living FrenchdraughtsmanPierre Plantard claimed descent. Interest in this hoax saw a resurgence following the publication ofDan Brown's 2003 novelThe Da Vinci Code.[178]The Gospel of Afranius, an atheistic Russian work published in 1995 with an English translation published in 2022, proposes politically motivated gaslighting as the origin of the foundational Christian belief in theresurrection of Jesus.[179]
Paul the Apostle makes an appearance in some variants of the medieval Jewish anti-Christian polemic,Toledot Yeshu, as a spy for therabbis.[181] Muslims have long believed that Paul purposefully corrupted theoriginal revealed teachings of Jesus[182][183][184] by introducing elements ofpaganism,[185] the theology ofthe cross,[186] and the idea oforiginal sin producing the need forredemption.[187] TheBaháʼí Faith also regards Paul as a false or misguided preacher who corrupted Jesus's original message. In this sense, he is seen as the real "Judas" who betrayed Jesus.[188]
"The Plan" is an alleged plot by white power brokers inWashington, D.C., to take control of the city's local government from African Americans, who were a majority of the city's population from the late 1950s to the early 2010s and remain its largest ethnic group.[199][200]
Fandom, celebrity relationships, and shipping
Numerous conspiracy theories surround the desire by followers of afandom for twocelebrities to be in aromantic and/orsexual relationship, known asshipping.[201] Many real-person shipping conspiracy theories involve claims that the pregnancies and children of partnered or married celebrity couples are fake.[202] Proponents of celebrity shipping conspiracies that ship two celebrities of the same gender typically argue that they are being pro-LGBT by supporting two people who are forcibly closeted by a homophobic industry.[203]Conspiracy communities about celebrity relationships tend to be created and dominated by women.[202]
Larries are a group of shipping conspiracy theorist fans, centered around the idea that two members of the boy bandOne Direction,Harry Styles andLouis Tomlinson, are secretly a couple.[205] These conspiracy theorists falsely claim that Styles and Tomlinson have been closeted by their management since the inception of the band, despite multiple claims otherwise by Styles, Tomlinson, their friends, and their family.[205]
In the modern era, political conspiracy theories are often spread usingfake news on social media. A 2017 study of fake news, which was published by theShorenstein Center, found that "misinformation is currently predominantly a pathology ofthe right".[206] Political conspiracy theories may take generalized and wide-ranging forms concerning wars and international bodies, but may also be seen at a localized level, such as the conspiracy theory pertaining to the 118th Battalion, a British regiment stationed inKitchener, Ontario, duringWorld War I, which was believed by some in Kitchener to still be present years after the war ended and to be controlling local politics.[207]
BlueAnon
BlueAnon is a set of loosely related left-wing conspiracy theories that suggest Donald Trump is engaged in elaborate plots to capture or maintain control of the United States Government.[208][209][210]
Crisis actors are individuals who portray disaster victims infirst responder training exercises. Conspiracy theories allege thatmass shooting and similar traumatic events are actually staged, with victims and their families being portrayed by covert crisis actors.
Illuminati in Europe
Conspiracy theories concerning theIlluminati, a short-lived 18th-centuryEnlightenment-erasecret society, appear to have originated in the late 19th century, when some Catholic conservatives in Europe came to believe that the group had been responsible for theFrench Revolution of 1789–1799.[211] Hoaxes about the Illuminati were later spread in the 1960s by a group of American practical jokers known as theDiscordians who wrote a series of fake letters about the Illuminati toPlayboy.[212]
False flag operations are covert operations designed to appear as if they are being carried out by other entities. Some allegations of false flag operations have been verified or are subjects of legitimate historical dispute (such as the 1933Reichstag arson attack).[213] Unsubstantiated allegations of such operations feature strongly in conspiracy theories.
The 2019death of Jeffrey Epstein, an American financier billionaire and convicted sex offender with ties to Bill Clinton, Donald Trump, and other members of the elite, has become the subject of conspiracy theories.[232][233]
The2017 Las Vegas shooting, the deadliestmass shooting in modern U.S. history, has sparked numerous conspiracy theories. Some theorists suggest the use of amachine gun rather thansemi-automatic weapons, claiming the rapid fire heard in videos indicates automatic gunfire. Others allegegovernment involvement, speculating that the incident was orchestrated to justify banningbump stocks, devices that enable semi-automatic rifles to fire more rapidly. Additionally, there are theories about multiple shooters, fueled by eyewitness accounts and video evidence that purportedly show gunfire from different locations. Despite extensive investigations debunking these claims, they continue to circulate in various conspiracy theory communities.
The United States'sFederal Emergency Management Agency is the subject of many theories, including that the organization has been building concentration camps in the US to prepare for imposing martial law and genocide.[234]
African National Congress
Members of South Africa'sAfrican National Congress party have long propagated conspiracy theories, frequently concerning the CIA and alleged white supremacists. In 2014, Deputy Minister of DefenceKebby Maphatsoe joined others in accusing without evidence Public ProtectorThuli Madonsela of being a US agent working to create a puppet government in South Africa.[235][236][237]
Donald Trump has been a proponent of the conspiracy theory thatBarack Obama was not born in the United States.
Barack Obama has been the subject of numerous conspiracy theories. His presidency was the subject of a 2009 film,The Obama Deception, by Alex Jones, which alleged that Obama's administration was apuppet government for a wealthy elite. The"birther" theory, which came to prominence in 2009, denies the legitimacy of Obama's presidency by claiming that he was not born in the US.[238] This theory has persisted despite hisHawaiian birth certificate and birth announcements in two Hawaiian newspapers in 1961.[239] Notable promoters of the theory are dentist-lawyerOrly Taitz[24] and President Donald Trump, who has since publicly acknowledged its falsity but is said to continue to advocate for it privately.[240][241][242] Other theories claim that Obama, a Protestant Christian,is secretly a Muslim.
The intellectual group known as theFrankfurt School, which emerged in the 1930s, has increasingly beenaccused of promotingcommunism in capitalist societies. The term "Cultural Marxism" has been notably employed by conservative American movements such as theTea Party,[246][247] and by Norwegian mass murdererAnders Behring Breivik.[248]
While the term is occasionally used as a neutral term to denote a nation's bureaucracy,[249] the conspiratorial notion of a "deep state" originated principally in Middle Eastern and North African politics with some basis in truth, and hasbeen known in the US since the 1960s. It was revived under the Trump presidency.[250][251] "Deep state" in the latter sense refers to an unidentified insider "power elite" who manipulate a nation's politics and government. Proponents have included Canadian authorPeter Dale Scott, who has promoted the idea in the US since the 1990s, as well asBreitbart News,Infowars andDonald Trump.[252] A 2017 poll byABC News andThe Washington Post indicated that 48% of Americans believe in the existence of a conspiratorial "deep state" in the US.[253][254]
The 2017Sutherland Springs church shooting has also been the subject of multiple conspiracy theories. The shooter has been linked to multiple conspiracies, such as identifying him as a Democrat, Hillary Clinton supporter,Bernie Sanders supporter, "alt-left" supporter,antifa member, orradical Muslim;[255][256] or claiming that he carried an antifa flag and told churchgoers: "This is a communist revolution".[257] Some reports also falsely claimed that he targeted the church because they were white conservatives.[258]
Beginning in 2017, a sprawling conspiracy theory emerged from4chan and was spread via right-wing message boards and websites, then via Breitbart andFox News to then-President Donald Trump and his allies. The conspiracy theory holds both that Ukraine (rather than Russia) had interfered in the 2016 United States elections, and that then-Vice PresidentJoe Biden had intervened to protect a company in which his son Hunter was involved.The New Yorker found that reporting of the conspiracy in the right wing media was initiated byPeter Schweizer, a formerBreitbart News contributor and president of TheGovernment Accountability Institute, "a self-styled corruption watchdog group chaired and funded by conservative mega-donorRebekah Mercer"[259] and founded bySteve Bannon.[260]
A series of allegations have been made thatJoe Biden and his sonHunter Biden coordinated efforts against anti-corruption investigations inUkraine into the Ukrainian gas companyBurisma, on whose Board Hunter Biden sat.[261] A joint investigation by two Republican Senate committees released in September 2020 found no evidence of wrongdoing by Joe Biden; a subsequent report in August 2024 asserted Biden had "engaged in impeachable conduct", but did not recommend impeachment.
Thegolden billion is an idea there is an anti-Russian Western population of approximately one billion seeking to appropriate Russia's natural resources. It is a justification for Russian leaderVladimir Putin's imperial aggression, claiming to be a defense against a far-reaching covert attack.[275] The theory was first advanced under the name A. Kuzmich.[276]
While pencils are provided at polling places in the United Kingdom and Australia, in neither country is it required that they be used.[279] On their website, theAustralian Electoral Commission states:
While the provision of pencils used to be a legal requirement, since 2020 under Section 206 of theCommonwealth Electoral Act 1918, the AEC is required to provide an "implement or method for voters to mark their ballot papers".
The AEC has found from experience that pencils are the most reliable implements for marking ballot papers. Pencils are practical because they don't run out and the polling staff check and sharpen pencils as necessary throughout election day. Pencils can be stored between elections and they work better in tropical areas.
There is, however, nothing to prevent an elector from marking their ballot paper with a pen if they so wish.[280]
While the AEC only conducts federal elections, voters can use either pencil or pen in state, territory and local elections. Pencils are supplied at polling places for federal elections and for state elections inTasmania[281] andVictoria,[282] while pens are supplied at polling places for state elections inNew South Wales[283] andWestern Australia. In 2015, theNew South Wales Electoral Commission made the decision to replace pencils with pens at polling places due to controversies regarding their usage and at the2015 state election, pens began being supplied at polling places across the state.[284] Similarly, theWestern Australian Electoral Commission has provided pens instead of pencils at polling places since2017.[285]
Since December 2021, disinformation has been spread concerningSwedish social services takingMuslim children into care without a legal basis.[295] As a result of the conspiracy theory, two Swedish people were killed inBrussels in 2023.[296][297]
Sustainable development
Various theories have emerged in response to concepts or international agreements relating tosustainable development. These include theories thatAgenda 21, a non-binding action plan of the United Nations, is a plot, disguised as an environmental movement, to end individual freedom and establish a one-world government[298][299] to cut the world population by 85%,[298] and/or to introduce surveillance by the 5G network.[300]
Similarly, theGreat Reset Initiative is an economic recovery plan drawn up by the World Economic Forum (WEF) in response to the COVID-19 pandemic that prioritizessustainable development.[301] It has been the basis for theories that the COVID-19 pandemic will be used, or was even created by a secret group in order to seize control of the global economy.[302]
Theurban planning concept of15-minute cities envisages that all of life's necessities (e.g. work, shops, schools, medical centres) should be within a short walk or bike ride from people's homes.[300] This would thereby encourage people to use their cars less and reduce emissions and pollution in neighbourhoods. However, it has been interpreted as a plan to restrict freedom of movement outside of the 15-minute neighbourhood.[300] These theories occasionally overlap withanti-vaccine misinformation, and fears of aworld government.[303]
A 2013 study approved by theUniversity of Chicago suggested that almost half of Americans believe at least one medical conspiracy theory, with 37% believing that theFood and Drug Administration deliberately suppresses 'natural' cures due to influence from the pharmaceutical industry.[304] A prominent proponent of comparable conspiracy theories has been convicted fraudsterKevin Trudeau.[305]
Scientists have found evidence thatHIV was transferred from monkeys to humans in the 1930s. Evidence exists, however, that the KGB deliberately disseminated a notion in the 1980s thatit was invented by the CIA.[306] This idea, and similar ideas concerningEbola, have since been promoted by persons such as actorSteven Seagal,[307][308][309]Nation of Islam leaderLouis Farrakhan and former South Africa PresidentThabo Mbeki.[306][310][311] Similar conspiracy theories allege that pharmaceutical companies assist in the creation of conditions and diseases includingADHD,HSV andHPV.
A number of conspiracy theories have been promoted about the origin and purported motive behind theSARS-CoV-2 virus andits spread.[6] Some claimed that the virus was engineered,[312] that it may have been a Chinese or United States bioweapon,[6][313][314][315] a Jewish plot, part of which is to force mass vaccinations or sterilizations,[316][317][318] spread as part of a Muslim conspiracy,[319][320] a population control scheme,[321][322] or related to 5G mobile phone networks.[323][324]
Fluoridation
Ripper explains to Mandrake that he discovered the Communist plot to pollute Americans' "precious bodily fluids", a reference to the John Birch Society's anti-fluoridation conspiracy theories (Dr. Strangelove, 1964).
Water fluoridation is the controlled addition offluoride to a public water supply to reduce tooth decay.[325] Although many dental-health organizations support it, some conspiracy theorists[326] claim that it was a way to dispose of industrial waste,[327][328] or that it exists to obscure a failure to provide dental care to the poor.[326] A further theory promoted by theJohn Birch Society in the 1960s described fluoridation as acommunist plot to weaken the American population.[329]
Conspiracy theorists have long posited a plot by organizations such as NASA to conceal the existence of a large planet in theSolar System known asNibiru or Planet X, which is alleged to pass close enough to the Earth to destroy it. Predictions for the date of destruction have included 2003, 2012 and 2017. The theory began to develop following the publication ofThe 12th Planet (1976), by Russian-American author Zecharia Sitchin, was given its full form byNancy Lieder, and has since been promoted by American conspiracy theorist andend times theoristDavid Meade.[349] The notion received renewed attention during the period prior to thesolar eclipse of 21 August 2017.[350][351] Other conspiracy theorists in 2017 also predicted Nibiru would appear, including Terral Croft andYouTube pastor Paul Begley.[352][353]
Among the foremost concerns of conspiracy theorists are questions of alien life; for example, allegations of government cover-ups of the supposedRoswell incident or activity atArea 51.[354]Multiple reports of dead cattle found with absent body parts and seemingly drained of blood have emerged worldwide since at least the 1960s. This phenomenon has spawned theories variously concerning aliens and secret government or military experiments.[355] Prominent among such theorists isLinda Moulton Howe, author ofAlien Harvest (1989).[356][357]
Many conspiracy theories have drawn inspiration from the writings ofancient astronaut proponentZecharia Sitchin,[358] who declared that theAnunnaki fromSumerian mythology were actually a race of extraterrestrial beings who came to Earth around 500,000 years ago in order to mine gold.[358][359][360] In his 1994 bookHumanity's Extraterrestrial Origins: ET Influences on Humankind's Biological and Cultural Evolution, Arthur Horn proposed that the Anunnaki were a race ofblood-drinking, shape-shifting alien reptiles.[358] This theory was adapted and elaborated on by British conspiracy theoristDavid Icke,[358] who maintains that theBush family,Margaret Thatcher,Bob Hope, and theBritish royal family, among others, are or were such creatures, or have been under their control.[361] Icke's critics have suggested that 'reptilians' may be seen as an antisemitic code word, a charge he has denied.[76]
Genuine American research in the 1950s and 1960s into chemical interrogation and mind-control techniques were followed by many conspiracy theories (likeProject Monarch), especially following CIA Director Richard Helm's 1973 order to destroy all files related to the project. These theories include the allegation that the mass fatality atJonestown in 1978 was connected to an MKUltra experiment.[372]
Flat Earth
Logo of the Flat Earth Society, 2013
Flat Earth theory first emerged in 19th-century England, despite the Earth's spherical nature having been known since at least the time ofPythagoras. It has in recent years been promoted by American software consultantMark Sargent through the use ofYouTube videos.[373] Flat-earther conspiracy theorists hold that planet Earth is not a sphere, and that evidence has been faked or suppressed to hide the fact that it is instead a disc, or a single infiniteplane. The conspiracy often implicates NASA. Other claims include thatGPS devices are rigged to make aircraft pilots wrongly believe they are flying around a globe.[374][375]
RFID chips
An RFID tag, exposed by the damage to thisOyster card
Radio frequency identification chips (RFID), such as those implanted into pets as a means of tracking, have drawn the interest of conspiracy theorists who posit that this technology is secretly widelyimplanted in humans. FormerWhitby, England town councilor Simon Parkes has promoted this theory, which may be related to conspiracy theories concerning vaccination, electronic banking and the Antichrist.[376][377]
Technology suppression
Numerous theories pertain to the alleged suppression of certain technologies and energies. Such theories may focus on theVril Society Conspiracy, allegations of the suppression of theelectric car by fossil-fuel companies (as detailed in the 2006 documentaryWho Killed the Electric Car?), and thePhoebus cartel, set up in 1924, which has been accused of suppressing longer-lasting light bulbs.[378] Other long-standing allegations include the suppression ofperpetual motion andcold fusion technology by government agencies, special interest groups, or fraudulent inventors.[379] Promoters of alternative energy theories have included Thomas Henry Moray,[380]Eugene Mallove, and convicted American fraudsterStanley Meyer.[381]
Weaponry
Conspiracy theorists often attend to new military technologies, both real and imagined. Subjects of theories include: the allegedPhiladelphia Experiment, a supposed attempt to turn a US Navy warship invisible;[382] the allegedMontauk Project, a supposed government program to learn about mind control and time travel; and the so-called "tsunami bomb", which is alleged to have caused the2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.[383]
A theory promoted by the Venezuelan state-run TV stationViVe proposed that the2010 Haiti earthquake was caused by a secret US "earthquake weapon".[384]
The theft and disappearance of the Irish-bred racehorseShergar in 1983 has prompted many conspiracy theorists to speculate about involvement bythe Mafia, theIRA andColonel Gaddafi.[395]
Rigged selection processes
The "frozen envelope theory" suggests that theNational Basketball Association rigged its 1985 draft lottery so thatPatrick Ewing would join theNew York Knicks. Theorists claim that a lottery envelope was chilled so that it could be identified by touch.[396] A similar "hot balls theory", promoted by Scottish football managerDavid Moyes, suggests that certain balls used in draws forUEFA andAFC competitions have been warmed to achieve specific outcomes.[397]
On the day of the1998 FIFA World Cup final, Brazilian strikerRonaldo suffered aconvulsive fit.[399] Ronaldo was initially removed from the starting lineup 72 minutes before the match, with the teamsheet released to a stunned world media, before he was reinstated by Brazil coachMário Zagallo shortly before kick off.[400][401] Ronaldo "sleepwalked" through the final, with France winning the game.[401] The nature of the incident set off a trail of questions and allegations that persisted for years, withAlex Bellos writing inThe Guardian, "When Ronaldo's health scare was revealed after the match, the situation's unique circumstances lent itself to fabulous conspiracy theories. Here was the world's most famous sportsman, about to take part in the most important match of his career, when he suddenly, inexplicably, fell ill. Was it stress, epilepsy, or had he been drugged?"[402] Questions also circulated into who made Ronaldo play the game. Zagallo insisted he had the final say, but much speculation focused on sportswear companyNike, Brazil's multimillion-dollar sponsor—whom many Brazilians thought had too much control—putting pressure on the striker to play against medical advice.[402]
TheNew England Patriots have also been involved in numerous conspiracy theories.[403] During their 2018AFC Championship24–20 victory over theJacksonville Jaguars, several conspiracy theories spread stating that the referees helped the Patriots advance toSuper Bowl LII where they were eventually defeated by the championPhiladelphia Eagles.[404] However, sports analystStephen A. Smith stated the Jaguars were not robbed, but that they had no one to blame but themselves for the loss.[405] There were also conspiracy theories regarding theSuper Bowl LI matchup between the Patriots and theAtlanta Falcons stating that the game was rigged[406] while others said the Falcons made questionable play-calls at the end of the game that resulted in them blowing a 28–3 lead.[407]
^Issitt, Micah; Main, Carlyn (2014).Hidden Religion: The Greatest Mysteries and Symbols of the World's Religious Beliefs. ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-1-61069-478-0.
^Perry, James D. (2003). Peter, Knight (ed.).Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, Inc. p. 383.ISBN978-1-57607-812-9.
^Kershaw, Ian (2008).Hitler: A Biography. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 1037.ISBN978-0-393-06757-6.
^Joachimsthaler, Anton (1999) [1995].The Last Days of Hitler: The Legends, The Evidence, The Truth. Brockhampton Press. pp. 22, 23.ISBN978-1-86019-902-8.
^abcCarroll, Lauren (23 May 2017). Sanders, Katie (ed.)."The baseless claim that slain DNC staffer Seth Rich gave emails to WikiLeaks".PolitiFact.com.Archived from the original on 22 March 2018. Retrieved22 March 2018.There is no trustworthy evidence supporting the theory that Rich was WikiLeaks' source for thousands of DNC emails. The police believe his death was the result of a botched robbery, not a political assassination.
^Shalby, Colleen (24 May 2017)."How Seth Rich's death became an Internet conspiracy theory".Los Angeles Times.Archived from the original on 29 May 2017. Retrieved15 April 2018.Despite police statements and Rich's family concluding that his death was the result of an attempted robbery, the rumor spread within the same circles that churned out the bogus 'PizzaGate' story
^Kay, Jane; Chronicle Environment Writer (6 July 2009)."San Francisco Bay Area".San Francisco Chronicle.Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved3 August 2010.
^abIntrovigne, Massimo (2016).Satanism: A Social History. Aries Book Series: Texts and Studies in Western Esotericism. Vol. 21.Leiden:Brill Publishers. pp. 370–371.ISBN978-90-04-28828-7.
^Simpson, John; Shubart, Tira (1995).Lifting the Veil. Hodder & Stoughton Ltd. p. 223.ISBN978-0-340-62814-0.
^Tavakoli-Targhi, Mohamad (2008). "Anti-Baha'ism and Islamism in Iran". In Brookshaw, Dominic P.; Fazel, Seena B. (eds.).The Baha'is of Iran: Socio-historical studies. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 200.ISBN978-0-203-00280-3.
^Heald, Henrietta (1992).Chronicle of Britain: Incorporating a Chronicle of Ireland. Jacques Legrand. p. 605.ISBN978-1-872031-35-4.
^"Pope Renounces Papal Throne".Vatican Information Service, 2 November 2013 Bulletin – English Edition. Archived fromthe original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved15 July 2014.
^Sebald, Hans (2001). "Nazi ideology redefining deviants: Witches, Himmler's witch-trial survey, and the case of the bishopric of Bamberg". In Levack (ed.).New Perspectives on Witchcraft, Magic, and Demonology. pp. 113ff.
^Aaronovitch, David (2010) [2009].Voodoo Histories: How Conspiracy Theory Has Shaped the Modern World. Vintage. pp. 187–218, Chapter 6: Holy Blood, Holy Grail, Holy Shit.
^Caron, Simone M. (Spring 1998). "Birth Control and the Black Community in the 1960s: Genocide or Power Politics?".Journal of Social History.31 (3).Oxford University Press: 545–569.doi:10.1353/jsh/31.3.545.JSTOR 3789714
^Jeffrey R. Henig and Wilbur C. Rich,Mayors in the middle: politics, race, and mayoral control of urban schools. Princeton University Press, 2004, pp. 204–207.
^abTiffany, Kaitlyn (2022).Everything I Need I Get from You: How Fangirls Created the Internet as We Know It. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp. 173–222.ISBN978-0-374-72272-2.
^Berlet, Chip (July 2012). "Collectivists, Communists, Labor Bosses, and Treason: The Tea Parties as Right-Wing Populist Counter-Subversion Panic".Critical Sociology.38 (4):565–87.doi:10.1177/0896920511434750.S2CID144238367.
^Berkowitz, Bill (2003), "Reframing the Enemy: 'Cultural Marxism', a Conspiracy Theory with an Anti-Semitic Twist, Is Being Pushed by Much of the American Right." Intelligence Report.Southern Poverty Law Center, Summer."SPLCenter.org: Reframing the Enemy". Archived fromthe original on 7 February 2004. Retrieved7 February 2004.
^"TURKISH BAN ON FREEMASONS. All Lodges To Be Abolished".Malaya Tribune, 14 October 1935, p. 5.The Government has decided to abolish all Masonic lodges in Turkey on the ground that Masonic principles are incompatible with nationalistic policy.
Polantz, Katelyn (15 January 2021)."US takes back its assertion that Capitol rioters wanted to 'capture and assassinate' officials". CNN.Archived from the original on 15 January 2021. Retrieved16 January 2021.Prosecutors accuse Chansley of being a flight risk who can quickly raise money through non-traditional means as 'one of the leaders and mascots of QAnon, a group commonly referred to as a cult (which preaches debunked and fictitious anti-government conspiracy theory)'.
Mulkerrins, Jane (15 January 2021)."Life inside QAnon, the cult that stormed the Capitol".The Times.ISSN0140-0460.Archived from the original on 13 February 2022. Retrieved13 February 2022.To hear Rein Lively describe her experiences with QAnon, it sounds, I say, very much like a cult... "It is a decentralised online conspiracy theory cult," agreesJoseph Uscinski, professor of political science at the University of Miami and author ofConspiracy Theories and the People Who Believe Them.
^Freeze RA, Lehr JH (2009). "Fluorophobia".The Fluoride Wars: How a Modest Public Health Measure Became America's Longest-Running Political Melodrama.John Wiley & Sons. pp. 127–69.ISBN978-0-470-44833-5.
For Katrina:"Illuminati, Mind Control and Hurricanes: Conspiracy Theories Follow HAARP".International Business Times. 30 July 2015.Archived from the original on 3 August 2017. Retrieved27 June 2017.Described as a 'bionic forest' by Noah Schactman of Wired, HAARP has been blamed for a series of devastating hurricanes. In 2005, Katrina, Rita and Wilma all tore through the US, as three of the six most intense Atlantic hurricanes ever recorded. During this year, HAARP saw its funding peak at $49.3 million. Of course, this has led theorists to suggest there was a link between the two.
For Helene:Dunbar, Marina (7 October 2024)."Marjorie Taylor Greene condemned over Helene weather conspiracy theory".The Guardian.Archived from the original on 7 October 2024. Retrieved9 October 2024.She appeared to double down on these comments with a post on Saturday, sharing a clip from a 2013 CBS News broadcast about experimental efforts to induce rain and lightning using lasers. 'CBS, nine years ago, talked about lasers controlling the weather,' Greene wrote, apparently mistaking the year of the broadcast.
For Milton:Warzel, Charlie (10 October 2024)."I'm running out of ways to explain how bad this is".The Atlantic. Retrieved12 October 2024.The posts would be laughable if they weren't taken by many people as gospel. Among them: Infowars' Alex Jones, who claimed that Hurricanes Milton and Helene were 'weather weapons' unleashed on the East Coast by the U.S. government
^Khan, Coco (29 October 2021)."Is my phone listening to me? We ask the expert".The Guardian. Retrieved5 September 2024.I think my phone is somehow listening in. How else can I explain the ads that appear for a product just as I'm talking about it?
^Tidy, Joe (5 September 2019)."Why phones that secretly listen to us are a myth". BBC News. Retrieved5 September 2024.The internet is awash with posts and videos on social media where people claim to have proof that the likes of Facebook and Google are spying on users in order to serve hyper-targeted adverts.
Baer, Marc David (2013). "An Enemy Old and New: The Dönme, Anti-Semitism, and Conspiracy Theories in the Ottoman Empire and Turkish Republic".Jewish Quarterly Review.103 (4):523–555.doi:10.1353/jqr.2013.0033.S2CID159483845.
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