Egypt was continually governed, at least in part, by native pharaohs for approximately 2500 years, until it was conquered by theKingdom of Kush in the late 8th century BC, whose rulers adopted the traditional pharaonic titulature for themselves. Following the Kushite conquest, Egypt experienced another period of independent native rule before being conquered by theAchaemenid Empire, whose rulers also adopted the title of pharaoh. The last native pharaoh of Egypt wasNectanebo II, who was pharaoh before the Achaemenids conquered Egypt a second time.
Modern lists of pharaohs are based on historical records and, including Ancient Egyptian king lists and later histories, such asManetho'sAegyptiaca, as well as archaeological evidence. Concerning ancient sources, Egyptologists and historians alike call for caution in regard to the credibility, exactitude and completeness of these sources, many of which were written long after the reigns they report.[5] An additional problem is that ancient king lists are often damaged, inconsistent with one another and/or selective.
The following ancient king lists are known (along with the dynasty under which they were created):[6]
Manetho'sAegyptiaca (Greek Period); possibly written on papyrus. The original writings are lost today and many anecdotes assigned to certain kings seem fictitious.
ThePalermo Stone mentions at least fourteen predynastic pharaohs fromLower Egypt, of which at least five whose names have been fully destroyed. Four of the five destroyed names succeed "(…)a".
Only known from clay and stone vessels found in tombs near Tarchan, Tura, Tarjan, and Nagada. Some scholars believe that this serekh is simply a crude attempt at writing the name "Narmer".[17]
These rulers are prior to the First Dynasty, and as such they have informally been grouped as the 0th Dynasty to separate them from the rulers before them.
The following list of predynastic rulers may be incomplete:
Believed by many scholars to be the same person asMenes, due to the preponderance of evidence indicating this.[40] His name is widely attested acrossEgypt, and has also been found at Nahal Tillah inIsrael, which is much farther afield than his predecessors.[41]
May also beMenes althoughNarmer is more likely.[40] Trade was largely replaced by direct exploitation of resources via outposts during his reign.[44] Possibly the son of Narmer.
His tomb was later thought to be the legendary tomb ofOsiris. First pharaoh with a fullGolden Horus name. Interest and trade withEgypt's North Eastern borders appears to have been renewed duringDjer's reign.[44]
Possibly the first female pharaoh of Egypt. She may have ruled as regent for her son Den. Her tomb is notable for being on the same scale as other tombs of other kings of that period.
Den was the firstpharaoh to have aNesut-biti (dual king) name, and is the firstpharaoh attested wearing the double crown (pschent) of upper and lowerEgypt.[52] A secondsed festival is attested from his reign, indicating he enjoyed a long time in power.[52]Den focused on the northeastern part ofEgypt during his reign, and also led a few small battles in the northeast which are attested on thePalermo stone.[53]
First Egyptian ruler with a fully developedNebty name. His complete reign is preserved on the Cairo Stone. Many stone vessels of his predecessor were found reinscribed for Semerkhet so he may have been a usurper.[58]
Manetho names himBoëthos and reports that under this ruler anearthquake killed many people. Hotepsekhemwy broke the tradition of being buried at the Abydos royal cemetery at Umm-el-Qa'ab, where most of the 1st dynasty kings are buried, and chose to be buried at Saqqara instead to be closer to the capital.[61]
May have been an independent ruler succeeding Nynetjer. Alternatively, he may have ruled in the 1st or 3rd dynasties or be the same person asHorus Bird.
Used a Seth-animal above his serekh rather than a Horus falcon. He promoted the sun-cult inEgypt and reduced the powers of officials, nomarchs and palatines. Some scholars believe that he ruled over a dividedEgypt.[67]
Known only from Ramesside king lists, not archaeologically attested. Old Kingdom legends claim that this ruler savedEgypt from a long-lasting drought.[69]
Known only from Ramesside king lists, his "name" is actually a paraphrase pointing out that the original name of the king was already lost in Ramesside times.
It is probable that whenKhasekhem acceded kingship he was a ruler ofupper Egypt, he led campaigns againstlower Egypt that ended in his victory, to commemorate his achievement of reunifying Egypt he changed his name to Khasekhemwy.[61] His serekh name is unique for presenting bothHorus andSet. He was one of Egypt's first master builders, his funerary enclosure known asShunet-ez-Zebib is a colossal mudbrick structure.[70]
Known only from the Abydos King List, his "name" is actually a paraphrase pointing out that the original name of the king was already lost in Ramesside times.
Possibly built an unfinishedstep pyramid, could be identical withHuni. His "Personal name" is actually a paraphrase pointing out that the original name of the king was already lost in Ramesside times.
Could be the same asQahedjet orKhaba. Possibly built an unfinishedstep pyramid and several cultic pyramids throughoutEgypt. Huni was for a long time credited with the building of the pyramid of Meidum. This, however, is disproved byNew Kingdom graffiti that praise kingSneferu, not Huni.
Reigned for around 24 years, giving him enough time to build theMeidum Pyramid, theBent Pyramid and theRed Pyramid. Some scholars believe that he was buried in the Red Pyramid. For a long time it was thought that theMeidum Pyramid was not Sneferu's work, but that of kingHuni. Ancient Egyptian documents describe Sneferu as a pious, generous and even accostable ruler.[77]
Built theGreat Pyramid of Giza. Khufu is depicted as a cruel tyrant by ancient Greek authors; Ancient Egyptian sources however describe him as a generous and pious ruler. He is the main protagonist in theWestcar Papyrus. The first imprinted papyri originate from Khufu's reign, which may have made ancient Greek authors believe that Khufu wrote books in attempt to praise the gods.
Some scholars believe he created theGreat Sphinx of Giza as a monument for his deceased father. He also created a pyramid atAbu Rawash. However, this pyramid is no longer extant; it is believed the Romans re-purposed the materials from which it was made.
His pyramid is the second largest inGiza. Some scholars prefer him as the creator of theGreat Sphinx before Djedefra. His funerary complex was the largest at the Giza plateau.
His pyramid is the third and smallest inGiza. A legend claims that his only daughter died due to an illness and Menkaura buried her in a golden coffin in the shape of a cow.
ThePyramid of Unas is inscribed with the earliest instance of thePyramid Texts. He also constructed Unas's causeway a 500m long causeway from the bank of the river Nile to his funerary complex, this is where his funerary precession would have taken place.
This male king gave rise to the legendary queenNitocris ofHerodotus andManetho.[80] Sometimes classified as the first king of the combined 7th/8th Dynasties.
TheOld Kingdom rapidly collapsed after the death ofPepi II. He had reigned for more than 64 and likely up to 94 years, longer than any monarch in history. The latter years of his reign were marked by inefficiency because of his advanced age. The union of the Two Kingdoms fell apart and regional leaders had to cope with the resultingfamine.
The kings of the 7th and 8th Dynasties, who represented the successors of the 6th Dynasty, tried to hold onto some power in Memphis but owed much of it to powerful nomarchs. After 20 to 45 years, they were overthrown by a new line of pharaohs based inHerakleopolis Magna. Some time after these events, a rival line based atThebes revolted against their nominal Northern overlords and unitedUpper Egypt.c. 2055 BC,Mentuhotep II, the son and successor of pharaohIntef III defeated the Herakleopolitan pharaohs and reunited the Two Lands, thereby starting the Middle Kingdom.
TheSeventh and Eighth Dynasties ruled for approximately 20–45 years. They comprise numerous ephemeral kings reigning fromMemphis over a possibly divided Egypt and, in any case, holding only limited power owing to the effectively feudal system into which the administration had evolved.The list below is based on theAbydos King List dating to the reign ofSeti I and taken fromJürgen von Beckerath'sHandbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen[81] as well as fromKim Ryholt's latest reconstruction of theTurin canon, another king list dating to theRamesside Era.[82] Numerals have been provided based on personal names.[83]
Ephemeral ruler of the Ninth Dynasty. Only known from two rock inscriptions in the Wadi Hammamat.[90][91][92][93][94][95] Correct chronological position unknown.
TheEleventh Dynasty originated from a group of Theban nomarchs serving kings of the 8th, 9th or 10th dynasty with roots inUpper Egypt that ruled from 2134 to 1991 BC.
Obscure pharaoh absent from later king lists, tomb unknown. Only attested inLower Nubia, most likely a usurper at the end of the Eleventh Dynasty or early Twelfth Dynasty.
Obscure pharaoh absent from later king lists, tomb unknown. Only attested inLower Nubia, most likely a usurper at the end of the Eleventh Dynasty or early Twelfth Dynasty.
Obscure pharaoh absent from later king lists, tomb unknown. Only attested inLower Nubia, most likely a usurper at the end of the Eleventh Dynasty or early Twelfth Dynasty.
Amenemhat I was not from a royal family, and built the first substantialpyramid sincePepi II at Lisht.[104] He restored order in Egypt, and then built a new capital calledItjtawy.Amenemhat I was probably assassinated.[105]
Senusret I built extensively inupper Egypt, including the temple ofAmun atKarnak.[104] Senusret I claimed to have sent 17,000 people into the Wadi Hammamat to bring back stone for 150 statues and 60 sphinxes.[108] He also constructed apyramid at Lisht near his fatherspyramid.
Amenemhat II recorded his reign in now fragmented annals.[104] The Egyptian navy may have attacked Cyprus during his campaigns.[111] Amenemhat II also built apyramid at Dashur. Ruled for at least 35 years.
Senusret III got rid ofnomarchs and made 3 administrative districts.[117] He also led campaigns into LowerNubia in his 8th, 10th, 16th, and 18th regnal years.[111] Senusret III also built his ownpyramid at Dashur and was the most powerful and influential pharaoh of the 12th dynasty.
Amenemhat III further developed theFayyum as an agricultural region.[104] He also constructed a large mortuary complex at Hawara including hispyramid, the mortuary complex was probably the labyrinth that inspired the ancient Greek authors.[120]
The first known archeologically attested female Pharaoh.
1807–1802 BC
The position of a possible additional ruler,Seankhibtawy Seankhibra, is unknown. He may be an ephemeral king, or a name variant of a king of the 12th or 13th Dynasty.
The Hyksos made their first appearance during the reign ofSobekhotep IV, andc. 1720 BC took control of the town ofAvaris (the modernTell el-Dab'a/Khata'na), conquering the kingdom of the 14th dynasty. Sometime around 1650 BC the Hyksos, perhaps led bySalitis the founder of the Fifteenth Dynasty, conqueredMemphis, thereby terminating the 13th dynasty. The power vacuum in Upper Egypt resulting from the collapse of the 13th dynasty allowed the 16th dynasty to declare its independence inThebes, only to be overrun by the Hyksos kings shortly thereafter.
Subsequently, as the Hyksos withdrew from Upper Egypt, the native Egyptian ruling house in Thebes set itself up as theSeventeenth Dynasty. This dynasty eventually drove the Hyksos back into Asia underSeqenenre Tao,Kamose and finallyAhmose, first pharaoh of the New Kingdom.
Some of the contested rulers of the 14th Dynasty (proposed by Kim Ryholt) are commonly identified by Egyptologists as being of Canaanite (Semitic) descent, owing to the distinct origins of the names of some of their kings and princes. However, the dynasty rulers are not referred to as Hyksos in the Turin kings list.[129] It is here given according to Ryholt; however, this reconstruction of the dynasty is heavily debated with the position of the five kings preceding Nehesy highly disputed.
Chronological position, duration of reign and extend of rule unknown, here given according to Ryholt.[128] Alternatively, he could be an early Hyksos king, a Hyksos ruler of the second part of the 15th Dynasty or a vassal of the Hyksos.
TheFifteenth Dynasty arose from among theHyksos people who emerged from theFertile Crescent to establish a short-lived governance over much of the Nile region, and ruled from 1674 to 1535 BC.
Four attested kings may be tentatively attributed to the Abydos Dynasty, and they are given here without regard for their (unknown) chronological order:
TheSeventeenth Dynasty was based inUpper Egypt and ruled from 1580 to 1550 BC and comprised the family of rulers that would eventually overthrow the Hyksos and establish the 18th Dynasty and New Kingdom
Through military dominance abroad, the New Kingdom saw Egypt's greatest territorial extent. It expanded far intoNubia in the south, and held wide territories in theNear East. Egyptian armies fought withHittite armies for control of modern-daySyria.
Three of the best known pharaohs of the New Kingdom areAkhenaten, also known as Amenhotep IV, whose exclusive worship of theAten is often interpreted as the first instance ofmonotheism,Tutankhamun known for the discovery of his nearly intact tomb, andRamesses II who attempted to recover the territories in modernIsrael/Palestine,Lebanon andSyria that had been held in the Eighteenth Dynasty. His reconquest led to theBattle of Qadesh, where he led the Egyptian armies against the army of the Hittite kingMuwatalli II.
Son ofAhmose I.Amenhotep I led campaigns in Nubia down to the 3rdNile cataract.[144] He also introduced the practice of having the tomb and funerary temple in separate locations rather than in the same location.[145] It is possible thatAmenhotep I and his mother Ahmose-Nefertari founded the tomb workers village of Deir-el-Medina, the two were honored as gods by later residents.[146]
The second known female ruler of Egypt. Ruled jointly with her nephewThutmose III.[153] Famous for her expedition toPunt documented on her famousMortuary Temple atDeir el-Bahari. Built many temples and monuments. Ruled during the height of Egypt's power. Was the daughter ofThutmose I and the Great Wife of her brotherThutmose II.
Son ofThutmose II. He ruled jointly withHatshepsut, his aunt and step-mother, during the early part of his reign.[154] Famous for his territorial expansion intothe Levant andNubia. Under his reign, the Ancient Egyptian Empire was at its greatest extent. Ruled during the height of Egypt's Power. Before the end of his reign, he obliteratedHatshepsut's name and image from temples and monuments.
Father ofAkhenaten and grandfather ofTutankhamun. Ruled Egypt at the height of its power. Built many temples and monuments, including his enormousMortuary Temple. Was the son ofThutmose IV.
Married toMeritaten, daughter ofAkhenaten. Identity and sex of Smenkhare is unknown, with suggestions they were either male relative of Akhenaten, or QueenNefertiti, main wife of Akhenaten, who took ceremonial male identity as King. It's unknown if Smenkhkare ever was sole ruler, or if they died as co-regent of Akhenaten.[155]
Female pharaoh. Speculated to be former queen consortNeferneferuaten Nefertiti, because of name similarity. Often supposed to have been the same person asSmenkhkare, as they shared the samethrone name; most scholars now see Neferneferuaten as ruling queen, while Smenkhkare was a male king.
Believed to be a son ofAkhenaten.[159] He reinstated thepolytheistic Ancient Egyptian religion. His name change from Tutankhaten to Tutankhamun reflects the change in religion from themonolatristicAtenism to the classic religion, of whichAmun is a majordeity. He is thought to have taken the throne at around age eight or nine and to have died around age eighteen or nineteen.
Was Grand Vizier toTutankhamun and an important official during the reigns ofAkhenaten andSmenkhkare. Possibly the brother ofTiye, Great Wife ofAmenhotep III, and also possibly father ofNefertiti, Great Wife of Akhenaten. Believed to have been born into nobility, but not royalty. Succeeded Tutankhamun due to his lack of an heir.
Born a Commoner. Was a General during theAmarna Period. Obliterated Images of the Amarna Pharaohs and destroyed and vandalized buildings and monuments associated with them. SucceededAy despiteNakhtmin being the intended heir.
Continued expanding Egypt's territory until he reached astalemate with theHittite Empire at theBattle of Kadesh in 1275 BC, after which the famousEgyptian–Hittite peace treaty was signed in 1258 BC. Had one of the longest Egyptian reigns. Known for his large scale construction projects, including many now famous monuments.
Not related toSeti II,Siptah, orTausret. May have usurped the throne fromTausret. Did not recognizeSiptah orTausret as legitimate rulers. Possibly a member of a minor line of the Ramesside royal family. Also called Setnakt.
TheThird Intermediate Period (1069–664 BC) marked the end of theNew Kingdom after the collapse of the Egyptian empire at the end of theBronze Age. Two dynasties ofLibyan origin ruled, giving this period its alternative name of the Libyan Period.
TheTwenty-First Dynasty was based atTanis and was a relatively weak group. Theoretically, they were rulers of all Egypt, but in practice their influence was limited to Lower Egypt. They ruled from 1069 to 943 BC.[169]
Son ofPinedjem I, aHigh Priest of Amun and Pharaoh. Ruled for 40 to 51 years. Famous for his intact tomb atTanis. Known as "The Silver Pharaoh" due to the magnificent silver coffin he was buried in. One of the most powerful rulers of the Dynasty.
Previously believed to have governed beforePiankh. Eventually adopted royal titulary atThebes, thus becoming ruler in the South and alongside the Tanite pharaoh in the North.[172]
Son ofPiankh and successor ofHerihor. Father ofPsusennes I. High Priest for many years, eventually gave his seat to his son Masaharta, and declared himself king.[173]
The designationTwenty-Third Dynasty is applied variously by scholars to branches of the Twenty-Second Dynasty ruling in mostly Upper Egypt (at least intermittently at Thebes), to various local rulers based atHerakleopolis,Hermopolis,Leontopolis, and to a line of kings who succeeded the Twenty-Second Dynasty at Tanis, all ofLibyan origin.[175]
Nubians invaded Lower Egypt and took the throne of Egypt underPiye although they already controlled Thebes and Upper Egypt in the early years of Piye's reign. Piye's conquest of Lower Egypt established theTwenty-fifth Dynasty which ruled until 656 BC.[177]
King ofNubia; gave himself royal titles, an inscription fromElephantine proclaims him as King of Upper and Lower Egypt. Considered by some as the first ruler of 25th Dynasty.
He was the last great ruler ofEgypt before the Persian conquest. According to the Greek historianHerodotus, he was of common origins. Father ofPsamtik III.
Son ofAmasis II. Ruled for about six months before being defeated by the Persians in theBattle of Pelusium and subsequently executed for attempting to revolt.
Egypt again came under the control of theAchaemenid Persians. After the practice ofManetho, the Persian rulers from 340 to 332 BC are occasionally designated as theThirty-first Dynasty:
The secondHellenistic dynasty, thePtolemies, ruled Egypt from 305 BC until Egypt became a province ofRome in 30 BC (whenever two dates overlap, that means there was a co-regency). The most famous member of this dynasty was Cleopatra VII, in modern times known simply asCleopatra, who was successively the consort ofJulius Caesar and, after Caesar's death, ofMark Antony, having children with both of them.
Cleopatra strove to create a dynastic and political union between Egypt and Rome, but the assassination of Caesar and the defeat of Mark Antony doomed her plans.[187]
Caesarion (Ptolemy XV Philopator Philometor Caesar) was the last king of thePtolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, and he reigned jointly with his mother Cleopatra VII of Egypt, from September 2, 47 BC. He was the eldest son of Cleopatra VII, and possibly the only son ofJulius Caesar, after whom he was named. Between the death of Cleopatra, on August 12, 30 BC, up to his own death in late August 30 BC, he was nominally the sole pharaoh. Ultimately, he was killed on the orders of Octavian, who would become theRoman emperorAugustus. While younger children of Cleopatra did survive Egyptian-Roman war, Octavian denied them inheritance of Egypt.[188]
Prcolaimed co-regent by Ptolemy II. His status of co-regent was revoked sometime in 259 or 258 after Ptolemy revolted withTimarchus. He was allowed by Ptolemy II to govern the city ofTelmessos from 258 until his death in 240 BC.
Traditionally identified with a surviving son of Ptolemy VI who existed but never ruled; the posthumous designation Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator was probably applied to Ptolemy Memphites (below)
Daughter ofPtolemy XII; forced to marry Seleucus Kybiosaktes, but had him strangled; later married Archelaos of Comana. Joint rule withCleopatra VI until 57 BC.
Ruled jointly with her brotherPtolemy XIII, her brotherPtolemy XIV, and her sonPtolemy XV.[191] In modern usage, the stand-alone use of "Cleopatra" with no ordinal number usually refers toCleopatra VII. Believed to have committed suicide.
Egyptian relief depicting the Roman EmperorTrajan (right, reigned 98–117 AD) in full pharaonic style.
Cleopatra VII hadaffairs with Roman dictatorJulius Caesar and Roman generalMark Antony, but it was not until after her suicide (after Mark Antony was defeated byOctavian, who would later be EmperorAugustus Caesar) that Egypt became a province of theRoman Republic in 30 BC. Subsequent Roman emperors were accorded the title of pharaoh, although exclusively only while in Egypt.
The last Roman emperor to be conferred the title of pharaoh wasMaximinus Daza (reigned 311–313 AD).[3][194]
^abClayton 1995, p. 217. "Although paying lip-service to the old ideas and religion, in varying degrees, pharaonic Egypt had in effect died with the last native pharaoh, Nectanebo II in 343 BC."
^Tyldesley, Joyce (2009).Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt. Profile Books. pp. 20–21.ISBN978-1-86197-901-8.The Ptolemies believed themselves to be a valid Egyptian dynasty, and devoted a great deal of time and money to demonstrating that they were the theological continuation of all the dynasties that had gone before. Cleopatra defined herself as an Egyptian queen, and drew on the iconography and cultural references of earlier queens to reinforce her position. Her people and her contemporaries accepted her as such.
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^abThomas Schneider:Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002,ISBN3-491-96053-3, p. 259.
^Thomas Schneider:Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002,ISBN3-491-96053-3, p. 139.
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^Thomas Schneider:Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002,ISBN3-491-96053-3, p. 181.
^Thomas Schneider:Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002,ISBN3-491-96053-3, p. 311.
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^Günter Dreyer:Horus Krokodil, ein Gegenkönig der Dynastie 0. In:Renee Friedman and Barbara Adams (Hrsg.): The Followers of Horus, Studies dedicated to Michael Allen Hoffman, 1949–1990 (=Egyptian Studies Association Publication, vol. 2). Oxbow Publications, Bloomington (IN) 1992,ISBN0-946897-44-1, p. 259–263.
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^abElizabeth BLOXAM; Wouter CLAES; Tiphaine DACHY; Maude EHRENFELD; Ashraf EL-SENUSSI; Chloé GIRARDI; James HARRELL; Thomas C. HEAGY; Stan HENDRICKX; Christiane HOCHSTRASSER-PETIT; Dirk HUYGE; Clara JEUTHE; Adel KELANY; Christian KNOBLAUCH; Béatrix MIDANT-REYNES; Norah MOLONEY; Aurélie ROCHE; Adel TOHAMEY (January 2014)."Who Was Menes?"(PDF).Archéo nil.24:59–92.doi:10.3406/arnil.2014.1071.S2CID248280047. Retrieved24 September 2022.
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^abToby A.H. Wilkinson (1999).Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge. p. 71.ISBN0-415-26011-6.
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^Baker, Darrell D. (2008).Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p. 78.ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
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^Toby A.H. Wilkinson (1999).Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge. p. 77.ISBN0-415-26011-6.
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^Baker, Darrell D. (2008).Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p. 376.ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
^Toby A.H. Wilkinson (1999).Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge. p. 79.ISBN0-415-26011-6.
^Baker, Darrell D. (2008).Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p. 299.ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
^abcToby A.H. Wilkinson (1999).Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge. p. 83.ISBN0-415-26011-6.
^Dietrich Wildung:Die Rolle ägyptischer Könige im Bewußtsein ihrer Nachwelt. Teil I. Posthume Quellen über die Könige der ersten vier Dynastien. In:Münchener Ägyptologische Studien, vol. 17.Deutscher Kunstverlag, Munich/Berlin 1969, p. 31–33.
^Thomas Schneider:Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002,ISBN3-491-96053-3, pp. 278–279.
^Miroslav Verner (2000): "Who was Shepseskara, and when did he reign?", in: Miroslav Bárta, Jaromír Krejčí (editors):Abusir and Saqqara in the Year 2000, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Oriental Institute, Prague,ISBN80-85425-39-4, p. 581–602,available onlineArchived 2011-02-01 at theWayback Machine.
^Kim Ryholt: "The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris",Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, 127, 2000, p. 99
^Gustave Jéquier, Maṣlaḥat al-Āthār (1993):Les pyramides des reines Neit et Apouit (in French), Cairo: Institut français d'archéologie orientale, OCLC 195690029, see plate 5.
^Percy Newberry (1943): "Queen Nitocris of the Sixth Dynasty", in:The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, vol. 29, pp=51–54
^Gae Callender: "Queen Neit-ikrety/Nitokris", in: Miroslav Barta, Filip Coppens, Jaromic Krecji (editors):Abusir and Saqqara in the year 2010/1, Prague: Czech Institute of Egyptology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University, 2011,ISBN978-80-7308-384-7, see pp. 249–250
^Baker, Darrell (2008).The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs. Predynastic to the Twentieth Century: 3300-1069 BCE. Vol. 1. Stacey International. p. 133.ISBN978-1-905299-37-9.
^Labib Habachi:King Nebhepetre Menthuhotep: his monuments, place in history, deification and unusual representations in form of gods, in:Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte 19 (1963), pp. 16–52
^Baker, Darrell D. (2008).Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p. 20.ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
^abcdMarc Van De Mieroop (2021).A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley Blackwell. p. 98.ISBN978-1-119-62087-7.
^Marc Van De Mieroop (2021).A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley Blackwell. p. 99.ISBN978-1-119-62087-7.
^Baker, Darrell D. (2008).Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p. 391.ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
^Marc Van De Mieroop (2021).A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley Blackwell. pp. 112–113.ISBN978-1-119-62087-7.
^Baker, Darrell D. (2008).Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p. 24.ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
^abMarc Van De Mieroop (2021).A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley Blackwell. p. 109.ISBN978-1-119-62087-7.
^Baker, Darrell D. (2008).Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p. 395.ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
^Marc Van De Mieroop (2021).A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley Blackwell. p. 100.ISBN978-1-119-62087-7.
^Josef Wegner,The Nature and Chronology of the Senwosret III–Amenemhat III Regnal Succession: Some Considerations based on new evidence from the Mortuary Temple of Senwosret III at Abydos, JNES 55, Vol.4, (1996), pp.251
^Baker, Darrell D. (2008).Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p. 398.ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
^Marc Van De Mieroop (2021).A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley Blackwell. p. 104.ISBN978-1-119-62087-7.
^Baker, Darrell D. (2008).Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p. 26.ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
^Baker, Darrell D. (2008).Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p. 30.ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
^Baker, Darrell D. (2008).Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p. 456.ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahaiajakalamanaoK. S. B. Ryholt,The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997
^abThomas Schneider:Lexikon der Pharaonen, Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002,ISBN3-491-96053-3
^Thomas Schneider:Lexikon der Pharaonen, Albatros, 2002
^abcdefghijklmnK.S.B. Ryholt:The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997
^Baker, Darrell D. (2008).Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p. 12.ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
^abBaker, Darrell D. (2008).Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p. 4.ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
^Detlef Franke: "Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches. Teil II: Die sogenannte Zweite Zwischenzeit Altägyptens", InOrientalia 57 (1988), p. 259
^Ryholt, K. S. B. (1997).The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800–1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 164.ISBN978-87-7289-421-8.
^abJürgen von Beckerath:Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964
^abcdJürgen von Beckerath:Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46. Mainz am Rhein, 1997
^Jürgen von Beckerath:Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien 49, Mainz 1999.
^abMarcel Marée:A sculpture workshop at Abydos from the late Sixteenth or early Seventeenth Dynasty, in: Marcel Marée (editor):The Second Intermediate period (Thirteenth-Seventeenth Dynasties), Current Research, Future Prospects, Leuven, Paris, Walpole, Massachusetts. 2010ISBN978-90-429-2228-0. p. 247, 268
^Baker, Darrell D. (2008).Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p. 111.ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
^Wolfgang Helck, Eberhard Otto, Wolfhart Westendorf, Stele – Zypresse: Volume 6 of Lexikon der Ägyptologie, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1986, Page 1383
^Nadig, Peter (2016). Hatszepsut (in Polish). Prószyński i S-ka. p. 85. ISBN 978-83-8069-417-0
^abcKara Cooney. Hatszepsut. Kobieta, która została królem [The Woman Who Would be King] (in Polish). WAB. 2016. p. 8 ISBN 978-83-280-2771-8
^abcdMarc Van De Mieroop (2021).A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley Blackwell. p. 146.ISBN978-1-119-62087-7.
^Marc Van De Mieroop (2021).A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley Blackwell. p. 168.ISBN978-1-119-62087-7.
^Marc Van De Mieroop (2021).A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley Blackwell. p. 169.ISBN978-1-119-62087-7.
^Nadig, Peter (2016). Hatszepsut (in Polish). Prószyński i S-ka. p. 88. ISBN 978-83-8069-417-0
^Cooney, Kara (2018).When Women Ruled the World: Six Queens of Egypt. National Geographic. pp. 103–104.ISBN978-1-4262-1977-1.
^Nadig, Peter (2016). Hatszepsut (in Polish). Prószyński i S-ka. p. 89. ISBN 978-83-8069-417-0
^He is recognized as king by Ronald Leprohon inThe Great Name: Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary (2013). Society of Biblical Literature. p. 137, by Aiden Dodson & Dyan Hilton inThe Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt (2004). Thames & Hudson. pp. 198, 200–201.ISBN0-500-05128-3, and by Payraudeau 2020, pp. 63–67. However, he is not viewed as such by Chris Naunton inSearching for the Lost Tombs of Egypt (2018). Thames & Hudson. pp. 201–202.ISBN978-0-500-05199-3, nor by Nicholas Grimal inDzieje starożytnego Egiptu [Histoire de l'Egypte ancienne] (in Polish) (2nd ed.) (2004). PIW. pp. 322, 323.ISBN83-06-02917-8.
^abGrimal, Nicholas (2004).Dzieje starożytnego Egiptu [Histoire de l'Egypte ancienne] (in Polish) (2nd ed.). PIW. pp. 322–323.ISBN83-06-02917-8.
^Tyldesley, Joyce.Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt. Profile Books. 2009. pp. 145-146.ISBN978-1861979018
^Tyldesley, Joyce (2009).Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt. Profile Books. p. 22.ISBN978-1-86197-901-8.Cleopatra's 'reign' is in fact a succession of co-regencies with her brother Ptolemy XIII (51-47), her brother Ptolemy XIV (47-44) and her son Ptolemy XV Caesar (44-30).
^Tyldesley, Joyce (2009).Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt. Profile Books. p. 59.ISBN978-1-86197-901-8.
Beckerath, Jürgen von,Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägypten, Mainz am Rhein: Philipp von Zabern, 1997.
Breasted, J. H.,History of Egypt from the Earliest Time to the Persian Conquest, 1909
Cerny, J. 'Egypt from the Death of Ramesses III to the End of the Twenty-First Dynasty' in:The Middle East and the Aegean Region c.1380–1000 BC, Cambridge University Press, 1975ISBN0-521-08691-4
Depuydt, Leo (2006). "Saite and Persian Egypt, 664 BC–332 BCE". In Erik Hornung; Rolf Krauss; David A. Warburton (eds.).Ancient Egyptian Chronology(PDF). Leiden: Brill. pp. 265–283.ISBN978-90-04-11385-5.
Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan.The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004.ISBN0-500-05128-3
Gardiner, Sir Alan,Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs, Third Edition, Revised. London: Oxford University Press, 1964. Excursus A, pp. 71–76.
Grimal, Nicolas,A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell Books: 1992
Hornung, Erik, Rolf Krauss, and David A. Warburton (eds.),Ancient Egyptian Chronology, Leiden: Brill, 2006.
Krauss, Rolf, "Egyptian Chronology: Ramesses II through Shoshenq III, with analysis of the lunar dates of Thutmoses III,"Ägypten und Levante 25 (2015): 335-382.
Leprohon, Ronald J.,The Great Name: Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary, Society of Biblical Literature: Atlanta, 2013.
Mladjov, Ian, "The Transition between the Twentieth and Twenty-First Dynasties Revisited,"Birmingham Egyptology Journal 5 (2017): 1-23.
Murnane, William J.Ancient Egyptian Coregencies, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization. No. 40. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1977
Payraudeau, Frédéric,L'Égypte et la vallée du Nil Tome 3: Les époques tardives (1069–332 av. J.-C.), Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 2020.
Rice, Michael,Who's Who in Ancient Egypt, Routledge 1999
Ryholt, Kim & Bardrum, Steven,The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris.Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde127. 2000.
Shaw, Garry.The Pharaoh, Life at Court and on Campaign, Thames and Hudson, 2012.
Wilkinson, Toby A. H.,Early Dynastic Egypt, Routledge 1999,ISBN0-415-18633-1
Ventura Dr. R.,Egypt, History & Civilisation Published by Osiris, PO Box 107 Cairo.
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