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List of Roman emperors

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statue of Augustus
The Prima Porta statue ofAugustus (r. 27 BC – AD 14), the firstRoman emperor

TheRoman emperors were the rulers of theRoman Empire from the granting of the name and titleAugustus toOctavian by theRoman Senate in 27 BC onward.[1] Augustus maintained a facade of Republican rule, rejecting monarchical titles but calling himselfprinceps senatus (first man of theSenate) andprinceps civitatis (first citizen of the state). The title of Augustus was conferred on his successors to the imperial position, and emperors gradually grew more monarchical and authoritarian.[2]

The style of government instituted by Augustus is called thePrincipate and continued until the late third or early fourth century.[3] The modern word "emperor" derives from the titleimperator, that was granted by an army to a successful general; during the initial phase of the empire, the title was generally used only by theprinceps.[4] For example, Augustus's official name wasImperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus.[5] The territory under command of the emperor had developed under the period of theRoman Republic as it invaded and occupied much ofEurope and portions ofNorth Africa and theMiddle East. Under the republic, theSenate and People of Rome authorized provincial governors, who answered only to them, to rule regions of the empire.[6] The chief magistrates of the republic were twoconsuls elected each year; consuls continued to be elected in the imperial period, but their authority was subservient to that of the emperor, who also controlled and determined their election.[7] Often, the emperors themselves, or close family, were selected as consul.[8]

After theCrisis of the Third Century,Diocletian increased the authority of the emperor and adopted the titledominus noster (our lord). The rise of powerfulbarbarian tribes along the borders of the empire, the challenge they posed to the defense of far-flung borders as well as an unstable imperial succession led Diocletian to divide the administration of the Empire geographically with a co-augustus in 286. In 330,Constantine the Great, the emperor who accepted Christianity, established a second capital inByzantium, which was renamedConstantinople. Historians consider theDominate period of the empire to have begun with either Diocletian or Constantine, depending on the author.[9] For most of the period from 286 to 480, there was more than one recognized senior emperor, with the division usually based on geographic regions. This division became permanent after the death ofTheodosius I in 395, which historians have traditionally dated as the division between theWestern Roman Empire and theEastern Roman Empire. However, formally the Empire remained a single polity, with separate co-emperors in the separate courts.[10]

Thefall of the Western Roman Empire is dated either from thede facto date of 476, whenRomulus Augustulus was deposed by the GermanicHerulians led byOdoacer, or thede jure date of 480, on the death ofJulius Nepos, when Eastern emperorZeno ended recognition of a separate Western court.[11] Historians typically refer to the empire in the centuries that followed as the "Byzantine Empire", governed by the Byzantine emperors.[a] Given that "Byzantine" is a laterhistoriographical designation and the inhabitants and emperors of the empire continually maintainedRoman identity, this designation is not used universally and continues to be a subject of specialist debate.[b] UnderJustinian I, in the sixth century, a large portion of the western empire was retaken, including Italy, Africa, and part of Spain.[15] Over the course of the centuries thereafter, most of the imperial territories were lost, which eventually restricted the empire toAnatolia and theBalkans.[c] The line of emperors continued until the death ofConstantine XI Palaiologos at thefall of Constantinople in 1453, when the remaining territories were conquered by theOttoman Turks led by SultanMehmed II.[21][d] In the aftermath of the conquest, Mehmed II proclaimed himselfkayser-i Rûm ("Caesar of the Romans"),[e] thus claiming to be the new emperor,[25]a claim maintained by succeeding sultans.[26] Competing claims ofsuccession to the Roman Empire have also been forwarded by various other states and empires, and by numerouslater pretenders.[27]

Legitimacy

[edit]
See also:Roman emperor andRoman usurper
coin
Coin ofPescennius Niger, aRoman usurper who claimed imperial power AD 193–194. Legend: IMP CAES C PESC NIGER IVST AVG

While the imperial government of theRoman Empire was rarely called into question during its five centuries in the west and fifteen centuries in the east, individual emperors often faced unending challenges in the form of usurpation and perpetual civil wars.[28] From the rise ofAugustus, the first Roman emperor, in 27 BC to thesack of Rome in AD 455, there were over a hundred usurpations or attempted usurpations (an average of one usurpation or attempt about every four years). From the murder ofCommodus in 192 until the fifth century, there was scarcely a single decade without succession conflicts and civil war. Very few emperors died of natural causes, withregicide in practical terms having become the expected end of a Roman emperor bylate antiquity.[29] The distinction between a usurper and a legitimate emperor is a blurry one, given that a large number of emperors that were commonly considered legitimate began their rule as usurpers, revolting against the previous legitimate emperor.[30]

True legitimizing structures and theories were weak, or wholly absent in the Roman Empire,[29] and there were no true objective legal criteria for being acclaimed emperor beyond acceptance by theRoman army.[31] Dynastic succession was not legally formalized, but also not uncommon, with powerful rulers sometimes succeeding in passing power on to their children or other relatives. While dynastic ties could bring someone to the throne, they were not a guarantee that their rule would not be challenged.[32] With the exception ofTitus (r. 79–81; son ofVespasian), no son of an emperor who ruled after the death of his father died a natural death untilConstantine I in 337. Control ofRome itself and approval of theRoman Senate held some importance as legitimising factors, but were mostly symbolic. Emperors who began their careers as usurpers had often been deemedpublic enemies by the senate before they managed to take the city. Emperors did not need to be acclaimed or crowned in Rome itself, as demonstrated in theYear of the Four Emperors (69), when claimants were crowned by armies in theRoman provinces, and the senate's role in legitimising emperors had almost faded into insignificance by theCrisis of the Third Century (235–285). By the end of the third century, Rome's importance was mainly ideological, with several emperors and usurpers even beginning to place their court in other cities in the empire, closer to the imperial frontier.[33]

Common methods used by emperors to assert claims of legitimacy, such as proclamation by the army, blood connections (sometimes fictitious) to past emperors, wearing imperial regalia, distributing one's own coins or statues and claims to pre-eminent virtue through propaganda, were pursued just as well by many usurpers as they were by legitimate emperors.[34] There were no constitutional or legal distinctions that differentiated legitimate emperors and usurpers. In ancient Roman texts, the differences between emperors and "tyrants" (the term typically used for usurpers) is often a moral one (with the tyrants ascribed wicked behaviour) rather than a legal one. Typically, the actual distinction was whether the claimant had been victorious or not. In theHistoria Augusta, an ancient Roman collection of imperial biographies, the usurperPescennius Niger (193–194) is expressly noted to only be a tyrant because he was defeated bySeptimius Severus (r. 193–211).[35] This is also followed in modernhistoriography, where, in the absence of constitutional criteria separating them, the main factor that distinguishes usurpers from legitimate Roman emperors is their degree of success. What makes a figure who began as a usurper into a legitimate emperor is typically either that they managed to gain the recognition from a more senior, legitimate emperor, or that they managed to defeat a more senior, legitimate emperor and seize power from them by force.[32]

List inclusion criteria

[edit]

Given that a concept of constitutional legitimacy was irrelevant in the Roman Empire, and emperors were only 'legitimate' in so far as they were able to be accepted in the wider empire,[36] this list of emperors operates on a collection of inclusion criteria:

  • Imperial claimants whose power across the empire became, or from the beginning was, absolute and who ruled undisputed are treated as legitimate emperors.[37] From 286 onward, when imperial power was usually divided among two colleagues in the east and west,[38] control over the respective half is sufficient even if a claimant was not recognized in the other half, such as was the case for several of the last few emperors in the west.[39]
  • Imperial claimants who were proclaimed emperors by another, legitimate, senior emperor, or who were recognized by a legitimate senior emperor, are treated as legitimate emperors.[40] Many emperors ruled alongside one or various joint-emperors. However, and specially from the 4th century onwards, most of these were children who never ruled in their own right. Scholars of the later Empire always omit these rulers,[41] but the same is not always applied during the early Empire.[42] For the purposes of consistency, later senior emperors' tenures as junior co-emperors are not counted as part of their reign. The list also gives all co-emperors their own entry only up to the 4th century.
  • Imperial claimants who achieved the recognition of the Roman Senate, especially in times of uncertainty and civil war, are, due to the senate's nominal role as an elective body, treated as legitimate emperors.[43] In later times, especially when emperors ruled from other cities, this criterion defaults to the possession and control of Rome itself. In the later eastern empire, possession of the capital ofConstantinople was an essential element of imperial legitimacy.[44]

In the case of non-dynastic emperors after or in the middle of the rule of a dynasty, it is customary among historians to group them together with the rulers of said dynasty,[45] an approach that is followed in this list. Dynastic breaks with non-dynastic rulers are indicated with thickened horizontal lines.

Principate (27 BC – AD 284)

[edit]
Main article:Principate

Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BC – AD 68)

[edit]
Main article:Julio-Claudian dynasty
Julio-Claudian dynasty
Portrait Name[f]ReignSuccessionLife details
bustAugustus
Caesar Augustus		16 January 27 BC – 19 August AD 14
  (40 years, 7 months and 3 days)[g]		Grandnephew and adopted son ofJulius Caesar. Gradually acquired further power through grants from, and constitutional settlements with, theRoman Senate. Continuously head of state since19 August 43 BC, unopposed after theBattle of Actium in 31 BC.23 September 63 BC – 19 August 14
(aged 75)
Born asGaius Octavius.Died probably of natural causes, allegedly poisoned with figs byLivia.[51][52][53]
bustTiberius
Tiberius Caesar Augustus		17 September 14 – 16 March 37
(22 years, 5 months and 27 days)		Stepson, former son-in-law and adopted son ofAugustus16 November 42 BC – 16 March 37
(aged 77)
Died probably of natural causes, allegedly murdered at the instigation ofCaligula[54]
bustCaligula
Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus		18 March 37 – 24 January 41
(3 years, 10 months and 6 days)		Grandnephew and adopted heir ofTiberius, great-grandson ofAugustus31 August 12 – 24 January 41
(aged 28)
Murdered in a conspiracy involving thePraetorian Guard and senators[55]
bustClaudius
Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus		24 January 41 – 13 October 54
(13 years, 8 months and 19 days)		Uncle ofCaligula, nephew ofTiberius, grandnephew ofAugustus, proclaimed emperor by thePraetorian Guard and accepted by the Senate1 August 10 BC – 13 October 54
(aged 63)
Began theRoman conquest of Britain. Probably poisoned by his wifeAgrippina, in favor of her sonNero[56]
bustNero
Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus		13 October 54 – 9 June 68
(13 years, 7 months and 27 days)		Grandnephew, stepson, son-in-law and adopted son ofClaudius, great-great-grandson ofAugustus15 December 37 – 9 June 68
(aged 30)
Committed suicide after being deserted by thePraetorian Guard and sentenced to death by the Senate[57]

Year of the Four Emperors (68–69)

[edit]
Main article:Year of the Four Emperors
Year of the Four Emperors
PortraitNameReignSuccessionLife details
coinGalba
Servius Galba Caesar Augustus		8 June 68 – 15 January 69
(7 months and 7 days)		Governor ofHispania Tarraconensis, revolted againstNero and seized power after his suicide, with support of theSenate andPraetorian Guard24 December 3 BC – 15 January 69
(aged 70)
Murdered by soldiers of thePraetorian Guard in a coup led byOtho[58]
coinOtho
Marcus Otho Caesar Augustus		15 January – 16 April 69
(3 months and 1 day)		Seized power through a coup againstGalba28 April 32 – 16 April 69
(aged 36)
Committed suicide after losing theBattle of Bedriacum toVitellius[59]
coinVitellius
Aulus Vitellius Germanicus Augustus		19 April – 20 December 69
(8 months and 1 day)		Governor ofGermania Inferior, proclaimed emperor by the Rhine legions on 2 January in opposition toGalba andOtho, later recognized by theSenate24 September 15 – 20 December 69
(aged 54)
Murdered byVespasian's troops[60]

Flavian dynasty (69–96)

[edit]
Main article:Flavian dynasty
Flavian dynasty
PortraitNameReignSuccessionLife details
bustVespasian
Caesar Vespasianus Augustus		1 July 69 – 23 June 79
(9 years, 11 months and 22 days)		Proclaimed by the eastern legions in opposition toVitellius, later recognized by the Senate17 November 9 – 23 June 79
(aged 69)
Began construction of theColosseum.
Died ofdysentery[61]
bustTitus
Titus Caesar Vespasianus Augustus		24 June 79 – 13 September 81
(2 years, 2 months and 20 days)		Son ofVespasian30 December 39 – 13 September 81
(aged 41)
Died of natural causes[62]
statueDomitian
Caesar Domitianus Augustus		14 September 81 – 18 September 96
(15 years and 4 days)		Brother ofTitus and son ofVespasian24 October 51 – 18 September 96
(aged 44)
Assassinated in a conspiracy of court officials, possibly involvingNerva[63]

Nerva–Antonine dynasty (96–192)

[edit]
Main article:Nerva–Antonine dynasty
Nerva–Antonine dynasty
PortraitNameReignSuccessionLife details
bustNerva
Nerva Caesar Augustus		18 September 96 – 27 January 98
(1 year, 4 months and 9 days)		Proclaimedemperor by theSenate after the murder ofDomitian8 November 30 – 27/28 January 98
(aged 67)
First of the "Five Good Emperors". Died of natural causes[64]
bustTrajan
Caesar Nerva Traianus Augustus		28 January 98 – 9 August (?) 117
(19 years, 6 months and 11 days)		Adopted son ofNerva18 September 53 – 9 August (?) 117
(aged 63)
First non-Italian emperor. His reign marked the geographical peak of the empire. Died of natural causes[65]
statueHadrian
Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus		11 August 117 – 10 July 138
(20 years, 10 months and 29 days)		Cousin ofTrajan, allegedly adopted on his deathbed24 January 76 – 10 July 138
(aged 62)
Ended Roman expansionism. Destroyed Judea after a massive revolt. Died of natural causes[66]
bustAntoninus Pius
Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Pius[h]		10 July 138 – 7 March 161
(22 years, 7 months and 25 days)		Adopted son ofHadrian19 September 86 – 7 March 161
(aged 74)
Died of natural causes[68]
bustMarcus Aurelius
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus		7 March 161 – 17 March 180
(19 years and 10 days)		Son-in-law and adopted son ofAntoninus Pius. Until 169 reigned jointly with his adoptive brother,Lucius Verus, the first time multiple emperors shared power. Since 177 reigned jointly with his sonCommodus26 April 121 – 17 March 180
(aged 58)
Last of the "Five Good Emperors"; also one of the most representativeStoic philosophers. Died of natural causes[69]
bustLucius Verus
Lucius Aurelius Verus		7 March 161 – January/February 169
(7 years and 11 months)		Adopted son ofAntoninus Pius, named joint emperor by his adoptive brotherMarcus Aurelius15 December 130 – early 169
(aged 38)
Died of natural causes[70]
bustCommodus
Marcus Aurelius Commodus Antoninus / Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus		17 March 180 – 31 December 192
(12 years, 9 months and 14 days)		Son ofMarcus Aurelius. Proclaimed co-emperor in 177, at age 16, becoming the first emperor to be elevated during predecessor's lifetime31 August 161 – 31 December 192
(aged 31)
Strangled to death in a conspiracy involving hispraetorian prefect,Laetus, and mistress,Marcia[71]

Year of the Five Emperors (193)

[edit]
Main article:Year of the Five Emperors
Note: The other claimants during the Year of the Five Emperors werePescennius Niger andClodius Albinus, generally regarded as usurpers.
Year of the Five Emperors
PortraitNameReignSuccessionLife details
bustPertinax
Publius Helvius Pertinax		1 January – 28 March 193
(2 months and 27 days)		City prefect of Rome atCommodus's death, set up as emperor by thepraetorian prefect,Laetus, with consent of theSenate1 August 126 – 28 March 193
(aged 66)
Murdered by mutinous soldiers of thePraetorian Guard[72]
bustDidius Julianus
Marcus Didius Severus Julianus		28 March – 1 June 193
(2 months and 4 days)		Won auction held by thePraetorian Guard for the position of emperor30 January 133 – 1/2 June 193
(aged 60)
Killed on order of theSenate, at the behest ofSeptimius Severus[73]

Severan dynasty (193–235)

[edit]
Main article:Severan dynasty
  (§) – Varying ascribed status[i]
Severan dynasty
PortraitNameReignSuccessionLife details
bustSeptimius Severus
Lucius Septimius Severus Pertinax		9 April 193 – 4 February 211
(17 years, 9 months and 26 days)		Governor ofUpper Pannonia, acclaimed emperor by the Pannonian legions following the murder ofPertinax11 April 145 – 4 February 211
(aged 65)
First non-European emperor. Died of natural causes[74]
bustCaracalla
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus		4 February 211 – 8 April 217
(6 years, 2 months and 4 days)		Son ofSeptimius Severus, proclaimed co-emperor on 28 January 198, at age 10. Succeeded jointly with his brother,Geta, in 2114 April 188 – 8 April 217
(aged 29)
First child emperor. GrantedRoman citizenship to all free inhabitants of theempire. Murdered by a soldier at the instigation ofMacrinus[75]
bustGeta
Publius Septimius Geta		4 February 211 – 26 December 211
(10 months and 22 days)		Son ofSeptimius Severus, proclaimed co-emperor in October 209, succeeded jointly with his older brother,Caracalla7 March 189 – 26 December 211
(aged 22)
Murdered on order of his brother,Caracalla[76]
 
bustMacrinus
Marcus Opellius Severus Macrinus		11 April 217 – 8 June 218
(1 year, 1 month and 28 days)		Praetorian prefect ofCaracalla, accepted as emperor by the army andSenate after having arranged his predecessor's death in fear of his own lifec. 165 – June 218
(agedapprox. 53)
First non-senator to become emperor, and first emperor not to visit Rome after acceding. Executed during a revolt of the troops in favor ofElagabalus.[77]
coinDiadumenian (§)
Marcus Opellius Antoninus Diadumenianus		Late May – June 218
(less than a month)		Son ofMacrinus, named co-emperor by his father after the eruption of a rebellion in favor ofElagabalus14 September 208 – June 218
(aged 9)
Caught in flight and executed in favor ofElagabalus[78]
 
bustElagabalus
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus		16 May 218 – 13 March 222
(3 years, 9 months and 25 days)		Cousin and alleged illegitimate son ofCaracalla, acclaimed as emperor by rebellious legions in opposition toMacrinus at the instigation of his grandmother,Julia Maesa203/204 – 13 March 222
(aged 18)
Murdered by thePraetorian Guard alongside hismother, probably at the instigation ofJulia Maesa[79]
bustSeverus Alexander
Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander		14 March 222 – March 235
(13 years)		Cousin and adopted heir ofElagabalus1 October 208 – early March 235
(aged 26)
Lynched by mutinous troops, alongside hismother[80]

Crisis of the Third Century (235–284)

[edit]
Main articles:Crisis of the Third Century,Year of the Six Emperors, andGordian dynasty
  (#) – Ambiguous legitimacy[j]
  (§) – Varying ascribed status[i]
Crisis of the Third Century
PortraitNameReign[k]SuccessionLife details
bustMaximinus I "Thrax"
Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus		c. March 235 – c. June 238
(3 years and 3 months)		Proclaimed emperor by Germanic legions after the murder ofSeverus Alexander, recognized at Rome on 23 March 235c. 172–180 – c. June 238
(aged approx. 58–66)
First commoner to become emperor. Murdered by his men during thesiege of Aquileia against the Senatorial forces ofPupienus andBalbinus[85]
coinGordian I
Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus		c. April –c. May 238
(22 days)		Proclaimed emperor alongside his son,Gordian II, while serving as governor ofAfrica, in a revolt againstMaximinus, and recognized by theSenatec. 158 (?) – c. May 238
(aged approx. 80)
Oldest emperor at the time of his elevation. Committed suicide upon hearing of the death of his son[86]
coinGordian II
Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus		c. April – c. May 238
(22 days)		Proclaimed emperor alongside his fatherGordian I, during revolt inAfrica againstMaximinusc. 192 – c. May 238
(aged approx. 46)
The shortest-reigning emperor. Killed outsideCarthage in battle against an army loyal toMaximinus I[87]
bustPupienus
Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus		c. May – c. August 238
(99 days)		Proclaimed emperor jointly withBalbinus by the Senate after death ofGordian I andII, in opposition toMaximinusc. 164 – c. August 238
(aged approx. 74)
Tortured and murdered by thePraetorian Guard[88]
bustBalbinus
Decimus Caelius Calvinus Balbinus		c. May – c. August 238
(99 days)		Proclaimed emperor jointly withPupienus by the Senate after death of Gordian I and II, in opposition toMaximinusc. 178 – c. August 238
(aged approx. 60)
Tortured and murdered by thePraetorian Guard[89]
bustGordian III
Marcus Antonius Gordianus		c. August 238 – c. February 244
(c. 5 years and 6 months)		Grandson ofGordian I, appointed as heir byPupienus andBalbinus, upon whose deaths he succeeded as emperor20 January 225 – c. February 244
(aged 19)
Died during campaign againstPersia, possibly in a murder plot instigated byPhilip I[90]
bustPhilip I "the Arab"
Marcus Julius Philippus		c. February 244 – September/October 249
(c. 5 years and 7/8 months)		Praetorian prefect underGordian III, seized power after his deathc. 204 – September/October 249
(aged approx. 45)
Killed at theBattle of Verona, againstDecius[91]
bustPhilip II "the Younger" (§)
Marcus Julius Severus Philippus		July/August 247 – September/October 249
(c. 2 years and 2 months)		Son of Philip I, appointed co-emperorc. 237 – September/October 249
(aged approx. 12)
Murdered by thePraetorian Guard[92]
bustDecius
Gaius Messius Quintus Traianus Decius		September/October 249 – June 251
(c. 1 year and 8/9 months)		Proclaimed emperor by the troops inMoesia, then defeated and killedPhilip I in battlec. 190/200 – June 251
(aged approx. 50/60)
Killed at theBattle of Abrittus, against theGoths[93]
coinHerennius Etruscus (§)
Quintus Herennius Etruscus Messius Decius		May/June – June 251
(less than a month)		Son ofDecius, appointed co-emperorUnknown – June 251
Killed at theBattle of Abrittus alongside hisfather[94]
statueTrebonianus Gallus
Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus		June 251 –c. August 253
(c. 2 years and 2 months)		Senator and general, proclaimed emperor after the deaths ofDecius andHerennius Etruscusc. 206 – c. August 253
(aged 47)
Murdered by his own troops in favor ofAemilian[95]
coinHostilian (§)
Gaius Valens Hostilianus Messius Quintus		c. June – c. July 251
(c. 1 month)		Younger son of Decius, namedcaesar by his father and proclaimed co-emperor by Trebonianus GallusUnknown – c. July 251
Died ofplague or murdered by Trebonianus Gallus[96]
coinVolusianus (§)
Gaius Vibius Afinius Gallus Veldumnianus Volusianus		c. August 251 – c. August 253
(2 years)		Son of Gallus, appointed co-emperorc. 230 – c. August 253
(aged approx. 23)
Murdered by the soldiers, alongside his father[97]
coinAemilianus
Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus		c. July – c. September 253
(2 months?)		Commander inMoesia, proclaimed emperor by his soldiers after defeating barbarians, in opposition to Gallusc. 207 – c. September 253
(aged approx. 46)
Murdered by his own troops in favor ofValerian[98]
coinSilbannacus[l] (#)
Mar. Silbannacus		c. September/October 253 (?)
(very briefly?)		Obscure figure known only from coinage, may have briefly ruled in Rome between Aemilianus and ValerianNothing known[22]
bustValerian
Publius Licinius Valerianus		c. September 253 – c. June 260
(c. 6 years and 9 months)		Army commander inRaetia andNoricum, proclaimed emperor by the legions in opposition to Aemilianc. 200 – after 262 (?)
Captured at Edessa by thePersian kingShapur I, died in captivity possibly forced to swallow molten gold[102]
bustGallienus
Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus		c. September 253 – c. September 268
(15 years)		Son of Valerian, appointed joint emperor. Sole emperor after Valerian's capture in 260218 – c. September 268
(aged 50)
Facedmultiple revolts & barbarian invasions. Murdered in a conspiracy of army officers, involvingClaudius II andAurelian[103]
coinSaloninus[m] (§)
Publius Licinius Cornelius Saloninus Valerianus		Autumn 260
(c. 1 month)		Son of Gallienus, proclaimedcaesar by his father and proclaimed emperor by the praetorian prefectSilvanus while besieged byPostumusUnknown – Late 260
Murdered by troops loyal to Postumus[106]
bustClaudius II "Gothicus"
Marcus Aurelius Claudius		c. September 268 – c. August 270
(c. 1 year and 11 months)		Army commander inIllyria, proclaimed emperor after Gallienus's death10 May 214 – August/September (?) 270
(aged approx. 55)
Died ofplague[107]
coinQuintillus
Marcus Aurelius Claudius Quintillus		c. August – c. September 270
(c. 27 days)		Brother of Claudius II, proclaimed emperor after his deathUnknown – 270
Committed suicide or killed at the behest of Aurelian[108]
bustAurelian
Lucius Domitius Aurelianus		c. August 270 – c. November 275
(c. 5 years and 3 months)		Commander of the Roman cavalry, proclaimed emperor by Danube legions after Claudius II's death, in opposition to Quintillus9 September 214 – Sept./Dec. 275
(aged 61)
Reunified the Roman Empire. Murdered by thePraetorian Guard[109]
bustTacitus
Marcus Claudius Tacitus		c. December 275 – c. June 276
(c. 7 months)		Allegedprinceps senatus, proclaimed emperor by theSenate or, more likely, by his soldiers inCampania after Aurelian's deathc. 200 (?) – c. June 276
(aged approx. 76)
Died of illness or possibly murdered[110]
coinFlorianus
Marcus Annius Florianus		c. June – September 276
(88 days)		Maternal half-brother of Tacitus, proclaimed himself emperor after the death of TacitusUnknown – September/October 276
Murdered by his own troops in favor of Probus[111]
bustProbus
Marcus Aurelius Probus		c. June 276 – c. September 282
(c. 6 years and 3 months)		General; proclaimed emperor by the eastern legions, in opposition to Florianus19 August 232 – c. September 282
(aged 50)
Murdered by his own troops in favor of Carus[112]
coinCarus
Marcus Aurelius Carus		c. September 282 – c. July/August 283
(c. 10 months)		Praetorian prefect under Probus, seized power before or after Probus's murderc. 224 (?) – c. July/August 283
(aged approx. 60)
Died inPersia, either of illness, assassination, or by being hit by lightning[113]
bustCarinus
Marcus Aurelius Carinus		Spring 283 – August/September 285
(2 years)		Son of Carus, appointed joint emperor shortly before his death. Succeeded jointly with Numerianc. 250 – August/September 285
(aged approx. 35)
Probably died in battle against Diocletian, likely betrayed by his own soldiers[114]
coinNumerian
Marcus Aurelius Numerianus		c. July/August 283 – November 284
(1 year and 3/4 months)		Son of Carus, succeeded jointly with Carinusc. 253 – November 284
(aged approx. 31)
Died while marching to Europe, probably of disease, possibly assassinated[115]

Dominate (284–476)

[edit]
Main article:Dominate

Tetrarchy (293–324)

[edit]
Main article:Tetrarchy
  (#) – Ambiguous legitimacy[j]
Tetrarchy
PortraitNameReignSuccessionLife details
bustDiocletian "Jovius"
Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus		20 November 284 – 1 May 305
(20 years, 5 months and 11 days)
Whole; thenEast		Commander of the imperial bodyguard, acclaimed by the army after death ofNumerian, and proceeded to defeat Numerian's brother,Carinus, in battle22 Decemberc. 243 – 3 Decemberc. 311
(aged approx. 68)
Began the lastgreat persecution of Christianity. First emperor to voluntarily abdicate. Died in unclear circumstances, possibly suicide[116]
bustMaximian "Herculius"
Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus		1 April 286[n] – 1 May 305
(19 years and 1 month;West)
November 306 – 11 November 308
(2 years;Italy)		Elevated by Diocletian, ruled thewestern provincesc. 250 – c. July 310
(aged approx. 60)
Abdicated with Diocletian, later trying to regain power with, and then from,Maxentius, before being probably killed on orders ofConstantine I[118]
Galerius
Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus		1 May 305 – May 311
(6 years;East)		Elevated tocaesar in 293 by Diocletian, succeeded as easternaugustus upon Diocletian's abdicationc. 258 – May 311
(aged approx. 53)
Died of natural causes[119]
bustConstantius I "Chlorus"
Marcus Flavius Valerius Constantius		1 May 305 – 25 July 306
(1 year, 2 months and 24 days;West)		Maximian's relation by marriage, elevated tocaesar in 293 by Diocletian, succeeded as westernaugustus upon Maximian's abdication31 Marchc. 250 – 25 July 306
(aged approx. 56)
Died of natural causes[120]
coinSeverus II
Flavius Valerius Severus		August 306 – March/April 307
(c. 8 months;West)		Elevated tocaesar in 305 by Maximian, promoted to westernaugustus by Galerius upon Constantius I's deathUnknown – September 307
Surrendered to Maximian and Maxentius, later murdered or forced to commit suicide[121]
bustMaxentius
Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius		28 October 306 – 28 October 312
(6 years;Italy)		Son of Maximian and son-in-law of Galerius, seized power in Italy with support of thePraetorian Guard and his father after being passed over in the succession. Not recognized by the other emperorsc. 283 – 28 October 312
(aged approx. 29)
Died at theBattle of the Milvian Bridge, againstConstantine I[122]
bustLicinius
Valerius Licinianus Licinius		11 November 308 – 19 September 324
(15 years, 10 months and 8 days)
West; thenEast		Elevated by Galerius to replace Severus, in opposition to Maxentius. DefeatedMaximinus Daza in a civil war to become sole emperor of theEast in 313c. 265 – early 325
(aged approx. 60)
Defeated, deposed and put to death byConstantine I[123]
coinMaximinus II "Daza"
Galerius Valerius Maximinus		310 – c. July 313
(3 years;East)		Nephew of Galerius, elevated tocaesar by Galerius in 305, and acclaimed asaugustus by his troops in 31020 November c. 270 – c. July 313
(aged approx. 42)
Defeated in civil war againstLicinius, died shortly afterwards[124]
coinValerius Valens[o]
Aurelius Valerius Valens		October 316 – c. January 317
(c. 2–3 months;East*)		Frontier commander inDacia, elevated by Licinius in opposition to Constantine IUnknown – 317
Executed in the lead-up to a peace settlement between Licinius and Constantine[126]
coinMartinian[o]
Mar. Martinianus		July – 19 September 324
(2 months;East*)		A senior bureaucrat, elevated by Licinius in opposition to Constantine IUnknown – Spring 325
Deposed by Constantine and banished toCappadocia, later executed[127]

Constantinian dynasty (306–363)

[edit]
Main article:Constantinian dynasty
  (#) – Ambiguous legitimacy[j]
Constantinian dynasty
PortraitNameReignSuccessionLife details
bustConstantine I
"the Great"
Flavius Valerius Constantinus		25 July 306 – 22 May 337
(30 years, 9 months and 27 days)
West; thenwhole		Son of Constantius I, acclaimed by his father's troops asaugustus. Accepted ascaesar by Galerius, promoted toaugustus in 307 by Maximian, refused demotion tocaesar in 30927 February 272/273 – 22 May 337
(aged 64/65)
First Christian emperor and founder ofConstantinople. Sole ruler of the Empire after defeatingMaxentius in 312 andLicinius in 324. Died of natural causes[128]
statueConstantine II
Flavius Claudius Constantinus		9 September 337 – April 340
(2 years and 7 months;West)		Son of Constantine Ic. February 316 – April 340
(aged 24)
Ruled thepraetorian prefecture of Gaul. Killed in an ambush during a war against his brother, Constans I[129]
bustConstans I
Flavius Julius Constans		9 September 337 – January 350
(12 years and 4 months;Middle thenWest)		Son of Constantine I322/323 – January/February 350
(aged 27)
Ruled Italy, Illyricum and Africa initially, then the western empire after Constantine II's death. Overthrown and killed byMagnentius[130]
bustConstantius II
Flavius Julius Constantius		9 September 337 – 3 November 361
(24 years, 1 month and 25 days)
East; thenwhole		Son of Constantine I7 August 317 – 3 November 361
(aged 44)
Ruled the east initially, then the whole empire after the death ofMagnentius. Died of a fever shortly after planning to fight a war againstJulian[131]
 
coinMagnentius (#)
Magnus Magnentius		18 January 350 – 10 August 353
(3 years, 6 months and 23 days;West)		Proclaimed emperor by the troops, in opposition to Constans Ic. 303 – 10 August 353
(aged approx. 50)
Committed suicide after losing theBattle of Mons Seleucus[132]
 
coinVetranio1 March – 25 December 350
(9 months and 24 days;West)		General of Constans in Illyricum, acclaimed by the Illyrian legions at the expense of Magnentius, briefly recognized by Constantius II[p]Unknown – c. 356
Abdicated in Constantius II's favor, retired, and died 6 years later[134]
 
coinNepotianus (#)
Julius Nepotianus		3 June – 30 June 350
(27 days;West)		Son ofEutropia, a daughter of Constantius I. Proclaimed emperor in Rome in opposition to MagnentiusUnknown – 30 June 350
Captured and executed by supporters of Magnentius[135]
 
coinJulian "the Apostate"
Flavius Claudius Julianus		3 November 361 – 26 June 363
(1 year, 7 months and 23 days)		Cousin and heir of Constantius II, acclaimed by the Gallic army around February 360; entered Constantinople on 11 December 361331 – 26 June 363
(aged 32)
Last non-Christian emperor. Mortally wounded during acampaign against Persia[136]
 
coinJovian
Jovianus[q]		27 June 363 – 17 February 364
(7 months and 21 days)		Commander of imperial household guard; acclaimed by the army after Julian's death330/331 – 17 February 364
(aged 33)
Died before reaching the capital, possibly due to inhaling toxic fumes orindigestion. Last emperor to rule the whole Empire during their entire reign[138]

Valentinianic dynasty (364–392)

[edit]
Main article:Valentinianic dynasty
  (#) – Ambiguous legitimacy[j]
Valentinianic dynasty
Portrait Name[r]ReignSuccessionLife details
coinValentinian I "the Great"
Valentinianus		25/26 February 364 – 17 November 375
(11 years, 8 months and 23 days)
Whole; thenWest		General; proclaimed emperor by the army after Jovian's death321 – 17 November 375
(aged 54)
Last emperor to cross theRhine into Germania. Died of a stroke while yelling at envoys[140]
coinValens28 March 364 – 9 August 378
(14 years, 4 months and 12 days;East)		Brother of Valentinian I, made eastern emperor by his brother (Valentinian retaining the west)c. 328 – 9 August 378
(aged nearly 50)
Killed at theBattle of Adrianople[141]
 
coinProcopius (#)28 September 365 – 27 May 366
(7 months and 29 days;East)		Maternal cousin of Julian; revolted against Valens and captured Constantinople, where the people proclaimed him emperor326 – 27/28 May 366
(aged 40)
Deposed, captured and executed by Valens[142]
 
coinGratian
Gratianus		17 November 375 – 25 August 383
(7 years, 9 months and 8 days;West)		Son of Valentinian I; proclaimed western co-emperor on 24 August 367, at age 8. Emperor in his own right after Valentinian's death18 April 359 – 25 August 383
(aged 24)
Killed byAndragathius, an officer ofMagnus Maximus[143]
 
coinMagnus Maximus25 August 383 – 28 August 388
(5 years and 3 days;West)
withVictor (383/387–388)[s]		General, related to Theodosius I; proclaimed emperor by the troops in Britain. Briefly recognized by Theodosius I and Valentinian IIUnknown – 28 August 388
Defeated by Theodosius I at theBattle of Save, executed after surrendering[146]
 
statueValentinian II
Valentinianus		28 August 388 – 15 May 392
(3 years, 8 months and 17 days;West)		Son of Valentinian I, proclaimed co-emperor on 22 November 375, at age 4. Sole western ruler after the defeat ofMagnus Maximus in 388371 – 15 May 392
(aged 20/21)
Dominated by regents and co-emperors his entire reign. Probably suicide, possibly killed byArbogast[147]
 
coinEugenius (#)22 August 392 – 6 September 394
(2 years and 15 days;West)		Teacher of Latin grammar and rhetoric, secretary of Valentinian II. Proclaimed emperor byArbogastUnknown – 6 September 394
Defeated by Theodosius I at theBattle of the Frigidus and executed[148]

Theodosian dynasty (379–457)

[edit]
Main article:Theodosian dynasty
  (#) – Ambiguous legitimacy[j]
Theodosian dynasty
PortraitNameReignSuccessionLife details
bustTheodosius I
"the Great"		19 January 379 – 17 January 395
(15 years, 11 months and 29 days)
East; thenwhole		Retired general; proclaimed eastern emperor by Gratian after the death ofValens11 January 346/347 – 17 January 395
(aged 48/49)
Last emperor to briefly rule over the two halves of the Empire after theBattle of the Frigidus. Died of natural causes[149]
bustArcadius17 January 395 – 1 May 408
(13 years, 3 months and 14 days;East)		Son of Theodosius I; co-emperor since 16 January 383. Emperor in the east377 – 1 May 408
(aged 31)
Died of natural causes[150]
carved portraitHonorius17 January 395 – 15 August 423
(28 years, 6 months and 29 days;West)		Son of Theodosius I; co-emperor since 23 January 393. Emperor in the west9 September 384 – 15 August 423
(aged 38)
Reigned under several successive regencies, most notablyStilicho. His reign saw the firstsack of Rome in eight centuries. Died ofedema[151]
 
coinConstantine III
Flavius Claudius Constantinus[t]		407 – 411
(4 years;West)
withConstans (409–411)[s]		Common soldier, proclaimed emperor by the troops in Britain. Recognized by Honorius in 409. Emperor in the westUnknown – 411 (before 18 September)
Surrendered toConstantius, a general of Honorius, and abdicated. Sent to Italy but murdered on the way[152]
 
bustTheodosius II
"the Calligrapher"		1 May 408 – 28 July 450
(42 years, 2 months and 27 days;East)		Son of Arcadius; co-emperor since 10 January 402. Emperor in the east10 April 401 – 28 July 450
(aged 49)
His reign saw the promulgation of theTheodosian Code and the construction of theTheodosian Walls. Died of a fall from his horse[153]
 
coinPriscus Attalus (#)Late 409 – summer 410
(less than a year;Italy)		A leading member of the Senate, proclaimed emperor byAlaric after theSack of Rome. Emperor in the westUnknown lifespan
Deposed by Alaric after reconciling with Honorius. Tried to claim the throne again 414–415 but was defeated and forced into exile; fate unknown[154]
 
coinConstantius III8 February – 2 September 421
(6 months and 25 days;West)		Prominent general under Honorius and husband ofGalla Placidia, a daughter ofTheodosius I. Made co-emperor by Honorius. Emperor in the westUnknown – 2 September 421
De facto ruler since 411; helped Honorius defeat numerous usurpers & foreign enemies. Died of illness[155]
 
coinJoannes (#)20 November 423 –c. May 425
(1 year and a half;West)		Senior civil servant, seized power in Rome and the west afterTheodosius II delayed in nominating a successor of HonoriusUnknown –c. May 425
Captured by the forces of Theodosius II, brought to Constantinople and executed[156]
 
coinValentinian III
Placidus Valentinianus		23 October 425 – 16 March 455
(29 years, 4 months and 21 days;West)		Son of Constantius III, grandson of Theodosius I and great-grandson of Valentinian I, installed as emperor of the west by Theodosius II2 July 419 – 16 March 455
(aged 35)
Faced the invasion of theHuns. Murdered by Optelas and Thraustelas, retainers ofAetius[157]
coinMarcian
Marcianus		25 August 450 – 27 January 457
(6 years, 5 months and 2 days;East)		Soldier and official, proclaimed emperor after marryingPulcheria, a daughter of Arcadius. Emperor in the east391/392 – 27 January 457
(aged 65)
Died after a prolonged period of illness[158]

Last western emperors (455–476)

[edit]
See also:Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Puppet emperors
PortraitNameReignSuccessionLife details
coinPetronius Maximus17 March – 31 May 455
(2 months and 14 days)		General and civil official, murdered Valentinian III and married his widow,Licinia Eudoxiac. 397 – 31 May 455
Killed by a mob while fleeing during theVandalic sack of Rome[159]
coinAvitus
Eparchius Avitus		9 July 455 – 17 October 456
(1 year, 3 months and 8 days)		General; proclaimed emperor by theVisigoths andGallo-Romans after the death of Petronius MaximusLate 4th century – 456/457
Defeated and deposed by themagister militumRicimer, became a bishop. Died shortly after of either natural causes, strangulation, or being starved to death[160]
coinMajorian
Julius Valerius Majorianus		28 December 457 – 2 August 461
(3 years, 7 months and 5 days)		General; proclaimed by the army, backed byRicimerUnknown – 7 August 461
Reconquered Gaul, Hispania and Dalmatia. Deposed and executed by Ricimer[161]
coinLibius Severus
(Severus III)		19 November 461 – 14 November 465
(3 years, 11 months and 26 days)		Proclaimed emperor by RicimerUnknown – 14 November 465
Died of natural causes[162]
coinAnthemius
Procopius Anthemius		12 April 467 – 11 July 472
(5 years, 2 months and 29 days)		General; great-grandson ofProcopius, a cousin of Julian, and husband ofMarcia Euphemia, a daughter of Marcian. Proclaimed western emperor byLeo IUnknown – 11 July 472
The last effective emperor of the West. Murdered byGundobad after a civil war with Ricimer[163]
coinOlybrius
Anicius Olybrius		c. April – 2 November 472
(c. 7 months)		Husband ofPlacidia, a daughter of Valentinian III. Proclaimed emperor by RicimerUnknown – 2 November 472
Died ofdropsy[164]
coinGlycerius3/5 March 473 – 24 June 474
(1 year, 3 months and 19/21 days)		General; proclaimed emperor byGundobadUnknown lifespan
Deposed by Julius Nepos and made a bishop, subsequent fate unknown[165]
coinJulius Nepos24 June 474 – 28 August 475
(1 year, 2 months and 4 days)
August 475 – 9 May 480
(4 years and 8 months, inDalmatia)		General; married to a relative ofVerina, the wife of the eastern emperorLeo I. Installed as western emperor by LeoUnknown – 9 May 480
Fled toDalmatia in the face of an attack by hismagister militumOrestes. Continued to claim to be emperor in exile. Murdered by his retainers[166]
coinRomulus "Augustulus"
Romulus Augustus		31 October 475 – 4 September 476
(10 months and 4 days)		Proclaimed emperor by his father, themagister militum OrestesRoughly 465 – after 507/511?
The last western emperor. Deposed by the Germanic generalOdoacer and retired. Possibly alive as late as 507 or 511; fate unknown[167]

Later Eastern emperors (457–1453)

[edit]
See also:List of Byzantine emperors

Leonid dynasty (457–518)

[edit]
Main articles:Leonid dynasty andByzantine Empire under the Leonid dynasty
Leonid dynasty
PortraitNameReignSuccessionLife details
bustLeo I "the Thracian"7 February 457 – 18 January 474
(16 years, 11 months and 11 days)		Low-ranking army officer; chosen by themagister militumAspar to succeed Marcian400/401 – 18 January 474
(aged 73)
First emperor to becrowned by thePatriarch of Constantinople. Died ofdysentery[168]
coinLeo II "the Younger"18 January – November 474
(10 months)		Grandson of Leo I and son of Zeno; co-emperor since 17 November 473467 – November 474
(aged 7)
Youngest emperor at the time of his death. Died of illness[169]
coinZeno29 January 474 – 9 January 475
(11 months and 11 days)		Husband ofAriadne, a daughter of Leo I, and father of Leo II. Crowned senior co-emperor with the approval of theSenate425 – 9 April 491
(aged 65)
Fled toIsauria in the face of a Revolt led by his mother-in-lawVerina &Basiliscus.[170]
coinBasiliscus9 January 475 – August 476
(1 year and 7 months)
withcoinMarcus (475–476)[s]		Brother ofVerina, the wife of Leo I. Proclaimed emperor by his sister in opposition to Zeno and seized ConstantinopleUnknown – 476/477
Deposed by Zeno upon his return to Constantinople; imprisoned in a dried-up reservoir and starved to death[171]
coinZeno
(second reign)		August 476 – 9 April 491
(14 years and 8 months)		Retook the throne with the help of generalIllus425 – 9 April 491
(aged 65)
Saw theend of the Western Roman Empire. Died ofdysentery orepilepsy[170]
carved portraitAnastasius I "Dicorus"11 April 491 – 9 July 518
(27 years, 2 months and 28 days)		Government official; chosen by Ariadne, whom he married, to succeed Zeno430/431 – 9 July 518
(aged 88)
Oldest emperor at the time of his death. Died of natural causes[172]

Justinian dynasty (518–602)

[edit]
Main article:Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty
Justinian dynasty
PortraitNameReignSuccessionLife details
coinJustin I "the Thracian"
Justinus		9/10 July 518 – 1 August 527
(9 years and 23 days)		Soldier; proclaimed emperor by the troops after the death of Anastasius I450 – 1 August 527
(aged 77)
Died of natural causes[173]
mosaicJustinian I "the Great"
Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus		1 April 527 – 14 November 565
(38 years, 7 months and 13 days)		Nephew and adoptive son of Justin I482 – 14 November 565
(aged 83)
Temporarily reconquered half of theWestern Roman Empire, includingRome. Died of natural causes[174]
coinJustin II
Justinus		14 November 565 – 5 October 578
(12 years, 10 months and 21 days)		Son ofVigilantia, sister of Justinian IUnknown – 5 October 578
Lost most of Italy to theLombards by 570. Suffered an attack of dementia in 574, whereafter the government was run by regents. Died of natural causes[175]
coinTiberius II Constantine
Tiberius Constantinus		26 September 578 – 14 August 582
(3 years, 10 months and 19 days)		Adoptive son of Justin IIMid-6th century – 14 August 582
Died after a sudden illness, supposedly after accidentally eating bad food[176]
coinMaurice
Mauricius Tiberius		13 August 582 – 27 November 602
(20 years, 3 months and 14 days)
withcoinTheodosius (590–602)[s]		Husband ofConstantina, a daughter of Tiberius II539 – 27 November 602
(aged 63)
Captured and executed by troops loyal toPhocas[177]
 
statue portraitPhocas
Focas		23 November 602 – 5 October 610
(7 years, 10 months and 12 days)		Centurion in the army; proclaimed emperor by the troops against Maurice547 – 5 October 610
(aged 63)
Deposed and then beheaded on the orders ofHeraclius[178]

Heraclian dynasty (610–695)

[edit]
Main article:Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty
Heraclian dynasty
PortraitNameReignSuccessionLife details
miniature portraitHeraclius
   Ἡράκλειος[u]		5 October 610 – 11 February 641
(30 years, 4 months and 6 days)		Son ofHeraclius the Elder, theexarch of Carthage. Led a revolt against Phocas574/575 – 11 February 641
(aged 66)
Ended thePersian Wars, but suffered theloss of the Levant to the Muslims. Died of natural causes[181]
coinHeraclius Constantine
(Constantine III)[t]
Heraclius Constantinus
Ἡράκλειος Κωνσταντῖνος		11 February – 25 May 641
(3 months and 14 days)		Son of Heraclius; co-emperor since 22 January 6133 May 612 – 25 May 641
(aged 29)
Died oftuberculosis[184]
coinHeraclonas
Heraclius, Ἡράκλειος		25 May – 5 November (?) 641
(5 months and 11 days)
with his brotherTiberius-David (641)[s]		Son of Heraclius; co-emperor since 4 July 638. Co-ruler with Constantine and then sole emperor under the regency of his motherMartina626 – unknown
Deposed, mutilated and exiled, subsequent fate unknown[185]
coinConstans II "the Bearded"
Constantinus, Κωνσταντῖνος		September 641 – 15 July 668
(26 years and 10 months)		Son of Heraclius Constantine; proclaimed co-emperor by Heraclonas at age 117 November 630 – 15 July 668
(aged 37)
Lost Egypt in 641. Murdered inSicily while bathing by supporters ofMezezius[186]
mosaicConstantine IV "the Younger"
Constantinus, Κωνσταντῖνος		September 668 – 10 July (?) 685
(16 years and 10 months)
with his brothers
coinHeraclius andTiberius (659–681)[s][v]		Son of Constans II; co-emperor since 13 April 654Roughly 650 – 10 July (?) 685
(aged about 35)
Defeated theFirst Arab Siege of Constantinople. Died ofdysentery[188]
mosaicJustinian II "Rhinotmetus"
Justinianus, Ἰουστινιανός		July 685 – 695
(10 years)		Son of Constantine IV, chosen as successor over Constans' sons668/669 – 4 November 711
(aged 42)
Deposed and mutilated (hence his nickname, "Slit-nosed") byLeontius in 695; returned to the throne in 705[189]

Twenty Years' Anarchy (695–717)

[edit]
Main article:Twenty Years' Anarchy
Twenty Years' Anarchy
PortraitNameReignSuccessionLife details
coinLeontius
Λέων(τιος)		695 – 698
(3 years)		General; deposed Justinian IIUnknown – 15 February (?) 706
Lost Africa & Carthage to the Muslims. Deposed byTiberius III in 698 and later executed by Justinian II in 706[190]
coinTiberius III
Τιβέριος		698 – 21 August (?) 705
(7 years)		General; proclaimed emperor by the troops against LeontiusUnknown – 15 February (?) 706
Deposed and later executed by Justinian II alongsideLeontius[191]
coinJustinian II "Rhinotmetus"
Justinianus, Ἰουστινιανός
(second reign)		21 August (?) 705 – 4 November 711
(6 years, 2 months and 14 days)
withTiberius (706–711)[s]		Retook the throne with the aid of theKhazars668/669 – 4 November 711
(aged 42)
Killed by supporters ofPhilippicus after fleeing Constantinople[192]
coinPhilippicus
Filepicus, Φιλιππικός		4 November 711 – 3 June 713
(1 year, 6 months and 30 days)		General; proclaimed emperor by the troops against Justinian IIUnknown – 20 January 714/715
Deposed and blinded in favor ofAnastasius II, later died of natural causes[193]
coinAnastasius II
Artemius Anastasius
Ἀρτέμιος Ἀναστάσιος		4 June 713 – fall 715
(less than 2 years)		Senior court official, proclaimed emperor after the deposition of PhilippicusUnknown – 1 June 719
Abdicated toTheodosius III after a six-month civil war, becoming a monk. Beheaded byLeo III after an attempt to retake the throne[194]
coinTheodosius III
Θεοδόσιος		Fall 715 – 25 March 717
(less than 2 years)		Tax-collector, possibly son of Tiberius III; proclaimed emperor by the troops against Anastasius IIUnknown lifespan
Deposed byLeo III, whereafter he became a monk. His subsequent fate is unknown.[195]

Isaurian (Syrian) dynasty (717–802)

[edit]
Main article:Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty
  (#) – Ambiguous legitimacy[j]
Isaurian dynasty
PortraitNameReignSuccessionLife details
coinLeo III "the Isaurian"
Λέων[w]		25 March 717 – 18 June 741
(24 years, 2 months and 24 days)		General; deposed Theodosius IIIc. 685 – 18 June 741
(aged approx. 56)
EndedMuslim expansion in Anatolia. Died ofdropsy[196]
coinConstantine V "Copronymus"
Κωνσταντῖνος		18 June 741 – 14 September 775
(34 years, 2 months and 27 days)		Son of Leo III; co-emperor since 31 March 720718 – 14 September 775
(aged 57)
Last emperor to rule over Rome. Vilified by later historians for his religious policies, hence his nickname "Dung-Named". Died of a fever[197]
coinArtabasdos (#)
Ἀρτάβασδος		June 741 – 2 November 743
(2 years and 5 months)
withcoinNikephoros (741–743)		Husband ofAnna, a daughter of Leo III. Revolted against Constantine V and briefly ruled at ConstantinopleUnknown lifespan
Deposed and blinded by Constantine V, relegated to a monastery where he died of natural causes[198]
coinLeo IV "the Khazar"
Λέων		14 September 775 – 8 September 780
(4 years, 11 months and 25 days)		Son of Constantine V; co-emperor since 6 June 75125 January 750 – 8 September 780
(aged 30)
Died of a fever[199]
coinConstantine VI "the Blind"
Κωνσταντῖνος		8 September 780 – 19 August 797
(16 years, 11 months and 11 days)		Son of Leo IV; co-emperor since 14 April 77614 January 771 – before 805
(aged less than 34)
Last emperor to be recognized in the West. Deposed, blinded and exiled byIrene[200]
coinIrene
Εἰρήνη		19 August 797 – 31 October 802
(5 years, 2 months and 12 days)		Widow of Leo IV and former regent of Constantine VI. Became co-ruler in 792. Dethroned and blinded her son Constantine in 797, becoming the first female ruler of the empirec. 752 – 9 August 803
(aged approx. 51)
Deposed byNikephoros I and exiled toLesbos, where she died of natural causes[201]

Nikephorian dynasty (802–813)

[edit]
Main article:Byzantine Empire under the Nikephorian dynasty
Nikephorian dynasty
Portrait[x]NameReignSuccessionLife details
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		Nikephoros I
"the Logothete"
Νικηφόρος		31 October 802 – 26 July 811
(8 years, 8 months and 26 days)		Court official; proclaimed emperor in opposition to Irenec. 760 – 26 July 811
(aged approx. 51)
Killed at theBattle of Pliska[202]
coinStaurakios
Σταυράκιος		28 July – 2 October 811
(2 months and 4 days)		Son of Nikephoros I; co-emperor since 25 December 803. Proclaimed emperor after the death of his father790s – 11 January 812
(in his late teens)
Wounded atPliska; abdicated in favor of Michael I and became a monk[203]
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		Michael I Rangabe
Μιχαὴλ		2 October 811 – 11 July 813
(1 year, 9 months and 9 days)
withTheophylact andStaurakios (II)[s]		Husband ofProkopia, a daughter of Nikephoros Ic. 770 – 11 January 844
(aged approx. 74)
Abdicated in 813 in favor ofLeo V after suffering a defeat at theBattle of Versinikia and retired as a monk[204]
 
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		Leo V "the Armenian"
Λέων		11 July 813 – 25 December 820
(7 years, 5 months and 14 days)
withcoinConstantine Symbatios[s]		General; proclaimed emperor after theBattle of Versinikiac. 775 – 25 December 820
(aged approx. 45)
Murdered while in church by supporters ofMichael II[205]

Amorian dynasty (820–867)

[edit]
Main article:Byzantine Empire under the Amorian dynasty
Amorian dynasty
Portrait[x]NameReignSuccessionLife details
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		Michael II "the Amorian"
Μιχαὴλ		25 December 820 – 2 October 829
(8 years, 9 months and 7 days)		General sentenced to execution by Leo V; proclaimed emperor by Leo V's assassins and crowned by PatriarchTheodotus I on the same dayc. 770 – 2 October 829
(aged approx. 59)
Saw the beginning of theMuslim conquest of Sicily. Died ofkidney failure[206]
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		Theophilos
Θεόφιλος		2 October 829 – 20 January 842
(12 years, 3 months and 18 days)
withcoinConstantine (c. 834–835)[s]		Son of Michael II; co-emperor since 12 May 821812/813 – 20 January 842
(aged 30)
Died ofdysentery[207]
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		Michael III "the Drunkard"
Μιχαὴλ		20 January 842 – 24 September 867
(25 years, 8 months and 4 days)
withcoinThekla (842–856)[s][y]		Son of Theophilos; co-emperor since 16 May 840. Ruled under his motherTheodora's regency until 15 March 85619 January 840 – 24 September 867
(aged 27)
The youngest emperor. Murdered byBasil I and his supporters[210]

Macedonian dynasty (867–1056)

[edit]
Main articles:Macedonian dynasty,Lekapenos, andByzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty
Macedonian dynasty
PortraitNameReignSuccessionLife details
miniature portraitBasil I "the Macedonian"
Βασίλειος		24 September 867 – 29 August 886
(18 years, 11 months and 5 days)
withConstantine (868–879)[s]		General; proclaimed co-emperor by Michael III on 26 May 866 and became senior emperor after Michael's murder811, 830 or 836 – 29 August 886
(aged approx. 50, 56 or 75)
CapturedBari in 876 &Taranto in 880. Died after a hunting accident[211]
mosaicLeo VI "the Wise"
Λέων		29 August 886 – 11 May 912
(25 years, 8 months and 12 days)		Son of Basil I or illegitimate son of Michael III; crowned co-emperor on 6 January 87019 September 866 – 11 May 912
(aged 45)
Conquered Southern Italy but lost the remnants of Sicily in 902. Died of anintestinal disease[212]
mosaicAlexander
Αλέξανδρος		11 May 912 – 6 June 913
(1 year and 26 days)		Son of Basil I; co-emperor since September or October 87923 November 870 – 6 June 913
(aged 42)
Died of illness, possiblytesticular cancer[213]
carved portraitConstantine VII
Porphyrogenitus
Κωνσταντῖνος		6 June 913 – 9 November 959
(46 years, 5 months and 3 days)		Son of Leo VI; co-emperor since 15 May 908. Successively dominated by regents and co-emperors until 27 January 945, when he deposed Romanos I's sons17/18 May 905 – 9 November 959
(aged 54)
Saw the beginning of renewed expansion in the East against the Arabs. Remembered for his numerous writings. Died of natural causes[214]
 
sealRomanos I Lekapenos
Ῥωμανὸς		17 December 920 – 20 December 944
(24 years and 3 days)
withcoinChristopher (921–931),Romanos (c. 924)[z]
Stephen andConstantine Lekapenos (924–945)[s]		Overthrew Constantine VII's regency, married him to his daughterHelena and was made senior co-emperor. Made several sons co-emperors to curb Constantine VII's authorityc. 870 – 15 June 948
(aged approx. 78)
Deposed by his sons Stephen and Constantine. Died of natural causes in exile as a monk[216]
 
carved portraitRomanos II
Ῥωμανὸς		9 November 959 – 15 March 963
(3 years, 4 months and 6 days)		Son of Constantine VII and grandson of Romanos I; co-emperor since 6 April 945938 – 15 March 963
(aged 24/25)
Reconquered Crete in 961. Died of exhaustion on a hunting trip[217]
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		Nikephoros II Phokas
Νικηφόρος		16 August 963 – 11 December 969
(6 years, 3 months and 25 days)		General; proclaimed emperor on 2 July 963 against the unpopularJoseph Bringas (regent for the young sons of Romanos II), entered Constantinople on 16 August 963. MarriedTheophano, the widow of Romanos IIc. 912 – 11 December 969
(aged approx. 57)
Reconquered Cilicia &Antioch. Murdered in a conspiracy involving his former supporters (includingJohn I Tzimiskes) and Theophano[218]
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		John I Tzimiskes
Ἰωάννης		11 December 969 – 10 January 976
(6 years and 30 days)		Nephew of Nikephoros II, took his place as senior co-emperorc. 925 – 10 January 976
(aged approx. 50)
Reconquered Eastern Thrace from theFirst Bulgarian Empire. Possibly poisoned byBasil Lekapenos[219]
miniature portraitBasil II "the Bulgar-Slayer"
Βασίλειος		10 January 976 – 15 December 1025
(49 years, 11 months and 5 days)		Son of Romanos II; co-emperor since 22 April 960, briefly reigned as senior emperor in March–August 963. Succeeded as senior emperor upon the death of John I958 – 15 December 1025
(aged 67)
The longest-reigning emperor; best known for hisreconquest of Bulgaria. Died of natural causes[220]
miniature portraitConstantine VIII
Κωνσταντῖνος		15 December 1025 – 12 November 1028
(2 years, 10 months and 28 days)		Son of Romanos II and brother of Basil II; co-emperor since 30 March 962960 – 12 November 1028
(aged 68)
De jure longest-reigning emperor. Died of natural causes[221]
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		Romanos III Argyros
Ῥωμανὸς		12 November 1028 – 11 April 1034
(5 years, 4 months and 30 days)		Husband ofZoë, a daughter of Constantine VIIIc. 968 – 11 April 1034
(aged approx. 66)
Temporarily reconqueredEdessa in 1031. Possibly drowned on Zoë's orders[222]
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		Michael IV "the Paphlagonian"
Μιχαὴλ		12 April 1034 – 10 December 1041
(7 years, 7 months and 28 days)		Lover of Zoë, made emperor after their marriage following Romanos III's deathc. 1010 – 10 December 1041
(aged approx. 31)
Died ofepilepsy[223]
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		Michael V "Kalaphates"
Μιχαὴλ		13 December 1041 – 21 April 1042
(4 months and 8 days)		Nephew and designated heir of Michael IV, proclaimed emperor by Zoë three days after Michael IV's deathc. 1015 – unknown
Deposed in a popular uprising after attempting to sideline Zoë, blinded and forced to become a monk[224]
mosaicZoë Porphyrogenita
Ζωή		21 April – 11 June 1042
(1 month and 21 days)		Daughter of Constantine VIII and widow of Romanos III and Michael IV. Ruled in her own right from Michael V's deposition until her marriage toConstantine IX.c. 978 – 1050
(aged approx. 72)
Died of natural causes[225]
Portrait from the Monomachos crownTheodora Porphyrogenita
Θεοδώρα		21 April – 11 June 1042
(1 month and 21 days)		Daughter of Constantine VIII and sister of Zoë, proclaimed co-empress during the revolt that deposed Michael Vc. 980 – 31 August 1056
(aged approx. 76)
Sidelined after Zoë's marriage to Constantine IX, returned to the throne in 1055[226]
mosaicConstantine IX Monomachos
Κωνσταντῖνος Μονομάχος[aa]		11 June 1042 – 11 January 1055
(12 years and 7 months)		Husband of Zoë, crowned the day after their marriagec. 1006 – 11 January 1055
(aged approx. 49)
Died of natural causes[228]
Portrait from the Monomachos crownTheodora Porphyrogenita
Θεοδώρα
(second reign)		11 January 1055 – 31 August 1056
(1 year, 7 months and 20 days)		Claimed the throne again after Constantine IX's death as the last living member of the Macedonian dynastyc. 980 – 31 August 1056
(aged approx. 76)
Died of natural causes[226]
 
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		Michael VI Bringas "Stratiotikos"
Μιχαήλ[aa]		22 August 1056 – 30 August 1057
(1 year and 8 days)		Proclaimed emperor by Theodora on her deathbed980s/990s – c. 1057
(in his sixties)
Deposed in a revolt, retired to a monastery and died soon afterwards[229]
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		Isaac I Komnenos
Ἰσαάκιος Κομνηνός		1 September 1057 – 22 November 1059
(2 years, 2 months and 21 days)		General, proclaimed emperor on 8 June 1057 in opposition to Michael VIc. 1007 – 31 May/1 June 1060
(aged approx. 53)
Abdicated to Constantine X due to illness and hostile courtiers, became a monk[230]

Doukas dynasty (1059–1078)

[edit]
Main articles:Doukas andByzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty
  (§) – Varying ascribed status[ab]
Doukas dynasty
PortraitNameReignSuccessionLife details
miniature portraitConstantine X Doukas
Κωνσταντῖνος Δούκας		23 November 1059 – 23 May 1067
(7 years and 6 months)		Designated as emperor by Isaac I Komnenos during his abdicationc. 1006 – 23 May 1067
(aged approx. 61)
Lost nearly all Italian territories to theNormans. Died of natural causes[231]
miniature portraitEudokia Makrembolitissa
Εὐδοκία Μακρεμβολίτισσα (§)		23 May – 31 December 1067
(7 months and 8 days)		Widow of Constantine X; either regent on behalf of their sons or co-ruler alongside them until her marriage to Romanos IV. Briefly resumed her regency in September 1071c. 1030 – after 1078
Became a nun in November 1071 and later died of natural causes[232]
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		Romanos IV Diogenes
Ῥωμανὸς Διογένης		1 January 1068 – 26 August 1071
(3 years, 7 months and 25 days)
withLeo andNikephoros Diogenes (c. 1070–71)[s][ac]		Husband of Eudokia. Regent and senior co-emperor together with Constantine X's and Eudokia's childrenc. 1032 – 4 August 1072
(aged approx. 40)
Captured at Manzikert by theSeljuk Turks. After his release blinded on 29 June 1072 byJohn Doukas, later dying of his wounds[234]
portrait from the Holy Crown of HungaryMichael VII Doukas "Parapinakes"
Μιχαὴλ Δούκας		1 October 1071 – 24/31 March 1078
(6 years, 5 months and 23/30 days)
withKonstantios (1060–1078),Andronikos (1068–1070s) andConstantine Doukas (1074–78; 1st time)[s]		Son of Constantine X; made co-emperor in 1060 with Eudokia and Romanos IV. Proclaimed sole emperor after Romanos' defeat at theBattle of Manzikertc. 1050 – c. 1090
(aged approx. 40)
Lost nearly all of Anatolia to the Turks. Forced to become a monk after a popular uprising. Died of natural causes several years later[235]
 
miniature portraitNikephoros III Botaneiates
Νικηφόρος Βοτανειάτης		3 April 1078 – 1 April 1081
(2 years, 11 months and 29 days)		General; revolted against Michael VII on 2 July or 2 October 1077 and entered Constantinople on 27 March or 3 April. MarriedMaria of Alania, the former wife of Michael VII1001/1002 – c. 1081
(aged approx. 80)
Abdicated after Alexios I captured Constantinople, became a monk and died of natural causes, probably later in the same year[236]

Komnenos dynasty (1081–1185)

[edit]
Main articles:Komnenos andByzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty
Komnenos dynasty
PortraitNameReignSuccessionLife details
miniature portraitAlexios I Komnenos
Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός		1 April 1081 – 15 August 1118
(37 years, 4 months and 14 days)
withConstantine Doukas
(1081–1087;2nd time)[s][ad]		Nephew of Isaac I, also husband ofIrene Doukaina, a grand-niece of Constantine X. General; revolted against Nikephoros III on 14 February 1081. Seized Constantinople on 1 April; crowned on 4 Aprilc. 1057 – 15 August 1118
(aged approx. 61)
Started theCrusades & the reconquest of Anatolia. Died of natural causes[238]
mosaicJohn II Komnenos
"the Good"
Ἰωάννης Κομνηνός		15 August 1118 – 8 April 1143
(24 years, 7 months and 24 days)
withAlexios the Younger
(1119–1142)[s]		Son of Alexios I, co-emperor since about September 109213 September 1087 – 8 April 1143
(aged 55)
Reconquered most of Anatolia by the time of his death. Died of injuries sustained in a hunting accident, possibly assassinated (perhaps involvingRaymond of Poitiers or supporters ofManuel I)[239]
miniature portraitManuel I Komnenos
"the Great"
Μανουὴλ Κομνηνός		8 April 1143 – 24 September 1180
(37 years, 5 months and 16 days)		Youngest son and allegedly designated heir of John II on his deathbed, crowned in November 1143 after a few months of having to establish his rights28 November 1118 – 24 September 1180
(aged 61)
Last emperor to attempt reconquests in the west. Died of natural causes[240]
miniature portrait
Uncertain[ae]		Alexios II Komnenos
Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός		24 September 1180 – c. September 1183
(3 years)		Son of Manuel I; co-emperor since 117114 September 1169 – c. September 1183
(aged 14)
Strangled on the orders ofAndronikos I, body thrown in the sea[244]
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		Andronikos I Komnenos
Ἀνδρόνικος Κομνηνός		c. September 1183 – 12 September 1185
(2 years)
withJohn Komnenos
(1183–1185)[s]		Son ofIsaac Komnenos, a son of Alexios I. Overthrew the regency of Alexios II in April 1182, crowned co-emperor in 1183 and shortly thereafter had Alexios II murderedc. 1118/1120 – 12 September 1185
(aged 64–67)
Overthrown byIsaac II, tortured and mutilated in the imperial palace, then slowly dismembered alive by a mob in theHippodrome[245]

Angelos dynasty (1185–1204)

[edit]
Main articles:Angelos andByzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty
Angelos dynasty
Portrait[af]NameReignSuccessionLife details
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		Isaac II Angelos
Ἰσαάκιος Κομνηνός Ἄγγελος		12 September 1185 – 8 April 1195
(9 years, 6 months and 27 days)		Great-grandson of Alexios I. Resisted an order of arrest issued by Andronikos I, after which he was proclaimed emperor by the people of Constantinople. Captured and killed Andronikos Ic. 1156 – January 1204
(aged 47)
Suffered theloss of Bulgaria. Overthrown and blinded by Alexios III in 1195, reinstalled in 1203[246]
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		Alexios III Angelos
  Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός[ag]		8 April 1195 – 17/18 July 1203
(8 years, 3 months and 10 days)		Elder brother of Isaac II, overthrew and blinded his brotherc. 1153 – 1211/1212
(aged approx. 58)
Fled after brief resistance against theFourth Crusade. Died a natural death after being captured and forced to become a monk byTheodore I[248]
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		Alexios IV Angelos
Ἀλέξιος Ἄγγελος		19 July 1203 – 27 January 1204
(6 months and 8 days)		Son of Isaac II, overthrew Alexios III with the help of the crusaders as part of theFourth Crusade, then named co-emperor alongside his blinded fatherc. 1182/1183 – c. 8 February 1204
(aged approx. 21)
Deposed and imprisoned byAlexios V, then strangled in prison[249]
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		Isaac II Angelos
Ἰσαάκιος Κομνηνός Ἄγγελος
(second reign)		19 July 1203 – 27 January (?) 1204
(6 months and 8 days)		Freed from imprisonment during the Fourth Crusade by courtiers and reinstated as ruler after Alexios III abandoned the defense of Constantinoplec. 1156 – January 1204
(aged 47)
Became senile or demented and died of natural causes around the time of Alexios V's coup[246]
 
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		Alexios V Doukas "Mourtzouphlos"
Ἀλέξιος Δούκας		27/28 January – 12 April 1204
(2 months and 16 days)		Seized power through a palace coup, son-in-law of Alexios III.c. 1139 – c. late November 1204
(aged approx. 65)
Fled during thesack of Constantinople. Blinded by Alexios III, later captured by crusaderThierry de Loos and thrown from theColumn of Theodosius[250]

Laskaris dynasty (1205–1261)

[edit]
Main articles:Laskaris andEmpire of Nicaea
Note: Roman rule in Constantinople was interrupted with thecapture and sack of the city by thecrusaders in 1204, which led to the establishment of theFrankokratia. Though the crusaders created a new line ofLatin emperors in the city, modern historians recognize the line of emperors of the Laskaris dynasty, reigning inNicaea, as the legitimate Roman emperors during thestruggle for Constantinople because the Nicene Empire eventually retook the city.[23] For other lines of claimant emperors, seeList of Trapezuntine emperors andList of Thessalonian emperors.
Laskaris dynasty
Portrait[af]NameReignSuccessionLife details
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		Theodore I Laskaris
Θεόδωρος Κομνηνὸς Λάσκαρις		c. May 1205 – November 1221
(16 years and 6 months)
withNicholas Laskaris (c. 1208–1210)[ah]		Husband ofAnna Komnene Angelina, a daughter of Alexios III. Organized resistance against theLatin Empire inNicaea and proclaimed emperor in 1205 after theBattle of Adrianople; crowned by PatriarchMichael IV on 6 April 1208.c. 1174 – November 1221
(aged approx. 47)
Died of natural causes[252]
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		John III Vatatzes
Ἰωάννης Δούκας Βατάτζης		c. December 1221 – 3 November 1254
(32 years and 11 months)		Husband ofIrene Laskarina, a daughter of Theodore Ic. 1192 – 3 November 1254
(aged approx. 62)
Started Nicaean expansionism. Died of natural causes[253]
miniature portraitTheodore II Laskaris
Θεόδωρος Δούκας Λάσκαρις		3 November 1254 – 16 August 1258
(3 years, 9 months and 13 days)		Son of John III and grandson of Theodore I, co-emperor since about 1235November 1221 – 16 August 1258
(aged 36)
Died ofepilepsy[254]
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		John IV Laskaris
Ἰωάννης Δούκας Λάσκαρις		16 August 1258 – 25 December 1261
(3 years, 4 months and 9 days)		Son and co-emperor of Theodore II25 December 1250 – c. 1305
(aged approx. 55)
Blinded, deposed and imprisoned byMichael VIII Palaiologos in 1261, died in captivity several decades later[255]

Palaiologos dynasty (1259–1453)

[edit]
Main articles:Palaiologos andByzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty
Note: The Empire had up to three capitals:Selymbria,Thessalonica andConstantinople.[256]
Palaiologos dynasty
PortraitNameReignSuccessionLife details
miniature portraitMichael VIII Palaiologos
Μιχαὴλ Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος		1 January 1259 – 11 December 1282
(23 years, 11 months and 10 days)		Great-grandson of Alexios III; became regent for John IV in 1258 and crowned co-emperor in 1259.Regained Constantinople on 25 July 1261, entered the city on 15 August. Became sole ruler after deposing John IV on 25 December1224/1225 – 11 December 1282
(aged 57/58)
Died ofdysentery[257]
miniature portraitAndronikos II Palaiologos
Ἀνδρόνικος Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος		11 December 1282 – 24 May 1328
(45 years, 5 months and 13 days)
withcoinIrene (1303–1317, inThessalonica)[ai]		Son of Michael VIII; named co-emperor shortly after 1261, crowned on 8 November 127225 March 1259 – 13 February 1332
(aged 72)
Deposed by his grandsonAndronikos III in 1328 and became a monk, dying of natural causes four years later[260]
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		  Michael IX Palaiologos (§)
Μιχαὴλ Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος		21 May 1294 – 12 October 1320
(26 years, 4 months and 21 days)		Son and co-ruler of Andronikos II, named co-emperor in 1281, crowned on 21 May 129417 April 1277/1278 – 12 October 1320
(aged 42/43)
Allegedly died of grief due to the accidental murder of his second son, probably died of natural causes[261]
miniature portraitAndronikos III Palaiologos
Ἀνδρόνικος Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνός Παλαιολόγος		24 May 1328 – 15 June 1341
(13 years and 22 days)		Son of Michael IX, named co-emperor between 1308 and 1313.Fought with his grandfather Andronikos II for power from April 1321 onwards. Crowned emperor on 2 February 1325, became sole emperor after deposing Andronikos II25 March 1297 – 15 June 1341
(aged 44)
Last Emperor to effectively control Greece. Died of sudden illness, possiblymalaria[262]

miniature portrait

John V Palaiologos
Ίωάννης Κομνηνός Παλαιολόγος
15 June 1341 – 16 February 1391
(49 years, 8 months and 1 day)
Details
    • 15 June 1341 – 12 August 1376
      (35 years, 1 month and 28 days)
    • 1 July 1379 – 14 April 1390
      (10 years, 9 months and 13 days)
    • 17 September 1390 – 16 February 1391
      (4 months and 30 days)
withcoinAnna (1351–1365, inThessalonica)[ai]		Son of Andronikos III, not formally crowned until 19 November 1341. Dominated by regents until 1354, faced numerous usurpations and civil wars throughout his long reign18 June 1332 – 16 February 1391
(aged 58)
Reigned almost 50 years, but only held effective power for 33. Lost almost all territories outside Constantinople. Died of natural causes[263]
miniature portraitJohn VI Kantakouzenos
Ἰωάννης Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος Καντακουζηνός		8 February 1347 – 10 December 1354
(7 years, 10 months and 2 days)
withcoinMatthew Kantakouzenos (1353–1357)[s]		Related to the Palaiologoi through his mother. Proclaimed by the army on 26 October 1341, became regent and senior co-emperor after alengthy civil war with John V's mother,Anna of Savoy. Entered Constantinople on 8 February, crowned on 21 May 1347c. 1295 – 15 June 1383
(aged approx. 88)
Deposed by John V inanother civil war and retired, becoming a monk. Died of natural causes several decades later[264]
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		Andronikos IV Palaiologos
Ἀνδρόνικος Κομνηνός Παλαιολόγος		12 August 1376 – 1 July 1379
(2 years, 10 months and 19 days)
May 1381 – June 1385
(4 years, inSelymbria)		Son of John V and grandson of John VI; named co-emperor and heir in 1352, but imprisoned and partiallyblinded after a failed rebellion in May 1373. Rebelled again and successfullydeposed his father in 1376; not formally crowned until 18 October 137711 April 1348 – 25/28 June 1385
(aged 37)
Deposed by John V in 1379; fled toGalata in exile but was restored as co-emperor and heir in May 1381, ruling overSelymbria and thecoast of Marmara. Rebelled again in June 1385 but died shortly thereafter[265]
miniature portrait
Non-contemporary		John VII Palaiologos
Ίωάννης Παλαιολόγος		June 1385 – April 1390
(4 years and 10 months, inSelymbria)[aj]
14 April – 17 September 1390
(5 months and 3 days)
late 1403 – 22 September 1408
(5 years, inThessalonica)
withAndronikos V Palaiologos (1403–1407)[s]		Son of Andronikos IV, co-emperor since 1377; usurped the throne from John V in 1390. Deposed shortly thereafter but grantedThessalonica byManuel II in 1403, from where he once more ruled as emperor until his death1370 – 22 September 1408
(aged 38)
Ruled Constantinople as regent in1399–1403 during Manuel II's absence. Died of natural causes[267]

miniature portrait

Manuel II Palaiologos
Μανουὴλ Παλαιολόγος		Autumn 1382 – April 1387
(5 years, inThessalonica)[ak]
16 February 1391 – 21 July 1425
(34 years, 4 months and 5 days)		Son of John V and grandson of John VI; co-emperor since 25 September 137327 June 1350 – 21 July 1425
(aged 74)
Suffered astroke in 1422, whereafter the government was run by his son, John VIII. Died of natural causes[269]

miniature portrait
Posthumous[al]

John VIII Palaiologos
Ίωάννης Παλαιολόγος		21 July 1425 – 31 October 1448
(23 years, 4 months and 10 days)		Son of Manuel II; co-emperor by 1407 and full emperor since 19 January 142118 December 1392 – 31 October 1448
(aged 55)
Died of natural causes[272]
fresco portraitConstantine XI Palaiologos
Κωνσταντῖνος Δραγάσης Παλαιολόγος		6 January 1449 – 29 May 1453
(4 years, 4 months and 23 days)		Son of Manuel II and favored successor of his brother John VIII. Crowned emperor inMystras on 6 January 1449, entered Constantinople on 12 March.8 February 1405 – 29 May 1453
(aged 48)
The last Roman emperor. Died in battle at thefall of Constantinople.[273]

Other claims to the Roman imperial title

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See also:Succession of the Roman Empire andSuccession to the Byzantine Empire
Other claims to the Roman imperial title
SubjectDescription
Roman usurpers (list)Roman usurpers were individuals or groups of individuals who obtained or tried to obtain power by force and withoutlegitimate legal authority.Usurpation was endemic during theRoman imperial era, especially from thecrisis of the third century onwards, when political instability became the rule.

A number of individuals proclaimed themselves emperor (or were proclaimed or appointed as emperor), but are not considered as legitimate emperors because they did not oust the ruling emperor, or did not establish control of the whole empire, or were not accepted by the senate or other imperial colleagues.

Byzantine usurpers (list)
Holy Roman Emperors (list)TheHoly Roman Emperor was the ruler andhead of state of theHoly Roman Empire.

Charlemagne was crownedimperator romanorum ("Emperor of the Romans") byPope Leo III in AD 800. In so doing, the Pope rejected the legitimacy ofEmpress Irene.[274] The Byzantines never recognized the Holy Roman emperors as "Roman emperors" and called them the 'emperor (or king) of the Franks', to them only theByzantine Senate (successor to theRoman Senate) and/or theByzantine military (successor to theRoman military) had the right to appoint a new Roman Emperor. Likewise, Western Europeans didn't recognize the legitimacy of the Byzantine emperors and called them the 'emperor of the Greeks' or the 'emperor of Constantinople'. See also:Problem of two emperors

Latin Emperors (list)TheLatin Emperor was the ruler of theLatin Empire, the historiographical convention for theCrusader realm, established inConstantinople after theFourth Crusade (1204) and lasting until the city was recovered by theByzantine Greeks in 1261. Its name derives from itsCatholic and Western European ("Latin") nature. The empire, whose official name wasImperium Romaniae (Latin: "Empire ofRomania"), claimed the direct heritage of theEastern Roman Empire, which had most of its lands taken and partitioned by the crusaders. This claim however was disputed by the Byzantine Greek successor states, theEmpire of Nicaea, theEmpire of Trebizond and theDespotate of Epirus. Out of these three, the Nicaeans succeeded in displacing the Latin emperors in 1261 and restored theByzantine Empire.
Trapezuntine emperors (list)TheTrapezuntine emperors were the rulers of theEmpire of Trebizond, one of the successor states of theByzantine Empire founded after theFourth Crusade in 1204, untilits fall to theOttoman Empire in 1461. The rulers of Trebizond called themselvesMegas Komnenos and – like their counterparts in the other two Byzantine successor states, theEmpire of Nicaea and theDespotate of Epirus – initially claimed supremacy as "Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans". However, afterMichael VIII Palaiologos of Nicaea recaptured Constantinople in 1261, the Komnenian use of the style "Emperor" became a sore point. In September 1282, at Constantinople,John II of Trebizond relinquished his claim and accepted the titledespot. His successors used a variant of the imperial title, "Emperor and Autocrat of all the East,the Iberians, and theTransmarine Provinces" until the Empire's end in 1461.[275]
Emperors of Thessalonica (list)The emperors of Thessalonica were the rulers of theEmpire of Thessalonica, ahistoriographic term to refer to the short-lived state centred on the city ofThessalonica between 1224 and 1246 (sensu stricto until 1242) and ruled by theKomnenodoukas ofEpirus.
Despots of Epirus (list)Thedespot of Epirus was the ruler of theDespotate of Epirus, one of the successor states of theByzantine Empire in the aftermath of theFourth Crusade. The name "Despotate of Epirus" is a modern historiographical name and was not used at the time.

Some rulers used the version "despot of Romania" (Romania essentially referring to the territories of theRoman Empire, i.e. Byzantium) or "despot of theRomans" (claiming rulership over the Romans, i.e. the Byzantines/Greeks).

Ottoman sultans (list)Based on the concept ofright of conquest, the sultans of theOttoman Empire claimed to be the legitimate Roman Emperors, in succession to the Byzantine emperors who had previously ruled from Constantinople. This claim was recognized by theIslamic world, but was never recognized by the Western Europeans. SeeOttoman claim to Roman succession

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^The termbasileus eventually replacedaugustus as the official title of the emperor, although both were seen as equals already by the times ofConstantine I.[12]
  2. ^The Byzantine Empire is universally recognized as the remnant, continuation or later stage of the Roman Empire. There is no universally agreed date used to separate the ancient Roman and "Byzantine" empires, with proposed dates ranging in age from 284 to 717.[13] Some authors reject the term "Byzantine" entirely.[14]
  3. ^Spain was lost in 625[16] and Africa in 698.[17] A large portion of Italy was conquered by theLombards already under Justinian I's successor,Justin II.[18] Rome and its surroundings remained under imperial control until 756, when they became thePapal States,[19] though the last Italian holdouts were not lost until 1071 with thefall of Bari.[20] The seventh century also saw much of the empire's eastern and southern territories lost permanently toArab Muslim conquests.[21]
  4. ^There is no generally-accepted count of Roman emperors given that different scholars sometimes include and omit different emperors (seeLegitimacy). This list includes 170 emperors, 8 of whose legitimacy is disputed in scholarship (including the obscure figure ofSilbannacus, whose existence and role are shrouded in mystery,[22] and the fouremperors of Nicaea, who are often seen as the "legitimate" emperors during the interregnum of 1204–1261),[23] and 4 ruling empresses for a total of 174 monarchs. Also included are 35 junior co-emperors, 3 of whose legitimacy is debated, and 1 junior co-empress (Thekla). All in all, this list thus includes a total of 210 occupants of the Roman imperial office.
  5. ^This was one of the titles used for the emperors in Constantinople by Ottoman writers prior to 1453.[24]
  6. ^Entries also include theregnal name of each emperor. These generally differed from their birth name, often adopting elements from the previous emperor.[46]Augustus's full name would be "Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus" according toRoman naming conventions ("Octavian" was a nickname), but he styled himself as "Imperator Caesar Augustus", treating "Caesar" as a family name.[47] Given that "Imperator" was only a victory title, it will be omitted from the emperors' full nomenclature.
  7. ^The conventional date for the Empire's founding is 27 BC,[48] when the Senate awarded Octavian the title and nameAugustus alongside one of several grants of power.[49] Ancient writers, however, give him a rule of 56 years.[48] He becamede facto monarch in 31 BC, after defeating his last remaining opposition at theBattle of Actium.[50] This is a date also used by some writers.[48] Augustus himself dated his accession to legal power to 7 January 43 BC, when he first receivedimperium.[49] Later that year he becameconsul (19 August) and thentriumvir (27 November) alongsideMark Antony andLepidus. Augustus thus ruled the Roman state for exactly 56 years, but only 40 as "emperor".[49]
  8. ^By this time, 'Caesar' and 'Augustus' are regarded less as personal names and more as imperial titles, with the former denoting the heir-apparent and the latter indicating the emperor himself.[67]
  9. ^abThe junior co-emperors marked as being of "varying ascribed status" are figures, mostly children, who are usually not counted as "true" emperors given their submissive status to the senior emperor, but are still present in some lists of rulers.[42]
  10. ^abcdefUnless otherwise noted to be some other ambiguity, the emperors marked to be of ambiguous legitimacy are those who fulfill one or more of the inclusion criteria above, but who are not universally regarded by scholars to count as legitimate. In most cases, such figures are those who held power only briefly, and/or who in times of more than one emperor held one of the capitals but never achieved the full recognition of the other emperor(s).[81][82][failed verification][83][84]
  11. ^On account of the limited surviving source material, almost all dates used here are just approximate. The chronology of the whole period is dubious and sources rarely agree on each other, in part due to the fact that many reigns overlap due to most emperors starting as rivals. For an analysis of the chronology, seeRea 1972,Peachin 1990 andBurgess 2014.
  12. ^Unmentioned in literary sources and known only from two coins seemingly issued in Rome, implying he was proclaimed emperor in the capital, probably between Aemilianus and Valerian, or against either.[99][100][101]
  13. ^Madecaesar by his father and only referred to asaugustus in a single series of coins, issued while he was besieged inCologne in 260. Coinage issued after his death lack any title; probably because Gallienus did not want to advertise the death of a second emperor in one year.[104][105] It is unclear whether his acclamation was ever recognized (or even known) by Gallienus, but if he had survived it would surely have been recognized (likeValentinian II, who was proclaimed by the army but was accepted byGratian).
  14. ^The chronology of Maximian's career is disputed. Some authors argue that he was promoted toaugustus without ever beingcaesar, as claimed by many others. Another possible date for his accession as emperor (and the first division of the Roman Empire) is 13 December 285.[117]
  15. ^abLegitimately appointed as co-emperor by Licinius, though as western emperor (in opposition to Constantine I). Referred ascaesar in literary sources, but calledaugustus in coinage. Did not actually rule anything given that Licinius did not control the west.[125]
  16. ^Although technically recognized by Constantius II, who even sent him the imperialdiadem, Vetranio is often regarded as a usurper.[133]
  17. ^From the fourth century, emperors and other high-profile men of non-aristocratic birth often bore the name "Flavius", the family name of the Constantinian dynasty. Because it was often used as a status marker rather than personal name,[137] "Flavius" will generally be omitted in the following entries for simplicity.
  18. ^Distinction betweennomen,praenomen andcognomen, the core elements ofRoman naming conventions, began to fade away from the 3rd century onwards. Given that "new Romans" —that is,barbarians turnedcitizens— adopted the names of their masters, many citizens adopted the namesJulius,Flavius (notable theConstantinians) andMarcus Aurelius (notable the 3rd century emperors), thus making them obsolete assurnames. As a result, most citizens of the Empire, even emperors, reverted back to single-names by the 5th century.[139]
  19. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstAlthough they constitutionally held the same supreme power as their senior counterpart, it is customary among scholars of the later empire to only regard those who actually ruled as emperors, omitting junior co-emperors who only exercised power nominally and never governed in their own name. Most of these co-emperors were children that barely appear in historical records.[144][145]
  20. ^abThere is particular confusion surrounding the name "Constantine III", as it has been applied to both a Western (Constantine) and an Eastern emperor (Heraclius Constantine). Heraclius Constantine is often enumerated as 'Constantine III',[182] but this name is also often applied to the earlier western emperor and has also been used for Heraclius Constantine's sonConstans II (who actually ruled under the name 'Constantine', 'Constans' being a nickname).[183]
  21. ^From 629 onwards, Heraclius issued administrative documents in Greek.[179] Latin continued to be used in communication with Western Europe until the end of the empire and coins continued to be struck with Latin inscriptions until the early eighth century.[180]
  22. ^Tiberius and Heraclius were crowned by their fatherConstans II on 2 June 659, likely as babies. Constantine tried to get rid of his brothers as soon as they came of age, but the army rioted. He initially accepted, but quickly turn against the leaders of the revolt and executed them. Then, around October 681,cut the noses of their brothers, a common Byzantine punishment that disqualified anyone from the throne.[187]
  23. ^Latin ceased being used in coin inscriptions under Leo III.[180]
  24. ^abMost of miniature portraits used for the 9th to 11th centuries are not contemporary, but taken from the 12th-centuryMadrid Skylitzes. The portrait ofNikephoros I is taken from theManasses Chronicle (c. 1345), while the portrait ofNikephoros II is taken from a 15th-century miniature of uncertain origin. All of these portraits are almost certainly imaginary. The 15th-centuryMutinensis gr. 122 is used for some 11th-century emperors with no surviving portrait, although these are probably imaginary as well.
  25. ^Theodora's daughter Thekla appears to have been formally associated with Theodora and Michael III in the government of the Empire, although almost nothing is known about her actual role during her mother's rule.[208][209]
  26. ^Son of Christopher and grandson of Romanos I; unattested in official documents and only briefly mentioned byMichael Psellos andJoannes Zonaras. He was probably crowned as a baby but died shortly after, certainly before 927.[215]
  27. ^abEmperors began to officially use family names from Constantine IX Monomachos onwards. The sole exception after Constantine IX's reign is Michael VI, whose family name (Bringas) was far less distinguished than those of the other imperial families and thus does not appear in official use.[227]
  28. ^Some historians regard Eudokia as an empress regnant, while others consider her as a regent.
  29. ^Unattested in official documents; Leo is only called emperor in a singular letter, while his brother's status can only be deduced from the fact that he wasborn in the purple and that he also used the "imperial tokens".[233]
  30. ^Constantine Doukas notably served as junior co-emperor of two emperors, first his father Michael VII and then Alexios I, who briefly restored his rights. As always, this was only symbolical, as Constantine remained a minor during both tenures, having been crowned as a newborn. He died on 12 August 1094, aged around 20 years old.[237]
  31. ^The identification of this figure from Vat. Gr. 1851 as Alexios II is by Ioannis Spatharakis.[241] Other historians variously identify him as a youngAndronikos IV Palaiologos[242] orAndronikos II Palaiologos.[243]
  32. ^abMany of the miniature portraits used for the late Byzantine period are not contemporary, but taken from theCodex Mutinensis graecus 122, completedc. 1425 and expanded after 1453. The codex depicts almost every single Roman emperor fromAugustus toConstantine XI, but only the later portraits are considerable reliable, specially those of thePalaiologoi.
  33. ^Alexios III used the name Alexios Komnenos Angelos (Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός Ἄγγελος) prior to his accession but reigned as Alexios Komnenos, dropping his own family name in order to stress his matrilineal descent from the Komnenos dynasty.[247]
  34. ^Unattested in coins, Nicholas is called "emperor and heir" in a single document. He died soon after, less than 10 years old.[251]
  35. ^abDuring the last years of the Empire, the territory ofThessalonica was effectively ruled as separate realm from Constantinople. Two empresses,Irene andAnna, took residence there, even having their own courts and ruling asde facto empresses regnant. Anna notably ruled in Thessalonica in opposition toJohn VI Kantakouzenos, who later recognized her portion of the empire.[258][259]
  36. ^John VII inherited his father's lands around Selymbria and, as per a 1381 agreement with Andronikos IV that legitimized his role as co-emperor and heir. He ruled there with the title of emperor (basileus), although he ruled heavely influenced by the Ottomans andGenoese.[266]
  37. ^Manuel, who previously had been given governorship over Thessalonica and had already been crowned co-emperor, set up an independent court and ruled there asbasileus instead ofdespotes. Manuel ruled in opposition of his father's soft policies towards the Ottomans, waging war uppon them. However, the city eventually fell and Manuel had to flee in shame.[268]
  38. ^This depiction of John VIII is from theMagi Chapel, which was painted in 1459–1461 (about a decade after his death) byBenozzo Gozzoli. Gozzoli likely saw John in person at theCouncil of Florence. He also seems to have useda medal byPisanello as a source.[270][271]

References

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Citations

[edit]
  1. ^Mosshammer 2008, pp. 342–343;Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 53–54
  2. ^Loewenstein 1973, pp. 329, 403.
  3. ^Loewenstein 1973, p. 238.
  4. ^Loewenstein 1973, p. 329.
  5. ^Loewenstein 1973, p. 245.
  6. ^Richardson 1984, pp. 39–40.
  7. ^Wu 2016, p. 35.
  8. ^Loewenstein 1973, p. 443.
  9. ^Loewenstein 1973, pp. 238, 403.
  10. ^Sandberg 2008, pp. 199–213..
  11. ^Arnold, Bjornlie & Sessa 2016, p. 3;Williams & Friell 1998, p. 187.
  12. ^ODB, p. 264.
  13. ^Mango 2002, p. 2.
  14. ^Goldsworthy 2009, p. 8.
  15. ^Halsall 2018, p. 53.
  16. ^Collins 2004, pp. 47–49.
  17. ^Becker 1913, p. 370.
  18. ^Hartmann 1913, p. 196.
  19. ^Logan 2012, pp. 71–74.
  20. ^Chalandon 1923, p. 325.
  21. ^abNicol 1992, p. ix.
  22. ^abEstiot 1996.
  23. ^abTreadgold 1997, p. 734.
  24. ^Çolak 2014, p. 19.
  25. ^Nicol 1967, p. 334.
  26. ^Çolak 2014, pp. 21–22.
  27. ^Nicol 1992, pp. 115–116.
  28. ^Omissi 2018, p. 3.
  29. ^abSmolin 2021, p. 22.
  30. ^Claes 2015, p. 15.
  31. ^Omissi 2018, p. 25.
  32. ^abClaes 2015, p. 23.
  33. ^Omissi 2018, pp. 9, 14, 17, 24.
  34. ^Smolin 2021, pp. 22–23.
  35. ^Omissi 2018, pp. 21, 29–30.
  36. ^Omissi 2018, p. 34.
  37. ^Omissi 2018, p. 32.
  38. ^Omissi 2018, p. xix.
  39. ^Mathisen 1997.
  40. ^Omissi 2018, p. 25;Claes 2015, p. 18.
  41. ^Foss 2005, p. 101;ODB, p. 360.
  42. ^abElton 1825, p. 303;Grant 1998, p. 179;Hekster 2008, p. 155;Cooley 2012;Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. v–xii;Britannica;Livius;MET.
  43. ^Claes 2015, p. 15;Omissi 2018, p. 17
  44. ^Van Tricht 2011, pp. 79–80.
  45. ^Lawler 2004, p. 323.
  46. ^Cooley 2012.
  47. ^Syme 1958.
  48. ^abcMosshammer 2008, pp. 342–343.
  49. ^abcKienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 53–54.
  50. ^Meijer 2004, pp. 14–16.
  51. ^Grant, pp. 8, 9, 12–13;Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 53–54, 350.
  52. ^Tacitus, 1.5.
  53. ^Cassius Dio, 55.22.2, 56.30.
  54. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 70–72, 350;Grant, pp. 8, 16, 20, 25.
  55. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 78;Grant, pp. 8, 25, 27.
  56. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 82;Grant, pp. 8, 29, 33.
  57. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 88–89, 350;Grant, pp. 8, 34, 39.
  58. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 94;Grant, pp. 43, 44;Hammond, p. 24.
  59. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 97;Grant, pp. 46–47.
  60. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 99–100;Grant, pp. 48–50.
  61. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 101;Grant, pp. 51–52, 55.
  62. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 105;Grant, p. 55;Hammond, p. 27.
  63. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 109;Grant, pp. 60–69.
  64. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 114;Grant, p. 69;Burgess 2014, p. 53–54.
  65. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 116–117;Grant, pp. 71, 73, 76;Omissi 2018, p. 8;Burgess 2014, p. 54–56.
  66. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 122–123;Grant, pp. 68, 76;Omissi 2018, p. 8.
  67. ^Hammond, pp. 29–31.
  68. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 128;Grant, p. 87.
  69. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 131–132;Grant, pp. 68, 89, 91, 93.
  70. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 135;Grant, pp. 93, 94.
  71. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 140–141;Grant, p. 97;Omissi 2018, p. 8.
  72. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 145;Grant, pp. 103–104.
  73. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 147;Grant, pp. 106–108;Cooley 2012, p. 495.
  74. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 149–150;Grant, pp. 108, 110;Omissi 2018, p. 9.
  75. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 156–157;Grant, pp. 119–120;Hammond, pp. 35–36.
  76. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 160;Grant, p. 122.
  77. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 162;Grant, pp. 123, 124, 125–126.
  78. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 163–164;Grant, p. 125.
  79. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 165;Grant, pp. 126, 129;Burgess 2014, pp. 65–66.
  80. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 171–172;Grant, pp. 130–133;Burgess 2014, pp. 67–69.
  81. ^Vagi 1999, pp. 415, 463, 529.
  82. ^Omissi 2018, p. 24.
  83. ^Seibt 2018, p. 213.
  84. ^Tilemachos 2015, p. 243.
  85. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 176–179;Grant, pp. 137–139;Omissi 2018, p. 10;Burgess 2014, pp. 67–69.
  86. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 180–181;Grant, pp. 140–141;Meijer 2004, p. 85.
  87. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 182;Grant, pp. 142–143;Meijer 2004, p. 85;Peachin 1990, p. 28.
  88. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 183–184;Grant, pp. 146–148;Meijer 2004, p. 87;Peachin 1990, p. 28.
  89. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 185–186;Grant, pp. 144–145;Peachin 1990, p. 28.
  90. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 187–189;Grant, pp. 149–151;Peachin 1990, p. 29.
  91. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 190–191;Grant, pp. 152–155.
  92. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 192–193;Grant, pp. 152–155.
  93. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 195–197;Grant, pp. 156–159.
  94. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 197–198;Grant, pp. 156–159.
  95. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 200–201;Grant, pp. 160–161.
  96. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 198–199;Peachin 1990, p. 34.
  97. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 201–202;Grant, pp. 160–161;Peachin 1990, p. 36.
  98. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 203–204;Grant, p. 162;Peachin 1990, pp. 36–37.
  99. ^Claes 2015, p. 44.
  100. ^Estiot 1996, pp. 105–117.
  101. ^Hartmann 2002.
  102. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 205–207;Grant, pp. 163–167;Peachin 1990, pp. 37–38.
  103. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 209–211;Grant, pp. 168–172;Peachin 1990, pp. 39–40.
  104. ^Shiel 1979, p. 117.
  105. ^Vagi 1999, p. 357.
  106. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 213;Grant, pp. 168–172;Peachin 1990, pp. 39–40.
  107. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 222;Grant, pp. 179–180;Peachin 1990, pp. 42–43.
  108. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 224;Grant, pp. 181–182;Peachin 1990, p. 43.
  109. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 225–227;Grant, pp. 183–187;Peachin 1990, pp. 43–44.
  110. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 241–242;Grant, pp. 188–189;Watson 1999, pp. 110, 225, 250 (n. 46).
  111. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 243;Grant, p. 190;Peachin 1990, pp. 46–47.
  112. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 244–245;Grant, pp. 191–193;Peachin 1990, p. 47.
  113. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 248–249;Grant, pp. 194–195;Peachin 1990, p. 49.
  114. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 250–251;Grant, pp. 196–197;Peachin 1990, pp. 49–50.
  115. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 252;Grant, pp. 198–201.
  116. ^Barnes, pp. 4, 30–32;Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 257–258;Grant, p. 204.
  117. ^Burgess 2023.
  118. ^Barnes, pp. 4, 13, 32, 34;Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 262–263;Grant, pp. 210–212.
  119. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 272–273;Barnes, pp. 4–6, 46;Grant, pp. 221–222.
  120. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 269;Barnes, pp. 35–36;Grant, pp. 216–218;ODB, p. 524–525.
  121. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 278;Barnes, pp. 4–5, 38–39;Grant, pp. 223–224.
  122. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 279;Grant, pp. 224–226;Barnes, pp. 12–13, 34.
  123. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 282;Barnes, pp. 6–7, 43–44;Grant, pp. 235–237.
  124. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 276;Barnes, pp. 6–7, 39;Grant, pp. 238–240.
  125. ^Vagi 1999, pp. 466–467.
  126. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 284;Barnes, p. 15.
  127. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 285;Barnes, p. 15.
  128. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 286–288;Barnes, pp. 5–8, 39–42;Grant, pp. 228–231, 234.
  129. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 296;Barnes, pp. 8, 44–45;Grant, p. 241.
  130. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 298;Barnes, pp. 8, 45.
  131. ^Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 300–301;Grant, pp. 242–244.
  132. ^PLRE, Vol. I, p. 532;Grant, pp. 248–250;Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 305–306.
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Works cited

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Roman andByzantine emperors and empresses regnant
Principate
27 BC – AD 235
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235–284
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284–641
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395–476
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