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Recognizedgreat powers came about first inEurope during the post-Napoleonic era.^[1] The formalization of the division betweensmall powers and great powers came with the signing of theTreaty of Chaumont in 1814. A great power is anation orstate that, througheconomic,political andmilitary strength, is able to exertpower andinfluence over not only its own region, but beyond to others.

The historical terms "Great Nation",^[2][3][4] a distinguished aggregate of people inhabiting a particular country or territory, and "Great Empire",^[5] a considerable group of states or countries under a single supreme authority, arecolloquial conversations (historicaljargon).

Ancient Near East

Sumer (orŠumer) was one of the early civilizations of theAncient Near East,^[6] located in the southern part ofMesopotamia (modern-dayIraq) from the time of the earliest records in the mid4th millennium BC until the rise ofBabylonia in the late 3rd millennium BC.^[7][6] The term "Sumerian" applies to all speakers of theSumerian language. Sumer (together withAncient Egypt and theIndus Valley civilization) is considered the first settled society in the world to have manifested all the features needed to qualify fully as a "civilization", eventually expanding into the firstempire in history, theAkkadian Empire.^[8][6]

Hurrians

TheHurrians refer to a people who inhabited northern Mesopotamia beginning approximately 2500 BC. TheHurrian kingdoms of the Ancient Near East was in Northern Mesopotamia and its people lived in the adjacent regions during theBronze Age.^[9] The largest and most influential Hurrian nation was thekingdom of Mitanni. The population of theHittite Empire in Anatolia to a large part consisted of Hurrians, and there is significant Hurrian influence in Hittite mythology.

By the Early Iron Age, the Hurrians had been assimilated with other peoples, except perhaps in thekingdom of Urartu. The Hurrian peoples were not incredibly united, existing as quasi-feudal kingdoms. The kingdom of Mitanni was at its height towards the close of the 14th century BC. By the 13th century BC, the Hurrian kingdoms had been conquered by foreign powers, chiefly the Assyrians.^[9]

The profound political, social, and cultural influence imposed upon the Near East by the civilization known as theAncient Babylonian Empire was the most pervasive in this historical period. The city itself,Babylon, positioned itself as a center of pivotal historical developments for centuries. There were 3 major Babylonian Dynasties: Amorite, Kassite, and Chaldean.^[10] This political entity was most predominate within the southern portion of Mesopotamia. It existed as an unremitting rival of the northern Assyrian Mesopotamians. Although it was assaulted and militarily overcome on several occasions, it did exist as a stalwart presence from the later 3rd millennium BC to the middle of the 6th century BC. After the fall of the Assyrian Empire in 612 BC,^[11] the Babylonian Empire was the most powerful state in the ancient world. Its capital, Babylon, was beautifully adorned by King Nebuchadnezzar, who erected several famous buildings. Even after the Babylonian Empire had been overthrown by the Persian king Cyrus the Great in 539 BC,^[12] the city itself remained an important cultural center. This period would be considered the zenith of Babylon's dominance in its two-and-a-half millennium history. Ancient Babylon was officially conquered by the Achaemenid Persian Empire in the late 6th century BC.

Neo-Assyrian Empire

In early times, the termAssyria referred to a region on the UpperTigris river, named for its original capital, the ancient city ofAssur.^[13] Later, as a nation and empire that came to control all of theFertile Crescent,Egypt and much ofAnatolia,^[14] the term "Assyria proper" referred to roughly the northern half ofMesopotamia (the southern half beingBabylonia), withNineveh as its capital.^[15] The Assyrian homeland was located near a mountainous region, extending along the Tigris as far as the high Gordiaean or Carduchian mountain range ofArmenia, sometimes known as the "Mountains of Ashur". The Assyrian kings controlled a large kingdom at three different times in history. These are called the Old, Middle, and Neo-Assyrian kingdoms, or periods.^[13] The most powerful and best-known nation of these periods is theNeo-Assyrian Empire, 934–609 BC.^[16]

Shalmaneser III (858–823 BC) attacked and reducedBabylonia to vassalage, and defeatedAramea,Israel,Urartu,Phoenicia and theNeo-Hittite states, forcing all of these to pay tribute to Assyria.^[17]Shamshi-Adad V (822–811 BC) inherited an empire beset by civil war which he took most of his reign to quell.^{[citation needed]} He was succeeded byAdad-nirari III who was merely a boy. The Empire was thus ruled by the famed queenSemiramis until 806 BC. In that year Adad-nirari III took the reins of power.^{[citation needed]} After his premature death, Assyria failed to expand further during the reigns ofShalmaneser IV (782–773 BC),Ashur-dan III (772–755 BC) andAshur-nirari V (754–746 BC).^{[citation needed]}

UnderAshurbanipal (669–627 BC) its domination spanned from theCaucasus Mountains in the north toNubia,Egypt andArabia in the south, and fromCyprus andAntioch in the west toPersia in the east.^[18] Ashurbanipal destroyedElam and smashed a rebellion led by his own brother Shamash-shum-ukim who was the Assyrian king ofBabylon, exacting savage revenge on theChaldeans,Nabateans,Arabs andElamites who had supported him.^{[citation needed]} Persia andMedia were regarded as vassals of Ashurbanipal. He built vast libraries and initiated a surge in the building of temples and palaces.^[19]

Hittite Empire

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TheHittites were an ancient people who spoke anIndo-European language, and established a kingdom centered atHattusa in north-centralAnatolia from the 18th century BC. In the 14th century BC, the Hittite Empire was at its height, encompassing central Anatolia, northwesternSyria as far asUgarit, and upperMesopotamia. After 1180 BC, the empire disintegrated into several independent "Neo-Hittite" city-states, some surviving until as late as the 8th century BC.

The Hittites were also famous for their skill in building and usingchariots, as theBattle of Kadesh demonstrated. The Hittites were pioneers of theIron Age, manufacturingiron artifacts from as early as the 14th century BC, making them possibly even the first to do so. The Hittites passed much knowledge and lore from theAncient Near East to the newly arrivedGreeks inEurope.

Hittite prosperity was mostly dependent on control of the trade routes and metal sources. Because of the importance of northern Syria to the vital routes linking theCilician Gates with Mesopotamia, defense of this area was crucial, and was soon put to the test by Egyptian expansion under Pharaoh Rameses II. The outcome of the Battle of Kadesh is uncertain, though it seems that the timely arrival of Egyptian reinforcements prevented total Hittite victory. The Egyptians forced the Hittites to take refuge in the fortress ofKadesh, but their own losses prevented them from sustaining a siege. This battle took place in the fifth year of Rameses II (c. 1274 BC by the most commonly used chronology).

AncientPhoenicia

Phoenicia was a major power over the Mediterranean between 1200 BC and 539 BC.^[20] This ancientSemiticthalassocratic civilization was situated on the western, coastal part of theFertile Crescent and centered on the coastline of modernLebanon. All major Phoenician cities were on the coastline of the Mediterranean, some colonies reaching the Western Mediterranean. It was an enterprisingmaritime trading culture that spread across theMediterranean from 1550 BC to 300 BC. The Phoenicians used thegalley, a man-powered sailing vessel, and are credited with the invention of thebireme.^[21] They were famed in Classical Greece and Rome as 'traders in purple', referring to their monopoly on the precious purple dye of theMurex snail, used, among other things, for royal clothing, and for the spread of theiralphabets, from which almost all modern phonetic alphabets are derived.^[22]

TheCarthaginian Empire, also known as theCarthaginian Republic (alternatively "Carthaginian hegemony", or simply "Carthage") was thePhoeniciancity-state ofCarthage and its sphere of influence, which included much of the coast ofNorth Africa as well as substantial parts of coastalIberia and the islands of the westernMediterranean from 814 to 146 BC.^[23]

Elamite Empire

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Elam was situated just to the east ofMesopotamia and was one of the oldest recordedcivilizations. Elam was centered in the far west and southwest of modern-day Iran, stretching from the lowlands ofKhuzestan andIlam Province (which takes its name from Elam), as well as a small part of southern Iraq. In theOld Elamite period (Middle Bronze Age), Elam consisted of kingdoms on theIranian plateau, centered inAnshan, and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it was centered inSusa in the Khuzestan lowlands.

Elam was part of the earlycities of the Ancient Near East during theChalcolithic (Copper Age). The emergence of written records from around 3000 BC also parallels Mesopotamian history where writing was used slightly earlier. Elamite strength was based on an ability to hold various areas together under a coordinated government that permitted the maximum interchange of the natural resources unique to each region. Traditionally, this was done through a federated governmental structure.

Elamite culture played a crucial role in thePersian Empire, especially during theAchaemenid dynasty that succeeded it, when theElamite language remained among those in official use. The Elamite language is generally treated as a language isolate. As such, the Elamite period is considered a starting point for thehistory of Iran.

Median Empire

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This article needs to beupdated. The reason given is:More recent reassessment of the historical evidence, both archaeological and textual, has led modern scholars to question previous notions of the extent of the realm of the Medes and even its existence as a unified state. SeeTalk:Medes#Dated. Please help update this section to reflect recent events or newly available information.(June 2020)

TheMedian Empire was the first empire on the territory of Persia. By the 6th century BC, after having together with theBabylonians defeated theNeo-Assyrian Empire. In Greek references to "Median" people there is no clear distinction between the "Persians" and the "Medians"; in fact for a Greek to become "too closely associated with Iranian culture" was "to become medianized, not persianized". The Median kingdom was a short-lived Iranian state and the textual and archaeological sources of that period are rare and little could be known from the Median culture which nevertheless made a "profound, and lasting, contribution to the greater world of Iranian culture". The Medes were able to establish their own empire, the largest of its day, lasting for about sixty years, from thesack of Nineveh in 612 BC until 549 BC whenCyrus the Great established theAchaemenid Empire by defeating his overlord and grandfather,Astyages, king of Media.

550 BC–330 BC

Achaemenid Empire

TheAchaemenid Empire was the first of thePersian Empires to become a world empire. At the height of its power, the Empire spanned over three continents, namelyEurope,Asia, andAfrica, and was the most powerful empire of its time. It also eventually, either quickly in its earliest days or steadily over time, incorporated the following territories: in the north and west all ofAsia Minor (modernTurkey), parts of theBalkan Peninsula -Thrace,Macedon andPaeonia, and most of theBlack Sea coastal regions or present day southern and easternBulgaria, northern Greece, andMacedonia; in the west and southwest the territories of modernIraq, northernSaudi Arabia,Jordan,Israel,Lebanon,Syria, all significant population centers of ancientEgypt and as far west as portions ofLibya; in the east modernAfghanistan and beyond into central Asia, and parts ofPakistan.

Encompassing approximately 5.5 million square kilometers at its height in 500 BC,^[24][25] the Achaemenid Empire was territorially the largest empire ofantiquity.^{[dubious –discuss]} In its time it had political power over neighboring countries, and had high cultural and economic achievements during its lengthy rule over a vast region from its picturesque capital atPersepolis.

Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon) defeated the Persian armies at Granicus (334 BC), followed by Issus (333 BC), and lastly at Gaugamela (331 BC). Afterwards, he marched on Susa andPersepolis which surrendered in early 330 BC. From Persepolis, Alexander headed north to Pasargadae where he visited the tomb ofCyrus the Great.

331 BC–428 AD

Kingdom of Armenia

TheKingdom of Armenia was one of the firstArmenian Empires. At the height of its power, the Empire spanned over many parts of countries, namely the modern-day countries ofTurkey,Iran,Syria andLebanon.The Kingdom of Armenia has three distinct dynasties - theOrontid dynasty, theArtaxiad dynasty, and theArsacid dynasty of Armenia. During the reign of theOrontid dynasty, Armenia became independent from theAchaemenids. During the reign of theArtaxiad dynasty, Armenia has reached the peak of its power. During the reign of theArsacid dynasty, Armenia became the first country in the world to adopt Christianity as an official religion.

In 387, the Kingdom of Armenia was split between theEastern Roman Empire and the Sassanid Empire. Western Armenia first became aprovince of theRoman Empire under the name ofArmenia Minor, and laterByzantine Armenia;Eastern Armenia remained a kingdom within Persia until, in 428, the localnobility overthrew the king, and the Sassanids installed amarzban (governor) in his place, beginning theMarzpanate period overPersian Armenia.

Parthian Empire

TheParthian Empire was the thirdIranian Empire. At the height of its power, the empire ruled most ofGreater Iran,Mesopotamia andArmenia. But unlike most other Iranian monarchies, the Parthian followed a vassal system, which they adopted from theSeleucids. TheArsacid culture was not a single coherent state, but instead made up of numerous tributary (but otherwise independent) kingdoms.

The Parthians largely adopted the art, architecture, religious beliefs, and royal insignia of their culturally heterogeneous empire, which encompassed Persian, Hellenistic, and regional cultures. For about the first half of its existence, the Arsacid court adopted elements of Greek culture, though it eventually saw a gradual revival of Iranian traditions. The Arsacid rulers were titled the 'King of Kings', as a claim to be the heirs to the Achaemenid Empire; indeed, they accepted many local kings as vassals where the Achaemenids would have had centrally appointed, albeit largely autonomous, satraps. The court did appoint a small number of satraps, largely outside Iran, but these satrapies were smaller and less powerful than the Achaemenid potentates. With the expansion of Arsacid power, the seat of central government shifted from Nisa, Turkmenistan toCtesiphon along the Tigris (south of modern Baghdad, Iraq), although several other sites also served as capitals. Although the Parthian Arsacids made way for a new Iranian dynasty, the Arsacid family continued to exist through theArsacid dynasty of Armenia, theArsacid dynasty of Iberia, and theArsacid Dynasty of Caucasian Albania; all eponymous branches of the Parthian Arsacids.^[26]

Sassanid Empire

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TheSasanian Empire is the name used for the fourth Iranian dynasty, and the secondPersian Empire (226–651). The empire's territory encompassed all of today'sIran,Iraq,Armenia,Afghanistan, eastern parts ofTurkey, and parts ofSyria,Pakistan, and large parts ofCaucasia,Central Asia andArabia. DuringKhosrow II's rule in 590–628Egypt,Jordan,Israel,Lebanon were also briefly annexed to the Empire, as well as far west as westernAsia Minor. The Sassanid era, encompassing the length of theLate Antiquity period, is considered to be one of the most important and influential historical periods in Iran. In many ways the Sassanid period witnessed the highest achievement ofPersian civilization. The empire is furthermore known for being the arch-rival of the neighboringRoman–Byzantine Empire for a period of over 400 years. As the Parthians were replaced by the Sassanids, they carried on the already century long lastingRoman–Persian Wars, which would eventually become the longest conflict in human history.

The empire constituted the last great Iranian Empire before theMuslim conquest and adoption ofIslam. The climacticByzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 had drastically exhausted both the Byzantines as well as the Sassanids, laying the way open for an easy conquest. The Sassanids, heavily weakened, never mounted a truly effective resistance to the pressure applied by the initial Arab armies. Ctesiphon fell after a prolonged siege. Yazdegerd fled eastward from Ctesiphon, leaving behind him most of the Empire's vast treasury. The Arabs captured Ctesiphon shortly afterward, leaving the Sassanid government strapped for funds and acquiring a powerful financial resource for their own use. A number of Sassanid governors attempted to combine their forces to throw back the invaders, but the effort was crippled by the lack of a strong central authority, and the governors were defeated at the Battle of Nihawānd. The empire, with its military command structure non-existent, its non-noble troop levies decimated, its financial resources effectively destroyed, and the Asawaran knightly caste destroyed piecemeal, was utterly helpless in the face of the invaders. Upon hearing the defeat, Persian nobilities fled further inland to the eastern province ofKhorasan.

Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt was one of the world's first civilizations, with its beginnings in the fertile Nile valley around 3150 BC.Ancient Egypt reached the zenith of its power during theNew Kingdom (1570–1070 BC) under great pharaohs. Ancient Egypt was a great power to be contended with by both the ancient Near East, the Mediterranean and sub-Saharan Africa. The empire expanded far south intoNubia and held wide territories across the ancientNear East. The combination of a fertile river valley, natural borders that made an invasion unfeasible, and amilitary able torise to the challenge when needed, turned Egypt into a major power.

It was one of the first nations to have a system of writing and large scale construction projects. However, as neighboring civilizations developed militaries capable of crossing Egypt's natural barriers, the Egyptian armies were not always able to repel them and so by 1000 BC Egyptian influence as an independent civilization waned.^[27]

The Archaic or Early Dynastic Period ofEgypt is the era immediately following the unification ofUpper and Lower Egyptc. 3100 BC. It is generally taken to include theFirst andSecond Dynasties, lasting from the end of theNaqada III archaeological period until about 2686 BC, or the beginning of theOld Kingdom.^[28] With theFirst Dynasty, the capital moved fromThinis toMemphis with a unified Egypt ruled by an Egyptiangod-king.Abydos remained the major holy land in the south. The hallmarks ofancient Egyptian civilization, such asart,architecture and many aspects ofreligion, took shape during the Early Dynastic period. During the Early Dynastic period, the pharaohs established the earliest Central Government in the world.

The Old Kingdom is the period spanning c. 2686–2181 BC. It is also known as the "Age of the Pyramids" or the "Age of the Pyramid Builders", as it encompasses the reigns of the great pyramid builders of theFourth Dynasty—KingSneferu perfected the art ofpyramid-building and thepyramids of Giza were constructed under the kingsKhufu,Khafre andMenkaure.^[29]Egypt attained its first sustained peak of civilization—the first of three so-called "Kingdom"periods (followed by theMiddle Kingdom andNew Kingdom) which mark the high points of civilization in the lowerNile Valley.

During the Old Kingdom, the pyramid building in ancient Egypt began during theThird Dynasty under the rule of kingDjoser when he built theStep Pyramid of Djoser (Egypt's first Pyramid) and peaked duringFourth Dynasty during the construction of theGiza Pyramids.

During theFifth Dynasty the pyramid building declined in Egypt. ThePyramid Texts, the oldest ritual texts from ancient Egypt first appeared in the late fifth Dynasty.

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The Middle Kingdom of Egypt (also known as "The Period of Reunification") is the period in the history ofancient Egypt following a period of political division known as theFirst Intermediate Period. The Middle Kingdom lasted from around 2050 BC to around 1710 BC, stretching from the reunification of Egypt under the reign ofMentuhotep II of theEleventh Dynasty to the end of theTwelfth Dynasty. The Eleventh Dynasty ruled from Thebes and the Twelfth Dynasty ruled from el-Lisht.

The middle kingdom reached its peak under the pharaohsSenusret III andAmenemhat III.Senusret III was a great pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty and is considered to be the greatest pharaoh in the middle kingdom. However, The reign ofAmenemhat III was the height of Middle Kingdom economic prosperity. His reign is remarkable for the degree to which Egypt exploited its resources.

  Core Regions
  Territorial control

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TheNew Kingdom began around 1550 B.C when kingAhmose I became the king of Egypt, defeated theHyksos and reunified Egypt. The pharaohs of the new kingdom established a period of unprecedented prosperity by securing their borders and strengthening diplomatic ties with their neighbors. Military campaigns waged underTuthmosis I and his grandsonTuthmosis III extended the influence of the pharaohs to the largest empire Egypt had ever seen.Tuthmosis III is recorded to have captured 350 cities during his rule and conquered much of the Near East from the Euphrates to Nubia during seventeen known military campaigns. During the reign ofAmenhotep III, Egypt entered a period of unprecedented prosperity and artistic splendour, Egypt reached the peak of its artistic and international power in his reign.Amenhotep IV ascended the throne and instituted a series of radical and chaotic reforms. Changing his name toAkhenaten, he touted the godAten as thesupreme deity, suppressed the worship of other deities, and attacked the power of the priestly establishment. Moving the capital to the new city of Akhetaten, he turned a deaf ear to foreign affairs and absorbed himself in his new religion and artistic style. After his death, the religion of the Aten was quickly abandoned, and the subsequent pharaohs erased all mention of Akhenaten's Egyptian heresy, now known as theAmarna Period.

Ramesses the Great ascended the throne, and went on to build more temples, erect more statues and obelisks, and sire more children than any other pharaoh in history. One of the greatest construction projects conducted by Ramesses was the city ofPi-Ramesses. The city covered an area of 18 km² (as big asRome). At its peak, The city was home to a population of 160,000-300,000. This would make Pi-Ramesses 2-4 times bigger thanYinxu (Second largest city at that time). Ramesses led his army against the Hittites in the Battle of Kadesh and, after fighting to a stalemate, finally agreed to the first recorded peace treaty. Egypt's wealth, however, made it a tempting target for invasion, particularly by the Libyans and the Sea Peoples. Initially, the military was able to repel these invasions during the reign ofRamesses III, but Egypt eventually lost control of Syria and Palestine. The impact of external threats was exacerbated by internal problems such as corruption, tomb robbery and civil unrest. The high priests at the temple of Amun in Thebes accumulated vast tracts of land and wealth, and their growing power splintered the country during theThird Intermediate Period.

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The Third Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt began with the death of PharaohRamesses XI in 1070 BC, ending the New Kingdom, and was eventually followed by the Late Period. Various points are offered as the beginning for the latter era, though it is most often regarded as dating from the foundation of theTwenty-Sixth Dynasty byPsamtik I in 664 BC.

The first Dynasty of the Ancient EgyptianThird Intermediate Period is theTwenty-first Dynasty. Its first ruler is kingSmendes who ruled only inLower Egypt. The most powerful pharaohs of the Twenty-first dynasty werepsusennes I andSiamun who built extensively compared to the other pharaohs of the dynasty. The Pharaohs of the Twenty-first Dynasty transported all the old Ramesside temples, obelisks, stelae, statues and sphinxes fromPi-Ramesses to the new capitalTanis. The obelisks and statues, the largest weighing over 200 tons, were transported in one piece while major buildings were dismantled into sections and reassembled at Tanis.

The country was firmly reunited by the Twenty-Second Dynasty founded byShoshenq I in 945 BC (or 943 BC), who descended from Meshwesh immigrants, originally from Ancient Libya. Upon unifying Egypt, kingShoshenq I started campaigning in theLevante . This brought stability to the country for well over a century and made Egypt a superpower again, but after the reign ofOsorkon II, particularly, the country had effectively split into two states, with Shoshenq III of the Twenty-Second Dynasty controlling Lower Egypt by 818 BC whileTakelot II and his son Osorkon (the futureOsorkon III) ruled Middle and Upper Egypt.

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The Late Period of ancient Egypt refers to the last flowering of native Egyptian rulers after the Third Intermediate Period beginning with the 26th Saite Dynasty founded byPsamtik I. The 26th Dynasty of Egypt managed to regain Egypt's power for a short time before theAchaemenid conquest of Egypt lad byCambyses II in 525 BC.

However, the Egyptians managed to gain independence from the Persians during a rebellion led by the rebel PharaohAmyrtaeus around 404 B.C who established theTwenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt. Egypt remained independent during theTwenty-ninth Dynasty andThirtieth Dynasty until the Persians invaded it again in 343 B.C. During that time, the Egyptians managed to repel several attacks from theAchaemenid Empire. The most famous attack of them occurred in around 351 BC, whenArtaxerxes III embarked on a campaign to recover Egypt, which had revolted under his father,Artaxerxes II. Levying a vast army, Artaxerxes marched into Egypt, and engagedNectanebo II the founder of theThirtieth Dynasty of Egypt. After a year of fighting the Egyptian Pharaoh, Nectanebo inflicted a crushing defeat on the Persians with the support of mercenaries led by the Greek generals Diophantus and Lamius. Artaxerxessuccessfully reconquered Egypt in 340 or 339 B.C.

The Late period of ancient Egypt ends whenAlexander the Great took Egypt from the Persians without war around 332 B.C.

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The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the quarrying, surveying and construction techniques that facilitated the building of monumental pyramids, temples, and obelisks; a system of mathematics, a practical and effective system of medicine, irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques, the first known ships, Egyptian faience and glass technology, new forms of literature, and the earliest known peace treaty. Egypt left a lasting legacy. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world. Its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travellers and writers for centuries. A new-found respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period led to the scientific investigation of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy, for Egypt and the world.

The Kerma culture was an early civilization which flourished from around 2500 BC to about 1600 BC in Nubia, present day Sudan, centered at Kerma. It seems to have been one of a number of Sudanese states during the Middle Kingdom period of Ancient Egypt. In its latest phase, lasting from about 1700–1500 BC, it absorbed the Sudanese kingdom of Sai and became a sizable, populous empire rivaling Egypt. Around 1500 BC, it was absorbed into the Egyptian Empire, but rebellions continued for centuries. By the 11th century BC, the more 'Egyptianized' Kingdom of Kush emerged, apparently from Kerma, and regained the region's independence from Egypt.^[30]

Kingdom of Kush

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The Kingdom of Kush was the earliest of the Subsaharan states in Africa as well as the first to implement iron weapons. It was heavily influenced by Egyptian colonists, but in 1070 BC it became not only independent of Egypt but a fierce rival. It successfully fought off attempts by Egypt to reconquer it, and it began to extend influence over Upper Egypt. By the end of KingKashta's reign in 752 BC, Thebes was under Kushite control.

A slew of able successors took the rest of Egypt and reigned as theTwenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt stretching Kushite control from central Sudan to modern-day Israel. The Kushites did not maintain this empire for long and were beaten back by the Assyrians in 653 BC. However, Kush remained a powerful entity in the region. It continued to meddle in Egyptian affairs and control trade resources originating in Subsaharan Africa. It waged a hard-fought campaign against theRoman Empire (27 BC - 22 BC) under the leadership of QueenAmanirenas, and achieved a more than amicable peace with the youngAugustus Caesar. The two states worked as allies, with Kush lending cavalry support to Rome in its conquest of Jerusalem in 70 AD.

The kingdom of Kush maintained its status as a regional power until its conquest by theAksumite Empire in 350.

TheMacrobians were an ancient people and kingdom situated in theHorn of Africa (Somalia) around the 1st millennium BC. According to Herodotus, the Macrobians practiced an elaborate form ofembalming. This, in turn, suggested a knowledge on their part ofanatomy and, at the very least, a grasp of the basics ofchemistry. The Macrobians preserved the bodies of the dead by first extracting moisture from the corpses, then overlaying the bodies with a type ofplaster, and finally decorating the exterior in vivid colors in order to imitate the deceased as realistically as possible. They then placed the body in a hollowcrystal pillar, which they kept in their homes for a period of about a year.^[31] Macrobia was also noted for itsgold, which was so plentiful that the Macrobians shackled their prisoners in golden chains.^[32]

The Ancient city-states located in northernSomalia, had a steady trade link with theAncient Egyptians and exported precious natural resources such asmyrrh,frankincense andgum. This trade network continued all the way into theclassical era. The city states ofMossylon,Malao,Mundus andTabae in Somalia engaged in a lucrative trade network connecting Somali merchants withPhoenicia,Ptolemaic Egypt,Greece,Parthian Persia,Saba,Nabataea and theRoman Empire. Somali sailors used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as the 'beden' to transport their cargo.

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TheKingdom of Aksum was an important trading nation originating from Northern Ethiopia in northeasternAfrica, growing from the proto-Aksumite period ca. 4th century BC to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD. It was a major player in the commerce between theRoman Empire andAncient India and the Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their owncurrency. The state established itshegemony over the decliningKingdom of Kush and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on theArabian peninsula, and would eventually extend its rule over the region with the conquest of theHimyarite Kingdom. At its peak it controlled Much ofEthiopia,Eritrea,Djibouti,Sudan,Somalia,Yemen, andSaudi Arabia. It was considered by historians as one of the most powerful military powers in the world.

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Several Indian empires includingMaurya Empire andGupta Empire were able to expand across southern Asia, incorporating much of the region, as well as beyond. The subcontinent was conquered by the Mauryan Empire during the 4th and 3rd centuries BC. Various parts of India was ruled by numerous Middle kingdoms for the next 1,500 years, among which the Gupta Empire united India in the 4th and 5th century CE . Southern India saw the rule of theChalukyas,Cholas,Pallavas,Pandyas andCheras. This period, witnessing aHindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or "Golden Age of India". During this period, aspects of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and religion (Hinduism and Buddhism) spread to much of Asia, while kingdoms in Southern India had maritime business links with theRoman Empire from around 77 AD.

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Maurya Empire

TheMauryan Empire was the first political entity to unite India and expand into Central Asia. Its cultural influence also extended west intoEgypt andSyria, and east intoThailand,China andBurma.

The Empire was founded in 322 BC byChandragupta Maurya. Chandragupta waged a war against the nearbyGreek powers and won, forcing the Greeks to surrender large amounts of land. Under the reign ofAshoka the Great, the empire turned to spreading its soft power in the form ofBuddhism.^[33]

The Empire was divided into four provinces, which one of the four, look like a giant crescents. with the imperial capital atPataliputra. From Ashokan edicts, the names of the four provincial capitals areTosali (in the east),Ujjain in the west,Suvarnagiri (in the south), andTaxila (in the north). The head of the provincial administration was theKumara (royal prince), who governed the provinces as king's representative. Thekumara was assisted by Mahamatyas and council of ministers. This organizational structure was reflected at the imperial level with the Emperor and hisMantriparishad (Council of Ministers).

Historians theorize that the organization of the Empire was in line with the extensive bureaucracy described byKautilya in theArthashastra: a sophisticated civil service governed everything from municipal hygiene to international trade. According toMegasthenes, the empire wielded a military of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000war elephants. A vastespionage system collected intelligence for both internal and external security purposes. Having renounced offensive warfare and expansionism, Ashoka nevertheless continued to maintain this large army, to protect the Empire and instill stability and peace across South Asia.

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In the 4th and 5th centuries, theGupta Empire unified India. This period is called theGolden Age of India and was marked by extensive achievements inscience, technology,engineering,art,literature,logic,mathematics,astronomy,religion andphilosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Indian culture.Chandragupta I,Samudragupta, andChandragupta II were the most notable rulers of the Gupta dynasty.

The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architectures, sculptures and paintings. The Gupta period produced scholars such asKalidasa,Aryabhata,Varahamihira,Vishnu Sharma, andVatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields. Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural center and set the region up as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions inBurma,Sri Lanka,Indonesian Archipelago andIndochina.

TheShang dynasty (Chinese:商朝;pinyin:Shāng cháo) orYin dynasty (Chinese:殷代; pinyin:Yīn dài), according totraditional historiography, ruled in theYellow River valley in the second millennium BC, succeeding theXia dynasty and followed by theZhou dynasty. The classic account of the Shang comes from texts such as theClassic of History,Bamboo Annals andRecords of the Grand Historian. According to the traditional chronology based upon calculations made approximately 2,000 years ago byLiu Xin, the Shang ruled from 1766 BC to 1122 BC, but according to the chronology based upon the "current text" ofBamboo Annals, they ruled from 1556 BC to 1046 BC. TheXia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project dated them from c. 1600 BC to 1046 BC. At its peak 1122 BC it covered an area of 1,250,000 km².^[34][35]

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TheZhou dynasty (c. 1046–256 BC;Chinese:周朝;pinyin:Zhōu Cháo;Wade–Giles:Chou¹ Ch'ao²[tʂóʊtʂʰɑ̌ʊ]) was aChinese dynasty that followed theShang dynasty and preceded theQin dynasty. Although the Zhou dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty inChinese history, the actual political and military control ofChina by the dynasty, surnamedJi (Chinese:姬), lasted only until 771 BC, a period known as theWestern Zhou.

This period of Chinese history produced what many consider the zenith of Chinesebronze-ware making. The dynasty also spans the period in which the written script evolved into its modern form with the use of an archaic clerical script that emerged during the lateWarring States period.

Qin Dynasty

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The Qin dynasty was preceded by thefeudalZhou dynasty and followed by theHan dynasty in China. The unification of China in 221 BC under theFirst Emperor Qin Shi Huang marked the beginning of Imperial China, a period which lasted until the fall of theQing dynasty in 1912.

In 214 BC Qin Shihuang secured his boundaries to the north with a fraction (100,000 men) of his large army, and sent the majority (500,000 men) south to seize still more land. Prior to the events leading to Qin dominance over China, they had gained possession of much of Sichuan to the southwest. The Qin army was unfamiliar with the jungle terrain, and it was defeated by the southern tribes' guerrilla warfare tactics with over 100,000 men lost. However, in the defeat Qin was successful in building a canal to the south, which they used heavily for supplying and reinforcing their troops during their second attack to the south. Building on these gains, the Qin armies conquered the coastal lands surrounding Guangzhou, and took the provinces of Fuzhou and Guilin. They struck as far south as Hanoi. After these victories in the south, Qin Shihuang moved over 100,000 prisoners and exiles to colonize the newly conquered area. In terms of extending the boundaries of his empire, the First Emperor was extremely successful in the south.

Despite its military strength, the Qin dynasty did not last long. When the first emperor died in 210 BC, his son was placed on the throne by two of the previous emperor's advisers, in an attempt to influence and control the administration of the entire country through him. The advisors squabbled among themselves, however, which resulted in both their deaths and that of the second Qin emperor. Popular revolt broke out a few years later, and the weakened empire soon fell to a Chu lieutenant, who went on to found the Han dynasty. Despite its rapid end, the Qin dynasty influenced future Chinese regimes, particularly the Han, and the European name for China is derived from it.

Han Dynasty

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The Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 220), lasting 400 years, is commonly considered within China to be one of the greatest periods in thehistory of China. At its height, the Han empire extended over a vast territory of 6 million km² and housed a population of approximately 55 million. During this time period,China became a military, economic, and cultural powerhouse. The empire extended its political andcultural influence overKorea,Japan,Mongolia,Vietnam, andCentral Asia before it finally collapsed under a combination of domestic and external pressures.

The Han Empire was divided into areas directly controlled by the central government, known as commanderies, and a number of semi-autonomous kingdoms. These kingdoms gradually lost all vestiges of their independence, particularly following theRebellion of the Seven States. TheXiongnu, a nomadic confederation which dominated the eastern Eurasian Steppe, defeated the Han army in battle in 200 BC. Following the defeat, a political marriage alliance was negotiated in which the Han became the de facto inferior partner. When, despite the treaty, the Xiongnu continued to raid Han borders,Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BC) launched several military campaigns against them. The ultimate Han victory in these wars eventually forced the Xiongnu to accept vassal status as Han tributaries. These campaigns expanded Han sovereignty into the Tarim Basin of Central Asia and helped establish the vast trade network known as theSilk Road, which reached as far as the Mediterranean world. Han forces managed to divide the Xiongnu into two competing nations, the Southern and Northern Xiongnu, and forced the Northern Xiongnu across the Ili River. Despite these victories, the territories north of Han's borders were quickly overrun by the nomadicXianbei confederation.

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The Jin dynasty (simplified Chinese:晋朝;traditional Chinese:晉朝;pinyin:Jìn Cháo;Wade–Giles:Chin⁴-ch'ao²,IPA:[tɕîntʂʰɑ̌ʊ];), was a dynasty in Chinese history, lasting between the years 265 and 420AD. There are two main divisions in the history of the dynasty, the first beingWestern Jin (西晉, 265–316) and the secondEastern Jin (東晉, 317–420). Western Jin was founded bySima Yan, with its capital atLuoyang, while Eastern Jin was begun bySima Rui, with its capital atJiankang. The two periods are also known asLiang Jin (兩晉; literally: two Jin) andSima Jin (司馬晉) by scholars, to distinguish this dynasty from other dynasties that use the same Chinese character, such as theLater Jin dynasty (後晉).

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Ancient Greece is the civilization belonging to the period of Greek history lasting from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to 146 BC and the Roman conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth. At the center of this time period is Classical Greece, which flourished during the 5th to 4th centuries BC, at first under Athenian leadership successfully repelling the military threat of Persian invasion. TheAthenian Golden Age ends with the defeat of Athens at the hands of Sparta in thePeloponnesian War in 404 BC. Following the conquests ofAlexander the Great, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the western end of the Mediterranean Sea. Classical Greek culture had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean region and Europe, for which reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of Western civilization.

Athens, after a tyranny in the second half of the 6th century, established ancient Europe's first democracy as a radical solution to prevent the aristocracy from regaining power. A citizens' assembly (the Ecclesia), for the discussion of city policy, had existed since the reforms of Draco; all citizens were permitted to attend after the reforms of Solon, but the poorest citizens could not address the assembly or run for office. With the establishment of the democracy, the assembly became the de jure mechanism of government; all citizens had equal privileges in the assembly. However, non-citizens, foreigners living in Athens, slaves and women had no political rights at all. After the rise of the democracy in Athens, other city-states founded democracies. However, many retained more traditional forms of government. As so often in other matters, Sparta was a notable exception to the rest of Greece, ruled through the whole period by not one, but two hereditary monarchs. This was a form of diarchy.

Ancient Athens

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Ancient Athens was inhabited around 3,000 years ago.Athens has one of the longest histories of any city inEurope and in the world. It became the leading city of Ancient Greece in the first millennium BC. Its cultural achievements during the 5th century BC laid the foundations ofwestern civilization. During theMiddle Ages, Athens experienced decline and then a recovery under theByzantine Empire. Athens was relatively prosperous during theCrusades, benefiting from medieval Italian trade.

Fifth-century Athens refers to the Greek city-state Athens in the period of roughly 480 BC-404 BC. This was a period of Athenian political hegemony, economic growth and cultural flourishing known as theGolden Age of Athens orAge of Pericles. The period began in 480 BC when an Athenian-led coalition of city-states, known as the Delian League, defeated the Persians at Salamis. As the fifth century wore on, what started as an alliance of independent city-states gradually became an Athenian empire. Eventually, Athens abandoned the pretense of parity among its allies and relocated the Delian League treasury from Delos to Athens, where it funded the building of the Athenian Acropolis. With its enemies under its feet and its political fortunes guided by legendary statesman and orator Pericles, Athens as a center of literature, philosophy (seeGreek philosophy) and the arts (seeGreek theatre). Some of the most important figures of Western cultural and intellectual history lived in Athens during this period: the dramatistsAeschylus,Aristophanes,Euripides andSophocles, the philosophersAristotle,Plato andSocrates.

Lacedaemon

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Sparta was aDorian Greekmilitary state, originally centered inLaconia. As acity-state devoted to military training, Sparta possessed the most formidable army in the Greek world, and after achieving notable victories over theAthenian andPersian Empires, regarded itself as the natural protector of Greece.^[36]Laconia orLacedaemon (Λακεδαίμων) was the name of the widercity-state centered at the city of Sparta, though the name "Sparta" is now used for both.

Following the victories in the Messenian Wars (631 BC), Sparta's reputation as a land-fighting force was unequaled.^[37] In 480 BC a small Spartan unit under KingLeonidas made a legendarylast stand against a massive, invading Persian army at theBattle of Thermopylae. One year later, Sparta assembled at full strength and led a Greek alliance against the Persians atPlataea. There, a decisive Greek victory put an end to theGreco-Persian War along with Persian ambition of expanding into Europe. Even though this war was won by a pan-Hellenic army, credit was given to Sparta, who, besides being the protagonist at Thermopylae and Plataea, had been the nominal leader of the entire Greek expedition.^[38]

In later Classical times, Sparta along withAthens,Thebes andPersia had been the main regional powers fighting for supremacy against each other. As a result of thePeloponnesian War, Sparta, a traditionally continental culture, became a naval power. At the peak of her power, she subdued many of the key Greek states and even managed to overpower the powerful Athenian navy. By the end of the 5th century, she stood out as a state which had defeated at war both thePersian andAthenian Empires, a period which marks theSpartan Hegemony.

Sparta was, above all, a militarist state, and emphasis on military fitness began virtually at birth.

Macedon

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Macedonia was the name of an ancient kingdom in the northernmost part ofancient Greece, borderingEpirus to the west and the ancient thracianOdrysian kingdom to the east. For a brief period it became the most powerful state in the world afterAlexander the Great conquered most of the known world, including the entire Achaemenid Empire, inaugurating theHellenistic period ofGreek history.

Therise of Macedon, from a small kingdom at the periphery of Classical Greek affairs, to one which came to dominate the entire Hellenic world (and beyond), occurred in the space of just 25 years, between 359 and 336 BC. This ascendancy is largely attributable to the personality and policies ofPhilip II of Macedon. Philip's military skills and expansionist vision of Macedonian greatness brought him early success. He had however first to re-establish a situation which had been greatly worsened by the defeat against the Illyrians in which King Perdiccas himself had died. The Paionians and theThracians had sacked and invaded the eastern regions of the country, while the Athenians had landed, at Methoni on the coast, a contingent under a Macedonian pretender called Argeus. Using diplomacy, Philip pushed back Paionians andThracians promising tributes, and crushed the 3,000 Athenian hoplites (359). Momentarily free from his opponents, he concentrated on strengthening his internal position and, above all, his army. His most important innovation was doubtless the introduction of the phalanx infantry corps, armed with the famous sarissa, an exceedingly long spear, at the time the most important army corps in Macedonia.

Philip's son,Alexander the Great, managed to briefly extend Macedonian power not only over the central Greek city-states, but also to the Persian empire, including Egypt and lands as far east as the fringes of India. Alexander's adoption of the styles of government of the conquered territories was accompanied by the spread of Greek culture and learning through his vast empire. Although the empire fractured into multiple Hellenic regimes shortly after his death, his conquests left a lasting legacy, not least in the new Greek-speaking cities founded across Persia's western territories, heralding the Hellenistic period. In the partition of Alexander's empire among the Diadochi, Macedonia fell to the Antipatrid dynasty, which was overthrown by the Antigonid dynasty after only a few years.

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Alexander had made no special preparations for his succession in his newly founded empire and the Apocrypha of his death state that on his death-bed he willed it to those that performed actions well and powerfully. The result was thewars of the Diadochi between his generals (theDiadochi, or 'Successors'), which lasted for forty years before a more-or-less stable arrangement was established, consisting of four major domains:

• TheAntigonid dynasty inMacedon and central Greece;
• ThePtolemaic dynasty inEgypt based atAlexandria;
• TheSeleucid dynasty inSyria andMesopotamia based atAntioch;
• TheAttalid dynasty inAnatolia based atPergamum.

A further two kingdoms later emerged, the so-calledGreco-Bactrian andIndo-Greek kingdom. Hellenistic culture thrived in its preservation of the past. The states of the Hellenistic period were deeply fixated with the past and its seemingly lost glories. Athens retained its position as the most prestigious seat of higher education, especially in the domains of philosophy and rhetoric, with considerable libraries. Alexandria was a center of Greek learning and the Library of Alexandria had 700,000 volumes. The city of Pergamon became a major center of book production, possessing a library of some 200,000 volumes, second only to Alexandria's. The island of Rhodes boasted a famous finishing school for politics and diplomacy. Antioch was founded as a metropolis and center of Greek learning which retained its status into the era of Christianity. Seleucia replaced Babylon as the metropolis of the lower Tigris.

Roman Empire

Ancient Rome is widely known as ancientEurope's largest and most powerfulcivilization. After thesecond Punic war Rome was already one of the biggest empires on the planet but its expansion continued with the invasions of Greece, Asia Minor and later Gaul. By 27 BC Rome had control over half ofEurope as well as Northern Africa and large amounts of the Middle East. Rome also had a developed culture, building on the earlierGreek culture. From the time ofAugustus to theFall of the Western Empire, Rome dominatedWestern Eurasia, comprising the majority of its population.

Roman expansion began long before the state was transformed into a de facto monarchy and reached its zenith under emperorTrajan with the conquest ofMesopotamia andArmenia from 113 to 117.^[39] The period of the "Five Good Emperors" saw a successions of peaceful years and the Empire was prosperous. Each emperor of this period was adopted by his predecessor. TheNerva–Antonine dynasty was a dynasty of seven consecutive Roman Emperors who ruled over the Roman Empire from 96 to 192. These Emperors are Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus, and Commodus.

The last two of the "Five Good Emperors" andCommodus are also calledAntonines. After his accession, Nerva, who succeeded Domitian, set a new tone: he restored much confiscated property and involved theRoman Senate in his rule. Starting in 101,Trajan undertook two military campaigns against the gold rich Dacia, which he finally conquered in 106 (seeTrajan's Dacian Wars). In 112, Trajan marched on Armenia and annexed it to the Roman Empire. Then he turned south into Parthia, taking several cities before declaring Mesopotamia a new province of the empire, and lamenting that he was too old to follow in the steps of Alexander the Great. During his rule, the Roman Empire expanded to its largest extent, and would never again advance so far to the east. Hadrian's reign was marked by a general lack of major military conflicts, but he decided to defend the vast territories that Trajan had acquired.

At its territorial peak in the year 117, the Roman Empire controlled approximately 5,000,000 km² (1,900,000 mi²) of land surface.^[40][35] After Trajans reign the Empire continued to grow stronger until the reign ofMarcus Aurelius.^[41] After the death ofMarcus Aurelius his son,Commodus would take power. The reign of Commodus marked the beginning of the decline of the Roman Empire .Ancient Rome's influence upon the culture, law, technology, arts, language, religion, government, military, and architecture ofWestern civilization continues to this day even outsidelatin countries . It would fall toOdoacer in 476, but itseastern half will still be alive until itfell in 1453.^[42]

TheOdrysian Kingdom proper was aThracian kingdom that existed from the early 5th century BC at least until the mid-3rd century BC. It consisted mainly of present-dayBulgaria and parts of SoutheasternRomania (Northern Dobruja),Northern Greece andEuropean Turkey. Dominated by the eponymous Odrysian people, it was the largest and most powerful Thracian realm and the first larger political entity of the easternBalkans. Before the foundation ofSeuthopolis in the late 4th century it had no fixed capital.

The Odrysian kingdom was founded by kingTeres I, exploiting the collapse of thePersian presence in Europe due tofailed invasion of Greece in 480-79. Teres and his sonSitalces pursued a policy of expansion, making the kingdom one of the most powerful of its time. Throughout much of its early history it remained an ally ofAthens and even joined thePeloponnesian War on its side. By 400 the state showed first signs of fatigue, although the skilledCotys I initiated a brief renaissance that lasted until his murder in 360.

TheGetae, a northern Thracian people^[43][44][45] located between the northeastern foothills of the Haemus range and the lower Danube and the Black Sea, had been part of the Odrysian realm since Teres I, even though it is not clear how tightly they were actually incorporated into the state. When and how the Getae became independent is not discussed in the available sources.^[46] Perhaps they became independent during the rule of Cotys I^[47] or after his death in 360.^[48] Rich funeral treasures from the second half of the 4th century, like those ofAgighiol,Peretu orBorovo, attest to the increasing wealth of the Getic elite.^[48] Several artefacts seem to have originated in the Odrysian kingdom and may well have been prestige gifts.^[47]

By the middle of the 4th century, there existed a Getic kingdom that was to thrive for a century.^[49] The Getic capital was Helis, which has been identified with the archaeological site ofSboryanovo, which was founded in the 330s^[50] or early 320s^[48] and housed around 10.000 inhabitants.^[51] It seems that the Getae also became active inMuntenia north of the Danube,^[52][53] a region that would come to constitute a part of the "Dacia" of imperialRoman historiography.^[54] The first Getic king to appear in the sources wasCothelas, who married his daughterMeda to Philip II,^[48] thus concluding an alliance between the two states.^[55] This probably happened during^[56] or shortly after Philip's conquest of the Odrysians.^[57] The kingdom survived two wars withLysimachus^[58] and theCeltic invasion in around 280, but eventually disintegrated a few decades later.^[59] Helis/Sboryanovo was completely destroyed by an earthquake in the middle of the 3rd century.^[51]

With Alexander's absence in Asia, theStrategoi ofThrace engaged in rebellions and failed expeditions against the Getae, greatly unsettling the country in the process.^[60] At the end of the 330s or in the mid-320s (the dating is not entirely clear), a certain Seuthes, later known asSeuthes III, instigated a Thracian rebellion.^[61] He seems to have been an Odrysian^[62] and may have been associated with the royal house of Cersebleptes, although his social background must remain speculation.^[63][64] Seuthes' goal seems to have been the revival of an independent Odrysian state.^[65] Seuthes ruled in the interior, what is Thrace north of theRhodopes, but not the coastal regions of the Aegean and Black Sea.^[66][67] Probably after the death of Alexander in 323,^[68] he founded the capital town of Seuthopolis, on theTonzos river, near modernKazanlak, and named after himself.^[66][62]

TheDacian Kingdom reached its greatest territorial extent underBurebista's rule (82BC-44BC). During his rule, he conquered territories fromCentral Europe to theBalkans, reaching theAegean Sea. He is well known by the Greek scholars as the "Celtic Slayer", because he defeated and killed many Celtic tribes from the Balkans (Scordisci) and the Central Europe (Boii &Taurisci). In 48BC Burebista tried to influence the Roman politics, during theRoman civil war by allying withPompey Magnus against the victoriousJulius Caesar. ButPompey was defeated and later killed inPtolemaic Egypt. After all of that, Julius Caesar viewed Burebista's Empire as a threat and he planned to invade it along with theParthian Empire. But he was assassinated in 44 BC. Burebista's state collapsed into various kingdoms. It will never be unified untilDecebalus becomes the last King in 87AD.

The Thracian kingdom, also known as theSapaean kingdom, was the continuation of the Thracian state from the middle of the 1st century BC to 46 AD. It was dominated by theSapaean tribe, who ruled from their capitalBizye in what is now northwesternTurkey. Initially only of limited relevance, its power grew significantly after thebattle of Actium in 31 BC, when EmperorAugustus installed a new dynasty that proved to be highly loyal and expansive. Conquering and ruling much of Thrace onRoman behalf, it lasted until 46 AD, when EmperorClaudius annexed the kingdom and made Thrace a Romanprovince.

Seleucid Empire

The Seleucid Empire was aHellenistic empire,^[69] and the eastern remnant of the former Achaemenid Persian Empire following its breakup after Alexander the Great's invasion. The Seleucid Empire was centered in the near East.^[70] It was a center of Hellenistic culture which maintained the Greek customs and Greek-speaking Macedonian elite.^[69]

Seleucid expansion into Greece was abruptly halted after decisive defeats at the hands of the Roman army.^[71] Much of the eastern part of the empire was conquered by the Parthians under Mithridates I of Parthia in the mid-2nd century BC,^[72] yet the Seleucid kings continued to rule a rump state from Syria until the invasion by Armenian kingTigranes the Great^[69]and their ultimate overthrow by the Roman generalPompey.^[73]

Ptolemaic empire

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ThePtolemaic dynasty, sometimes also known as theLagids, was a Greek^{[74][75][76][77]} royal family which ruled thePtolemaic Empire in Egypt during the Hellenistic period.

Ptolemy, one of the seven somatophylakes (bodyguards) who served as Alexander the Great's generals and deputies, was appointed satrap of Egypt after Alexander's death in 323 BC. In 305 BC, he declared himself King Ptolemy I, later known as "Soter" (saviour). The Egyptians soon accepted the Ptolemies as the successors to the pharaohs of independent Egypt. Ptolemy's family ruled Egypt until the Roman conquest of 30 BC. All the male rulers of the dynasty took the name Ptolemy.

Ptolemaic Egypt began when Ptolemy I Soter declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt in 305 BC and ended with the death of queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt and the Roman conquest in 30 BC. The Ptolemaic Kingdom was a powerful Hellenistic state, extending from southern Syria in the east, to Cyrene to the west, and south to the frontier with Nubia. Alexandria became the capital city and a center of Greek culture and trade. To gain recognition by the native Egyptian populace, they named themselves as the successors to the Pharaohs. The later Ptolemies took on Egyptian traditions, had themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and participated in Egyptian religious life. Hellenistic culture continued to thrive in Egypt well after the Muslim conquest. The Ptolemies faced rebellions of native Egyptians often caused by an unwanted regime and were involved in foreign and civil wars that led to the decline of the kingdom and its annexation by Rome.

TheScythians (/ˈsɪθiən/ or/ˈsɪðiən/) orScyths (/ˈsɪθ/, but noteScytho- (/ˈsaɪθoʊ/) in composition) and sometimes also referred to as thePontic Scythians, were anancientEasternIranianequestriannomadic people who had migrated during the 9th to 8th centuries BC fromCentral Asia to thePontic Steppe in modern-dayUkraine andSouthern Russia, where they remained established from the 7th century BC until the 3rd century BC.^[78]

After the Scythians' disappearance, authors of the ancient, mediaeval, and early modern periods used their name to refer to various populations of the steppes unrelated to them.^[79]

TheSarmatians (Latin:Sarmatæ orSauromatæ,Greek:Σαρμάται, Σαυρομάται) were anIranian people duringclassical antiquity, flourishing from about the 5th century BC to the 4th century AD.^[80][81] They spokeScythian, anIndo-European language from theEastern Iranian family.

Originating inCentral Asia, the Sarmatians started their westward migration around the 6th century bc, coming to dominate the closely relatedScythians by the 2nd century bc.^[82] The Sarmatians differed from the Scythians in their veneration of the god of fire rather than god of nature, and theirwomen's prominent role in warfare, which possibly served as the inspiration for theAmazons.^[82] At their greatest reported extent, around the 1st century AD, these tribes ranged from theVistula River to the mouth of theDanube and eastward to theVolga, bordering the shores of theBlack andCaspian seas as well as theCaucasus to the south.^[83] Their territory, which was known as Sarmatia toGreco-Roman ethnographers, corresponded to the western part of greaterScythia (mostly modernUkraine andSouthern Russia, also to a smaller extent north easternBalkans aroundMoldova). According to authors Arrowsmith, Fellowes and Graves Hansard in their bookA Grammar of Ancient Geography published in 1832, Sarmatia had two parts, Sarmatia Europea^[84] and Sarmatia Asiatica^[85] covering a combined area of 503,000 sq mi or 1,302,764 km².

Xiongnu

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Xiongnu (Hsiung nu) was anomadic empire that flourished in the central Asia. Their origin is debatable, but they probably spoke either anIranian,Proto-Turkic,Proto-Mongolic, orYeniseian language. They conquered most of modernMongolia under their leaderToumen (220–209 BC) in the 3rd century BC. DuringModu's reign (209–174 BC) they defeated both theDonghu in the east andYuezhi in the west and they began threateningHan China.

TheGreat Wall of China had been constructed to protect Chinese towns from the Xiongnu attacks. While the Chinese were trying to bring the Xiongnu under control, something of high significance happened: cross-cultural encounters. A large variety of people (such as traders, ambassadors, hostages, parents in cross-cultural marriages, etc.) served as helpers that passed on ideas, values, and techniques across cultural boundary lines. These encounters helped cultures learn from other cultures. The Xiongnu Empire disintegrated into two parts during the 1st century; eventually the Xiongnu fell due to their defeat in theHan–Xiongnu War.

Hunnic Empire

Huns were nomadic people who were known for their hordes ofmounted archers. Their language seems to beTurkic; butMongolic,Yeniseian,Uralic etc., are also postulated. After 370 under a certainBalamber they founded an empire in the East Europe defeatingAlans andGoths. They triggered thegreat migration which eventually caused the collapse of theWest Roman Empire.^[86]

The death of Rugila in 434 left the sons of his brother Mundzuk, Attila and Bleda, in control of the united Hun tribes.Attila the Hun ruled of the Huns from 434 until his death in 453. Under his rule and leader of the Hunnic Empire, the empire stretched from Germany to the Ural River and from the Danube River to the Baltic Sea. Hunnic khagan Atilla invaded Europe. The rise of the Huns around 370 overwhelmed theGothic kingdoms. Many of the Goths migrated into Roman territory in the Balkans, while others remained north of the Danube under Hunnic rule.

During Attila the Hun's rule, he was one of the most fearsome enemies of the Western and Eastern Roman Empire. He invaded the Balkans twice and marched through Gaul (modern France) as far as Orléans before being defeated at theBattle of Châlons, though some scholars now believe this battle resulted in a stalemate or even a Hunnish victory. He appeared inNorth Italy in the next year. After Attila's death in 453, the Hunnic Empire collapsed in 469. The Huns seem to have been absorbed by other ethnic groups such as theBulgars.^[87] Kim, however, argues that the Huns continued under Ernak, becoming theKutrigur andUtigur Hunno-Bulgars.^[88] This conclusion is still subject to some controversy. Some scholars also argue that another group identified in ancient sources as Huns, theNorth Caucasian Huns, were genuine Huns.^[89][90] The rulers of various post-Hunnic steppe peoples are known to have claimed descent from Attila in order to legitimize their right to the power, and various steppe peoples were also called "Huns" by Western and Byzantine sources from the fourth century onward.^[91]

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