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List of U.S. states and territories by income inequality

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected fromList of U.S. states by Gini coefficient)

This article is part of a series on
Income in the
United States
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TheUnited States has thegreatest income disparity amongdeveloped nations.[1] However, the inequality indicators vary considerably from state to state. States that have a high concentration of skilled jobs, implement regressive tax policies, or have weaker worker protections in general tend to have greater income inequalities. As of 2019, the highest inequality may be observed inPuerto Rico, around theNew York City andWashington, D.C. metropolitan areas, across much of theSouthern United States, inCalifornia, and inMassachusetts.

Reasons for differences in income inequality among the states

[edit]

In the framework ofAmerican federalism, states generally have wide latitude to enact policies within their borders, includingstate taxation andlabor laws. Among the factors that may increase inequality in a state areregressive state tax policies[2] (taxation has played a growing role in diminishing inequality since the 1980s),[3]tax incentives for large companies,[4]corruption,[5] reducedlabor-union membership,[6]right-to-work laws,[7] lowerminimum wages,[8] poorer healthcare,[9] and increased welfare spending on the poor.[7] Additionally, since the 1970s, income disparities have disproportionately increased in metropolitan areas, because of the concentration of high-skilled jobs there.[10][11] For example, even though New York is the state with the highest inequality,Upstate New York has much less income inequality thanDownstate New York, because theeconomy of New York City (Gini index 0.5469)[12] relies greatly on high-salary earners.[11] States with better financial development tend to be more unequal than those with worse financial opportunities; but the trends go in the opposite directions for high-income and low-income states, the former having more equality up to a certain level of development, beyond which the inequality rises non-linearly.[13] The influx offoreign direct investment lessens the disparity at the federal level, but it does not necessarily do so for individual states.[14]

Gini coefficient

[edit]
Map of Gini coefficients by US state, 2019

TheGini coefficient is a measure of inequality of incomes (or sometimes wealth) across individuals. A score of "0" on the Gini coefficient represents complete equality, i.e. every person has the same income. A score of 1 would represent the case in which one person would have all the income and others would have none. Therefore, a lower Gini score is roughly associated with a more equal distribution of income and vice versa. In 2018U.S. income inequality as measured by the Gini index was close to the highest recorded values ever.[15][16]

The information was tabulated in 2019 from data from theAmerican Community Survey (ACS) conducted by theUS Census Bureau. TheSouth, thetri-state area around New York City andCalifornia tend to have more income inequality, while theUpper Midwest, theNorthwest andNorthern New England are relatively more equal. According to the American Community Survey's (ACS) 2019 estimate,Utah is the most equal state when it comes to income, whileNew York is the most unequal by this measure, with theGini indices, before taxes and transfer,[17] of 0.4268 and 0.5149, respectively.[18]

The uncertainties are not shown in the table. The ACS gives a much higher estimate of the Gini coefficient for the United States than other sources.[15][16][19]

#Entity[a]Gini coefficient (2019)[18]Gini coefficient (2015–2019)[20]
United States0.48110.4823
1Puerto Rico0.55090.5486
2New York0.51490.5142
3District of Columbia0.51150.5269
4Connecticut0.50240.4963
5Louisiana0.49780.4953
6Mississippi0.48960.4807
7California0.48660.4886
8Florida0.48080.4862
9Massachusetts0.48030.4826
10Illinois0.48000.4821
11Georgia0.47950.4819
12New Jersey0.47820.4814
13New Mexico0.47680.4784
14Kentucky0.47640.4786
15Texas0.47530.4791
16Arkansas0.47500.4765
17Tennessee0.47490.4788
18South Carolina0.47470.4740
19Pennsylvania0.47450.4720
20North Carolina0.47430.4760
21Alabama0.47410.4791
22Oklahoma0.47390.4689
23Nevada0.47100.4620
24Virginia0.46900.4689
25Ohio0.46510.4654
26West Virginia0.46440.4667
27Michigan0.46340.4669
28Missouri0.46330.4641
29Rhode Island0.46280.4702
30Montana0.45970.4594
31Arizona0.45910.4664
32Indiana0.45840.4526
33Washington0.45770.4573
34Maryland0.45580.4535
35North Dakota0.45580.4537
36Colorado0.45480.4566
37Delaware0.45090.4545
38Kansas0.45000.4563
39Oregon0.45000.4586
40Maine0.44900.4511
41Vermont0.44710.4484
42Minnesota0.44340.4494
43Iowa0.44220.4416
44New Hampshire0.44060.4384
45Nebraska0.44000.4442
46Hawaii0.43970.4414
47Wisconsin0.43910.4448
48Alaska0.43760.4284
49South Dakota0.43600.4440
50Wyoming0.43450.4361
51Idaho0.43370.4462
52Utah0.42680.4265

Shares of income by percentiles

[edit]

States and territories are sorted by the share of the lowest quintile in aggregate household income, i.e. the share of household income of 20% of the poorest households in the total household income. Due to different methodologies by which theUnited States Census Bureau and the EPI have calculated their results, the data should not be compared.

By households

[edit]

Data for quintiles and top 5% come from the American Community Survey estimates in 2019.[21]

#Entity[a]First (lowest)quintileSecond quintileThird quintileFourth quintileFifth (highest) quintileOf which top 5%
Mean incomeShareMean incomeShareMean incomeShareMean incomeShareMean incomeShareMean incomeShare
United States$14,5213.15%$39,1398.48%$66,00614.30%$103,91722.51%$238,03551.56%$430,66223.32%
1Utah$20,1244.18%$49,43710.25%$75,84715.73%$109,64522.74%$227,02247.09%$403,39620.92%
2Idaho$16,1994.11%$38,6869.80%$61,07315.47%$90,87923.01%$188,03647.62%$325,36520.60%
3South Dakota$15,5194.00%$37,3579.62%$59,96715.45%$90,69223.36%$184,71447.58%$317,66520.45%
4Nebraska$15,9653.87%$39,7829.64%$63,57615.40%$95,37623.11%$197,99747.98%$343,13320.79%
5Wisconsin$16,0343.87%$39,8079.60%$64,28515.51%$96,39023.25%$197,97747.76%$345,56420.84%
6Iowa$15,2703.81%$38,4559.58%$61,81015.40%$92,82223.13%$192,97948.08%$339,12621.12%
7New Hampshire$19,0023.77%$48,2139.56%$77,83715.43%$117,46623.29%$241,89147.96%$412,03320.42%
8Maine$14,6743.75%$36,0119.20%$59,24115.13%$90,98323.24%$190,60648.68%$327,47520.91%
9Alaska$18,4083.74%$47,5169.65%$75,78615.39%$116,58923.67%$234,22147.55%$387,39919.66%
10Minnesota$18,1563.74%$46,3819.56%$74,63215.39%$111,85623.06%$233,94948.24%$406,81820.97%
11Wyoming$15,5283.74%$40,7619.80%$66,00115.87%$97,45523.44%$196,02947.15%$339,64020.42%
12Kansas$15,0903.67%$38,4589.35%$62,36615.16%$94,50222.97%$200,93248.85%$350,79621.32%
13Vermont$15,0543.63%$38,6759.32%$63,61015.32%$96,92023.35%$200,81648.38%$343,28820.68%
14Montana$13,8993.60%$35,1079.08%$57,53914.88%$88,23722.82%$191,81949.62%$350,65522.67%
15Indiana$13,9873.59%$35,7729.16%$58,03614.87%$89,24722.86%$193,27949.52%$348,59022.33%
16Colorado$18,4173.56%$48,1519.30%$77,73915.02%$118,16822.83%$255,11449.29%$450,60921.76%
17Oregon$15,5973.53%$40,8459.24%$67,31115.22%$103,46823.39%$215,02648.62%$365,46520.66%
18North Dakota$15,0643.52%$39,1129.14%$64,63415.11%$98,95823.13%$209,98549.09%$373,70921.84%
19Washington$18,5763.51%$48,3709.15%$78,90414.92%$120,90422.86%$262,11849.56%$457,17121.61%
20Arizona$14,7543.50%$38,7759.18%$62,51614.81%$96,32622.82%$209,81949.70%$367,58021.77%
21Hawaii$18,4453.47%$51,4879.69%$83,52515.72%$125,28523.58%$252,49247.53%$423,52919.93%
22Michigan$13,9763.47%$36,0178.93%$59,55914.76%$92,17822.85%$201,67649.99%$356,45522.09%
23Delaware$15,9453.45%$43,2979.37%$70,39515.23%$107,69523.30%$224,89448.65%$387,93720.98%
24Missouri$13,2943.42%$34,8188.94%$57,69714.82%$89,43022.96%$194,18549.86%$345,54522.18%
25Ohio$13,6013.42%$35,2468.87%$58,71914.77%$90,88222.86%$199,07450.08%$354,67322.30%
26Arkansas$11,5553.39%$29,0748.52%$49,07914.39%$77,44522.70%$173,94150.99%$315,23423.10%
27Tennessee$13,1443.37%$33,9138.69%$56,20914.41%$87,45322.41%$199,45651.12%$366,57823.49%
28Florida$14,0263.35%$36,2288.64%$59,31214.14%$92,39222.03%$217,45651.85%$404,25424.10%
29North Carolina$13,3013.33%$34,6428.66%$57,64714.40%$90,46722.61%$204,12951.01%$367,31622.95%
30Nevada$14,4253.32%$39,2719.03%$63,76914.67%$97,05822.33%$220,20850.65%$415,69523.91%
31Maryland$18,9023.31%$52,3149.17%$86,87315.23%$132,24223.18%$280,11549.10%$478,92720.99%
32Oklahoma$12,5073.31%$32,8908.71%$54,70814.49%$85,51922.64%$192,06150.85%$352,07023.30%
33Pennsylvania$14,2953.26%$37,8558.62%$63,85214.55%$99,44322.65%$223,49950.92%$403,16022.96%
34Virginia$17,1383.26%$45,8218.72%$76,77114.61%$120,55522.94%$265,17150.46%$455,89121.69%
35Texas$14,5563.25%$38,6858.63%$64,52014.39%$101,72022.68%$228,92451.05%$408,26322.76%
36West Virginia$10,6493.24%$28,6758.71%$48,90514.85%$77,73923.61%$163,24049.58%$280,03021.26%
37Rhode Island$14,8293.20%$40,9538.85%$70,80815.30%$107,22623.17%$228,95149.47%$406,56721.96%
38Georgia$13,6683.16%$36,9618.55%$62,26214.40%$97,04822.45%$222,39951.44%$402,00223.25%
39South Carolina$12,3343.16%$34,0448.71%$56,59814.48%$89,01122.77%$198,95150.89%$355,36322.72%
40Kentucky$11,3673.15%$30,7628.52%$52,80014.62%$82,59522.87%$183,54950.83%$333,77723.11%
41Illinois$14,6673.07%$40,4188.44%$69,26314.47%$109,10322.79%$245,17351.22%$442,47623.11%
42New Mexico$10,9763.07%$29,8048.33%$52,19414.58%$83,04423.20%$181,94050.83%$314,94121.99%
43Alabama$10,9163.06%$30,2448.46%$52,06214.57%$83,69723.42%$180,46950.50%$311,20821.77%
44New Jersey$18,2493.06%$50,7968.52%$86,33314.47%$135,93622.79%$305,19051.16%$540,49922.65%
45California$16,9812.99%$47,1038.30%$80,69314.21%$127,66622.48%$295,36952.02%$531,01423.38%
46Mississippi$9,7152.99%$26,1228.03%$45,90514.11%$74,34522.85%$169,31852.03%$304,82023.42%
47Connecticut$16,0372.80%$45,4947.94%$78,99813.78%$126,46822.07%$306,15353.42%$579,71125.29%
48Massachusetts$16,4502.80%$49,1028.36%$86,12214.66%$136,54823.25%$299,18850.93%$526,24322.40%
49Louisiana$9,4262.60%$27,8267.66%$51,13414.07%$84,86623.36%$190,03852.31%$336,97623.19%
50New York$13,3722.49%$40,5407.55%$72,66813.54%$118,29022.04%$291,90654.38%$553,77325.79%
51District of Columbia$13,7622.03%$50,9617.53%$93,63613.83%$156,79023.16%$361,69553.44%$640,70023.66%
52Puerto Rico$2,5461.54%$11,3556.87%$20,64512.49%$35,88721.71%$94,84057.38%$179,74427.19%

By families

[edit]

The data presented in the table comes from theEconomic Policy Institute (EPI), a think tank, relying on data from 2015 tax returns.[22][23] The table is sorted according to mean income of families (leftmost column).

#Entity[b]Mean incomeBottom 90%90th-95th percentile95th-99th percentile99th-99.5th percentile99.5th-99.9th percentile99.9th-99.99th percentileTop 0.01%Ratios of average income
MeanShareMeanShareMeanShareMeanShareMeanShareMeanShareMeanShareTop 10%/Bottom 90%Top 1%/Bottom 99%
United States$62,776$35,71251.2%$148,36711.82%$251,18416.01%$525,9414.19%$1,014,8396.47%$3,610,0075.18%$32,231,8555.15%8.5826.28
1Connecticut$92,293$47,67846.49%$191,39810.37%$364,62815.8%$883,7094.79%$1,875,4928.13%$6,986,6126.81%$70,019,0087.61%10.3637.24
2Alaska$80,258$59,02066.18%$157,7929.83%$253,74012.65%$478,0282.98%$847,5424.22%$2,352,9362.64%$12,202,3601.5%4.612.66
3New Jersey$80,236$45,95951.55%$192,64512%$335,56416.73%$706,8804.41%$1,356,8096.76%$4,310,3304.83%$29,977,5853.71%8.4624.31
4Massachusetts$80,125$43,12948.44%$183,93111.48%$326,59416.3%$698,1644.36%$1,436,4077.17%$5,264,2755.91%$50,073,5316.33%9.5830.88
5Wyoming$79,320$50,05756.8%$117,8057.43%$234,28811.81%$518,7943.27%$1,141,6175.76%$4,906,7645.57%$74,430,6309.37%6.8531.2
6District of Columbia$79,080$42,00747.81%$185,31611.72%$335,46016.97%$731,7024.63%$1,493,1127.55%$5,160,8515.87%$43,313,4895.45%9.8330.42
7North Dakota$78,441$56,15464.43%$140,3688.95%$251,89012.84%$537,5193.43%$979,3014.99%$2,849,9923.27%$16,638,6242.09%4.9715.82
8Maryland$74,376$47,98958.07%$173,55611.67%$278,77114.99%$539,0273.62%$990,3755.33%$3,044,6133.68%$19,960,9542.64%6.517.84
9New Hampshire$73,509$48,52259.41%$159,16710.83%$263,48614.34%$497,6663.39%$903,3564.92%$3,048,4143.73%$24,495,8043.4%6.1518.06
10Virginia$73,316$47,31858.09%$171,94111.73%$275,81315.05%$520,6723.55%$935,6895.1%$2,980,6453.66%$20,071,4192.82%6.4917.66
11Colorado$73,163$46,00356.59%$161,40111.03%$276,99315.14%$560,7073.83%$1,052,2365.75%$3,431,2014.22%$25,509,6833.43%6.920.62
12California$71,531$38,41048.33%$164,06711.47%$295,69416.54%$628,7034.39%$1,264,5107.07%$4,655,5795.86%$45,539,6886.35%9.6230.7
13New York$71,146$33,47142.34%$148,18110.41%$289,70716.29%$699,2694.91%$1,537,9538.65%$6,031,1767.63%$69,948,8079.77%12.2644.39
14Washington$70,362$41,48653.07%$161,37511.47%$278,08015.81%$560,9713.99%$1,035,3445.89%$3,750,3994.8%$35,510,3814.99%7.9624.22
15Texas$68,497$41,42754.43%$149,46310.91%$257,49615.04%$544,5863.98%$1,064,1306.21%$3,698,3094.86%$31,131,3784.57%7.5324.16
16Minnesota$68,016$42,15355.78%$152,17811.19%$265,35615.61%$548,1604.03%$982,4615.78%$3,190,8274.22%$23,313,2093.4%7.1420.9
17South Dakota$67,344$44,70559.74%$134,4649.98%$227,15013.49%$499,7453.71%$945,6265.62%$3,066,1744.1%$22,259,8933.36%6.0619.96
18Nebraska$66,892$46,30062.29%$139,08310.4%$220,22713.17%$442,1823.31%$817,3494.89%$2,531,2413.41%$17,700,6292.54%5.4516.3
19Kansas$66,409$44,26359.99%$141,36810.64%$228,92213.79%$460,0733.46%$849,6105.12%$2,773,4283.76%$21,151,6453.24%618.27
20Illinois$65,814$37,40451.15%$147,51211.21%$266,36116.19%$564,3124.29%$1,097,4496.67%$3,878,6295.3%$34,418,2245.19%8.627.04
21Hawaii$65,377$46,13563.51%$144,39111.04%$216,64413.26%$377,2922.89%$678,1424.15%$2,089,3482.88%$14,490,6582.28%5.1713.74
22Utah$63,648$41,14458.18%$140,00911%$226,18914.21%$460,2983.62%$870,2115.47%$2,875,8184.07%$22,200,8193.46%6.4719.72
23Oklahoma$61,333$41,63261.09%$128,05110.44%$203,40813.27%$409,0913.34%$763,4244.98%$2,492,4683.66%$19,982,2623.23%5.7317.75
24Pennsylvania$61,331$37,22054.62%$144,96411.82%$239,38415.61%$477,8683.9%$880,5785.74%$2,966,3984.35%$24,428,1473.96%7.4821.66
26Iowa$61,100$42,28862.29%$136,30511.15%$208,54513.65%$398,7223.26%$708,7434.64%$2,031,8212.99%$12,226,6852.01%5.4514.67
27Wisconsin$60,087$38,96958.37%$136,85911.39%$213,21914.19%$428,8813.57%$800,7485.33%$2,591,7903.88%$19,963,6843.27%6.4218.93
28Rhode Island$59,736$37,97957.22%$145,55812.18%$224,87115.06%$423,4033.54%$791,0995.3%$2,495,9363.76%$17,754,8312.94%6.7318.21
29Delaware$59,234$38,02257.77%$147,04212.41%$224,16915.14%$413,6753.49%$754,1065.09%$2,319,1683.52%$15,522,5792.57%6.5817.03
30Vermont$57,946$38,17559.29%$136,51711.78%$214,91914.84%$390,5483.37%$709,4434.9%$2,157,3593.35%$14,433,5882.47%6.1816.24
31Idaho$55,542$36,79159.62%$127,08411.44%$194,59014.01%$383,4263.45%$707,4295.09%$2,217,6803.59%$15,549,2882.79%6.117.38
32Oregon$54,718$32,58053.59%$142,25013%$229,86216.8%$435,2993.98%$783,9675.73%$2,402,3413.95%$16,614,0762.95%7.819.72
33Nevada$54,603$29,34848.37%$130,93611.99%$202,39414.83%$434,1773.98%$921,0836.75%$3,659,7056.03%$43,398,5358.06%9.6132.67
34Ohio$54,286$34,44557.11%$129,71711.95%$205,24015.12%$406,9093.75%$745,5255.49%$2,278,5303.78%$15,522,3062.8%6.7618.61
35Florida$54,134$25,33042.11%$132,84812.27%$231,57817.11%$526,0404.86%$1,115,4988.24%$4,246,9947.06%$45,516,5098.34%12.3739.47
36Indiana$54,079$35,29258.73%$129,98912.02%$194,35114.38%$384,2813.55%$711,9785.27%$2,148,9453.58%$13,339,7572.48%6.3217.3
37Georgia$53,661$30,87451.78%$136,68312.74%$227,12116.93%$454,1274.23%$850,5896.34%$2,690,0064.51%$18,861,6183.47%8.3822.55
38Missouri$53,652$32,67954.82%$131,78212.28%$205,07715.29%$402,8663.75%$762,4265.68%$2,543,6904.27%$20,094,8573.9%7.4221.16
39Montana$53,305$33,40856.41%$129,70512.17%$204,80715.37%$392,7743.68%$727,3555.46%$2,271,1783.83%$16,642,1473.08%6.9618.94
40Tennessee$53,247$32,63055.15%$125,77911.81%$203,01715.25%$409,5893.85%$774,2095.82%$2,546,6414.3%$20,033,4573.82%7.3221.42
41Louisiana$52,753$33,64457.4%$128,60412.19%$197,47114.97%$386,6353.66%$716,3525.43%$2,174,6543.71%$13,388,8942.63%6.6818.07
42North Carolina$52,441$31,26853.66%$132,41912.63%$216,23916.49%$418,1223.99%$768,3705.86%$2,402,1224.12%$17,703,2283.25%7.7720.59
43Michigan$51,574$30,26652.82%$136,03513.19%$208,89516.2%$403,4593.91%$755,6275.86%$2,458,4674.29%$19,924,8513.73%8.0421.43
44Arizona$50,406$29,47752.63%$132,01613.1%$211,23516.76%$404,1544.01%$761,8086.05%$2,387,5884.26%$16,609,3643.19%8.121.02
45Maine$48,708$31,16457.58%$125,51612.88%$195,64016.07%$360,3343.7%$620,3235.09%$1,642,2303.03%$7,977,3491.64%6.6315.41
46Arkansas$46,735$27,62853.21%$120,30012.87%$180,17415.42%$319,7753.42%$622,0995.32%$2,174,2554.19%$26,603,2085.57%7.9222.48
47South Carolina$45,871$26,86152.7%$125,69913.7%$194,99017%$383,2334.18%$695,6216.07%$1,990,4683.91%$11,121,7222.45%8.0819.7
48Kentucky$45,790$28,06955.17%$122,43013.37%$180,40115.76%$334,6893.65%$616,7905.39%$1,868,0213.67%$13,368,0172.99%7.3118.44
49Alabama$45,638$27,31853.87%$124,79513.67%$184,39616.16%$360,2463.95%$662,4325.81%$1,962,0843.87%$12,219,1182.67%7.7119.27
50New Mexico$45,429$28,75856.97%$122,70113.5%$181,52215.98%$307,6943.39%$556,6354.9%$1,593,3553.16%$9,517,8712.1%6.815.5
51Mississippi$40,804$25,47756.19%$112,69313.81%$160,89015.77%$304,1023.73%$538,8785.28%$1,484,0443.27%$7,929,5191.94%7.0216.42
52West Virginia$39,993$25,01456.29%$116,97214.62%$156,88315.69%$295,2913.69%$508,2345.08%$1,322,4062.98%$6,569,2421.64%6.9915.31

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^abState, district or territory
  2. ^State or district

References

[edit]
  1. ^United Press International (UPI), 22 Jun. 2018,"U.N. Report: With 40M in Poverty, U.S. Most Unequal Developed Nation"
  2. ^Hatch, Megan E.; Rigby, Elizabeth."How States Can Fight Growing Economic Inequality".Scholars Strategy Network. RetrievedFebruary 9, 2022.
  3. ^Cooper, Daniel H.; Lutz, Byron F.; Palumbo, Michael G. (December 1, 2015)."The Role of Taxes in Mitigating Income Inequality Across the U.S. States".National Tax Journal.68 (4):943–974.doi:10.17310/ntj.2015.4.03.ISSN 0028-0283.S2CID 157588016.
  4. ^Jansa, Joshua (November 7, 2019)."Inequality is higher in some states like New York and Louisiana because of corporate welfare".The Conversation. RetrievedFebruary 9, 2022.
  5. ^Apergis, Nicholas; Dincer, Oguzhan C.; Payne, James E. (October 1, 2010)."The relationship between corruption and income inequality in U.S. states: evidence from a panel cointegration and error correction model".Public Choice.145 (1):125–135.doi:10.1007/s11127-009-9557-1.ISSN 1573-7101.S2CID 153354176.
  6. ^Bucci, Laura C. (June 2018)."Organized Labor's Check on Rising Economic Inequality in the U.S. States".State Politics & Policy Quarterly.18 (2):148–173.doi:10.1177/1532440018760198.ISSN 1532-4400.S2CID 158728596.
  7. ^abHatch, Megan E.; Rigby, Elizabeth (2015)."Laboratories of (In)equality? Redistributive Policy and Income Inequality in the American States".Policy Studies Journal.43 (2):163–187.doi:10.1111/psj.12094.ISSN 1541-0072.
  8. ^Volscho, Thomas W. (January 1, 2005)."Minimum Wages and Income Inequality in the American States, 1960–2000"(PDF).Research in Social Stratification and Mobility.23:343–368.doi:10.1016/S0276-5624(05)23011-1.ISSN 0276-5624. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on August 10, 2017.
  9. ^Shi, Leiyu; Macinko, James; Starfield, Barbara; Wulu, John; Regan, Jerri; Politzer, Robert (September 1, 2003)."The Relationship Between Primary Care, Income Inequality, and Mortality in US States, 1980–1995".The Journal of the American Board of Family Practice.16 (5):412–422.doi:10.3122/jabfm.16.5.412.ISSN 1557-2625.PMID 14645332.S2CID 33284246.
  10. ^Morrill, Richard (March 1, 2000)."Geographic variation in change in income inequality among US states, 1970–1990".The Annals of Regional Science.34 (1):109–130.Bibcode:2000ARegS..34..109M.doi:10.1007/s001680050129.ISSN 1432-0592.S2CID 153673682.
  11. ^ab"Why Are Some Places So Much More Unequal Than Others? - FEDERAL RESERVE BANK of NEW YORK".www.newyorkfed.org. RetrievedFebruary 9, 2022.
  12. ^Bach, Trevor (September 21, 2020)."The 10 U.S. Cities With the Largest Income Inequality Gaps".U.S. News & World Report.
  13. ^Bittencourt, Manoel; Chang, Shinhye; Gupta, Rangan; Miller, Stephen M. (November 1, 2019)."Does financial development affect income inequality in the U.S. States?".Journal of Policy Modeling.41 (6):1043–1056.doi:10.1016/j.jpolmod.2019.07.008.hdl:2263/73542.ISSN 0161-8938.S2CID 158772280.
  14. ^Chintrakarn, Pandej; Herzer, Dierk; Nunnenkamp, Peter (2012)."Fdi and Income Inequality: Evidence from a Panel of U.s. States".Economic Inquiry.50 (3):788–801.doi:10.1111/j.1465-7295.2011.00384.x.hdl:10419/30062.ISSN 1465-7295.S2CID 14076863.
  15. ^ab"The Distribution of Household Income, 2018 | Congressional Budget Office".www.cbo.gov. August 4, 2021. RetrievedFebruary 8, 2022.
  16. ^abWorld Bank (January 1, 1974)."GINI Index for the United States".FRED, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. RetrievedFebruary 8, 2022.
  17. ^OECD (2021)."Income redistribution".Government at a Glance.doi:10.1787/1c258f55-en.ISBN 9789264909694.S2CID 242842694. RetrievedMay 16, 2022.
  18. ^ab"B19083: Gini index of income inequality (1-year estimate)".United States Census Bureau. RetrievedFebruary 8, 2022.
  19. ^"Income inequality – Gini Index".Our World in Data. RetrievedFebruary 8, 2022.
  20. ^"B19083: Gini index of income inequality (5-year estimate)".United States Census Bureau. RetrievedFebruary 8, 2022.
  21. ^"B19082: Shares of aggregate household income by quintiles".data.census.gov. RetrievedFebruary 9, 2022.
  22. ^Sommeiller, Estelle; Price, Mark (July 19, 2018)."The new gilded age: Income inequality in the U.S. by state, metropolitan area, and county".Economic Policy Institute.
  23. ^"Data to EPI's report".Economic Policy Institute. June 7, 2018.

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