Crusades include the traditional numbered crusades and other conflicts that prominent historians have identified as crusades. The scope of the term "crusade" first referred to military expeditions undertaken by European Christians in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries to the Holy Land. The conflicts to which the term is applied has been extended to include other campaigns initiated, supported and sometimes directed by the Roman Catholic Church against pagans, heretics or for alleged religious ends.
This list first discusses the traditional numbered crusades, with the various lesser-known crusades interspersed. The later crusades in the Levant through the 16th century are then listed. This is followed by lists of the crusades against the Byzantine empire, crusades that may have been pilgrimages, popular crusades, crusades against heretics and schismatics, political crusades, the Northern Crusades, crusades in the Iberian peninsula, Italian crusades and planned crusades that were never executed. Comprehensive studies of the Crusadesin toto include Murray'sThe Crusades: An Encyclopedia,[1] Stephen Runciman'sA History of the Crusades, 3 volumes (1951–1954),[2][3][4], and theWisconsin Collaborative History of the Crusades, 6 volumes (1969-1989).[5]
The conflicts that are usually associated with crusades in the Holy Land begin with theCouncil of Clermont in 1095 and end with theloss of Acre in 1291. These include the numbered Crusades (First through Eighth or Ninth) with numerous smaller crusades intermixed. One of the first to view the Crusades as a movement was English historianThomas Fuller (1608–1661), whoseHistorie of the Holy Warre (1639) identified crusades as the Holy War consisting of "Voyages," numbering One through Thirteen, plus a Last Voyage and two additional Holy Wars.[6] These Voyages include the First through Eighth Crusades in current numbering. Shortly thereafter, French JesuitLouis Maimbourg (1610–1686) published hisHistoire des Croisades pour la délivrance de la Terre Sainte (1675), identify the First through Fifth Crusades.[7] In his workThe Crusades—An Encyclopedia, historian Alan V. Murray further explains the traditional numbering of crusades:[8]
It was in the eighteenth century that historians evidently first allocated numbers to individual crusades, from the first to the ninth. However, these numbers are neither consistent nor accurate. Of the identity of the First Crusade (1096—1099) there can be no doubt, but there is no consensus about numbering after the Fourth Crusade (1202–1204). The Crusade of Emperor Frederick II (1227–1229) is sometimes regarded as part of the Fifth Crusade (1217–1221) and sometimes as a separate expedition. This means that the term Sixth Crusade may refer either to Frederick II's crusade or to the first crusade of King Louis IX of France, which might also be called the Seventh Crusade. Consequently, each subsequent number after the fifth might refer to either of two different expeditions. The only absolutely clear method of designating individual crusades is by a combination of dates and descriptive terminology relating to participation, goals, or both, and this is the solution that has been adopted [here]. However, the names of the First, Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Crusades, which are at least unambiguous (if not accurate), have been retained, as they are now established by long tradition.
The list of the Crusades to the Holy Land from 1095 through 1291 is as follows.
First Crusade (1095–1099). TheFirst Crusade encompases the activities from the Council of Clermont of 1095 through the establishment of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and theBattle of Ascalon in 1099. Sometimes segregated into the People's Crusade and the Princes' Crusade. Some accounts also include the Crusade of 1101 here. The original chroniclers of the First Crusade did not, of course, refer to it as such, or even as a crusade (as noted above). In thetwelve Latin chronicles, the event is called, for example, the Deeds of the Franks or the Expedition to Jerusalem.Anna Komnene simply notes the arrival of the various armies in Constantinople, and Arabic historianibn Athir calls it the Coming of the Franks. Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 1 of the Holy Warre. It is unclear as to who first used the term, but it has been credited to Louis Maimbourg in his 1675Histoire des Croisades. The term was certainly in common use by the 18th century as seen inVoltaire'sHistoire des Croisades (1750–1751)[9] and Edward Gibbon'sHistory of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–1789).[10]Thomas Asbridge'sThe First Crusade: A New History (2004)[11] is among the standard references used today.[12][2][13][14]
People's Crusade (1096). ThePeople's Crusade was a prelude to the First Crusade led byPeter the Hermit, the first of what is known as thePopular Crusades. It is sometimes regarded as an integral part of the First Crusade, with the Princes' Crusade as the second part. A standard reference isPeter der Eremite. Ein kritischer Beitrag zur Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges (1879) by pioneering German historian Heinrich Hagenmeyer (1834–1915).[15] Peter and his crusade achieved a popular status in the 19th century through such works asHeroes of the Crusades (1869) by Barbara Hutton. The references shown above for the First Crusade generally cover the People's Crusade as well.[16][17]
Crusade of 1101 (1101–1102). TheCrusade of 1101, also called the Crusade of the Faint-Hearted. Campaigns that followed the capture of Jerusalem in 1099 that were generally ignored by 18th and 19th century historians. Thomas Fuller nevertheless referred to it as Voyage 2 of the Holy Warre whereasJonathan Riley-Smith considered it part of the First Crusade in hisThe First Crusaders, 1095-1131 (1997).[18][19][20][21]
Norwegian Crusade (1107–1110). TheNorwegian Crusade, also known as the Crusade ofSigurd Jorsalfar, king of Norway. More of a pilgrimage than a crusade, it did include the participation in military action, with the king's forces participation in thesiege of Sidon. This crusade marks the first time a European king visited the Holy Land. This crusade is described inHeimskringla by Icelandic historianSnorri Sturluson.[22][23][24][25]
Venetian Crusade (1122–1124). TheVenetian Crusade, also known as the Crusade ofCalixtus II. The Western participants from theRepublic of Venice were regarded by Riley-Smith as First Crusaders, and the actions resulted in the capture of Tyre from the Damascene atabegToghtekin. This marked a major victor forBaldwin II of Jerusalem prior to hissecond captivity in 1123.[26][27][28][29]
Crusade of 1129. TheCrusade of 1129, also known as the Damascus Crusade, was begun byBaldwin II of Jerusalem after his captivity. The crusade failed in its objective to capture Damascus and is described by Syriac historianMichael the Syrian in hisChronicle (after 1195).[30][31][32][33][34]
Second Crusade (1147–1150). After the disastrousSiege of Edessa in 1144, the Western powers launched theSecond Crusade, which accomplished little. Principal chroniclers of the event wereOdo of Deuil, chaplin toLouis VII of France, who wrote his accountDe profectione Ludovici VII in Orientem andOtto of Freising who wroteGesta Friderici imperatoris concerning the emperorFrederick Barbarosso. Referred to as the Second Crusade in Maimbourg'sHistoire des Croisades..., as well as Georg Müller'sDe Expedition Cruciatis Vulgo Von Kreutz Fahrten (1709). Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 3 of the Holy Warre. TheWendish Crusade of 1147 (one of theNorthern Crusades) is usually associated with the Second Crusade.[35][36][37]Crusader Invasions of Egypt (1154–1169): Attacks into Egypt byAmalric I of Jerusalem to take advantage of crises concerning theFatimids. These activities eventually led to the fall of the Fatimids and the rise ofSaladin and theAyyubid dynasty.[38][39]
Crusade to the East (1177). TheCrusade to the East was a crusade led byPhilip I, Count of Flanders that intended to invade Egypt, instead only mounting an unsuccessful siege ofHarim.[40][41]
Third Crusade (1189–1192). TheThird Crusade was launched in response to the loss of Jerusalem to Saladin in 1187 and had significant English participation underRichard I of England, as well as by the emperorFrederick Barbarossa andPhilip II of France. To the English, it was known as theItinerarium Regis Ricardi, the Itinerary of king Richard, and to the Germans as the expedition of Frederick, as described inHistoria Peregrinorum (History of the Pilgrims).Thomas Andrew Archer'sThe Crusade of Richard I, 1189–1192 (1889) provides a comprehensive look at the crusade and its sources.[42] Thomas Fuller referred to Frederick's portion as Voyage 4 of the Holy Warre, and Richard's portion as Voyage 5. The numbering of this crusade followed the same history as the first ones, with English histories such as David Hume'sThe History of England (1754–1761)[43] and Charles Mills'History of the Crusades for the Recovery and Possession of the Holy Land (1820)[44] identifying it as the Third Crusade. The former only considers the follow-on crusades to the extent that England participated.[45][46][47]
Crusade of 1197 (1197–1198). TheCrusade of 1197, also known as the Crusade of Henry VI or the German Crusade. A crusade led by Holy Roman EmperorHenry VI as a follow-up to the Third Crusade. Although Henry died before the crusade began, it was modestly successful with the recapture of Beirut. Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 6 of the Holy Warre.[48][49][50][51]
Fourth Crusade (1202–1204). TheFourth Crusade, also known as the Unholy Crusade. A major component of the crusade was against the Byzantine empire. Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 7 of the Holy Warre.Charles du Cange, wrote the first serious study of the Fourth Crusade in hisHistoire de l'empire de Constantinople sous les empereurs françois (1657).[52]Geoffrey of Villehardouin was a knight and historian who wrote his eyewitness accountDe la Conquête de Constantinople (c. 1215) of the crusade and its aftermath.[53] Voltaire did not call it a crusade in hisHistoire des Croisades, instead calling it theSuite de la Prise de Constantinople par les Croisés.[54] Jonathan Philips'The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople (2004) is a standard reference today.[55][56][57][58]
Fifth Crusade (1217–1221). TheFifth Crusade was a failed attempt to recapture Jerusalem by first conquering Cairo. Critical original sources includeHistoria Damiatina byOliver of Paderborn (died 1227) andChronica Hungarorum byJoannes de Thurocz, compiled in the collectionGesta Dei per Francos (God's Work through the Franks) (1611) byJacques Bongars. A standard reference isReinhold Röhricht'sStudien zur Geschichte des fünften Kreuzzuges (1891).[59] Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 8 of the Holy Warre.[60][61][62][63][64]
Sixth Crusade (1228–1229). TheSixth Crusade was also known as the Crusade ofEmperor Frederick II. Sometimes regarded as part of the Fifth Crusade, it was an extension of that activity that involved little fighting. Jerusalem was nevertheless returned to Western hands by negotiation. Original sources includeChronica Majora (1259) byMatthew Paris andFlores Historiarum (1235) byRoger of Wendover, with Arabic sources that includeAbu'l-Feda'sTarikh al-Mukhtasar fi Akhbar al-Bashar (1329). Modern histories include Röhricht'sDie Kreuzfahrt Kaiser Friedrich des Zweiten (1228–1229) (1872). Referred to it as Voyage 9 of the Holy Warre by Thomas Fuller in his 1639Historie. See also references under the Crusade against Frederick II (1220–1241) below.[65][66][67][68][69]
Barons' Crusade (1239–1241).Barons' Crusade, also referred to as the Crusade of 1239, or the Crusade ofTheobald I of Navarre and the Crusade ofRichard of Cornwall. Called for in 1234 by Gregory IX in his papal bullRachel suum videns. Some successful expeditions recaptured portions of the Holy Land. First treated by R. Röhricht in hisDie Kreuzzuge des Grafen Theobald von Navarra und Richard von Cornwallis nach dem heligen Landen.[70] Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyages 10 and 11 of the Holy Warre.[71][72][73][74]
Crusade of Theobald I of Navarre (1239–1240). A crusade led byTheobald I of Navarre, also referred to as Thibaut of Navarre or Theobald of Champagne. Part of the Barons' Crusade, 1239–1241. Among modern historians,René Grousset was among the first to discuss this crusade in hisHistoire des croisades et du royaume franc de Jérusalem (1934-1936)[75] Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 10 of the Holy Warre.[76][77][70]
Crusade of Richard of Cornwall (1240–1241). Also known as the Crusade ofRichard of Cornwall andSimon de Montfort to Jaffa. Richard also held the title King of the Romans, and had a noteworthy biography written byNoël Denholm-Young.[78] Usually referred to as part of the Barons' Crusade, 1239–1241. Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 11 of the Holy Warre.[79][77][80][70]
Crusade to Tzurulum (1239). TheCrusade to Tzurulum was led by future Latin emperorBaldwin of Courtenay and conducted concurrently with the Barons' Crusade. In the military action, Baldwin besieged and capturedTzurulum, a Nicaean stronghold west of Constantinople.[81]
Crusade against the Mongols (1241). TheCrusade against the Mongols was led byConrad IV of Germany and is also known as the Anti-Mongol Crusade of 1241. British historianPeter Jackson documented this crusade in his studyCrusade against the Mongols (1241).[82][83][84][85][86]
Seventh Crusade (1248–1254). TheSeventh Crusade was also known as the Crusade ofLouis IX of France to the East, or Louis IX's First Crusade. Early works on this crusade includePrimat of Saint-Denis'Roman des rois (1274) andJean de Joinville'sLife of Saint Louis (1309).[87] Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 12 of the Holy Warre. Grousset'sHistoire des croisades... and Peter Jackson'sSeventh Crusade, 1244–1254: Sources and Documents (2007) provide the necessary historical background.[88][89][90][91][92]
Crusade of Odo of Burgundy (1265–1266). An expedition ofOdo, Count of Nevers, who led 50 knights to protect Acre from Mamluk sultanBaibars.[93][94][95]
Crusade of 1267. TheCrusade of 1267 was an expedition from the Upper Rhine to counter the threat posed by Baibars.[96]
Crusade of Charles of Anjou against Lucera (1268). The attack made byCharles I of Anjou on the Muslims atLucera in conjunction with the Crusade against Conradin of 1268 (cf. Italian Crusades below).[97][98][99]
Crusade of the Infants of Aragon (1269–1270). In theCrusade of the Infants of Aragon, or the Catalan Crusade,James I of Aragon joined forces withAbaqa, Mongol ruler of theIlkhanate, to take a crusade to the Holy Land, but returned without engaging the Mamluks in light of their strength at Acre.[100][101]
Eighth Crusade (1270). TheEighth Crusade, also known as the Crusade of Louis IX of France to Tunis. Accompanied byJean de Joinville who wrote the biographyLife of Saint Louis (1309).[87] Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 31 of the Holy Warre.[102][89][90][103][104]
Lord Edward's Crusade (1271–1272).Lord Edward's Crusade ws led by the futureEdward I of England, and is also known as the Crusade of Lord Edward of England, the Ninth Crusade, or the Last Crusade. It is often regarded as an extension of the Eighth Crusade due to its timing. Edward, later King of England, was accompanied by his wifeEleanor of Castile, who came to his aid after an assassination attempt. Discussed as part of the Eighth Crusade byJoseph François Michaud in Volume 3 of his seminalHistoire des Croisades (1812–1822).[105][106][107][108][109]
Crusade of Henry of Mecklenburg (1275).Henry I, Lord of Mecklenburg (died 1302) went on either a crusade or pilgrimage to the Holy Land c. 1271-1275 and was captured by the Egyptians and held for 32 years. The only known reference to this is by Thomas Fuller in hisHistorie of the Holy Warre, where it is referred to as the Last Voyage.[110][111]
Siege of Acre. TheSiege of Acre marked the loss of the Holy Land to the Mamluks, typically identifying the end of the traditional Crusades. The anonymousLes Gestes des Chiprois (Deeds of the Cypriots) contains one of two eyewitness accounts of the siege.[112][113]
The crusades continued in the Levant from the thirteenth through the 16th century. Principal references on this subject areKenneth Setton'sHistory of the Crusades, Volume III. The Fourteenth and Fifteen Centuries (1975),[114] andNorman Housley'sThe Later Crusades, 1274-1580: From Lyons to Alcazar (1992)[115] andThe Crusading Movement, 1274–1700 (1995).[116]Barbara Tuchman'sA Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century (1978) provides an interesting perspective on both the crusades and the general history of the era.[117] A nineteenth-century reference often cited isJoseph François Michaud'sHistoire des Croisades (1812–1822), translation byWilliam Robson.[109]
Crusade against Frederick III of Sicily (1298, 1299, 1302). The Crusade againstFrederick III of Sicily was the final round of theWar of the Sicilian Vespers in which popeBoniface VIII attempted to dislodge Frederick. Frederick's position was solidified by thePeace of Caltabellotta in 1302, after which the crusaders were unable to dislodge him.[118][119][120]
Crusade against the Colonna Cardinals (1298). TheCrusade against the Colonna Cardinals was the campaign of Boniface VIII against theColonna family.[121][122][123]
Expedition of the Almogavars (1301–1311). The Expedition of theAlmogavars consisted of campaigns of theCatalan Company, formed by veterans of theWar of the Sicilian Vespers (the Almogavar) against theAnatolian beyliks. It concluded with the Catalan's taking control of theDuchy of Athens andThebes.[124][125][126]
Hospitaller Crusade (1306–1310). TheHospitaller Crusade, also known as the Hospitaller conquest of Rhodes, consolidated hold of the Knights Hospitaller onRhodes. Documented byHans Prutz in hisDie Anfänge der Hospitaliter auf Rhodos, 1310–1355 (1908).[127][128]
Crusade against the Catalan Grand Company (1330–1332). TheCrusade against the Catalan Grand Company, also called the Anti-Catalan Crusade, was waged byWalter VI, Count of Brienne and titularDuke of Athens. In 1330,John XXII issued a papal bull and ordered prelates in Italy and Greece to preach for a crusade against theCatalan Grand Company. Shortly thereafter,Robert of Naples gave the crusade his support. The Venetians, however, renewed their treaty with the Catalans in 1331. By the summer, it was clear that the expedition had failed, and Walter returned toBrindisi, saddled with crippling debts.[129][125][124][126][130]
Naval Crusade of the (1332–1333). A short-lived crusade led by theHoly League against theAydinid Turkish fleet byPietro Zeno, serving asbalio of Negroponte. In 1332, a Turkish armada underUmur Bey attacked Negroponte, and Zeno bought them off with a large tribute. Zeno and Pietro da Canale were accused byFrancesco Dandolo with arranging an anti-Turkish alliance. By the end of the year the Holy League (also known as the Naval League) "a union, society and league for the discomfiture of the Turks and the defence of the true faith", had been formally constituted. In 1334, Zeno took command of the league's fleet and defeated the fleet of theBeylik of Karasi at thebattle of Adramyttion. Zeno later served as one of the leaders of the Smyrna Crusade of 1344.[131][132][133]
Holy League of Clement VI (1343). A crusade proclaimed byClement VI in 1343 that resulted in a naval attack on Smyrna the next year. TheGrand Counci of Venice electedPietro Zeno as captain of the flotilla sent to assist the crusade against Aydinid-held Smyrna. Other crusader leaders included patriarchHenry of Asti, The crusade was a naval success and Smyrna was taken. Zeno was killed byUmur Bey's forces in an ambush while he and other crusaderswere attempting to celebrate mass in the no-man's-land between the battle lines.[134][135][136]
Smyrna Crusade (1344). The first of theSmyrniote Crusades (1343–1351). The Smyrna Crusade began in 1344 with the naval victory of theBattle of Pallene and ended with an assault on Smyrna, capturing the harbour and the citadel but not the acropolis. Sometimes considered as part of the Holy League of Clement VI.[134][137]
Crusade of Humbert II of Viennois (1346). The second of theSmyrniote Crusades. A second expedition under the command ofHumbert II of Viennois with little to show other than a victory over the Turks atMytilene. Described in theBook of Chivalry by Geoffroi de Charny. Also called the Second Smyrna Crusade.[138][139]
Crusade against Francesco Ordelaffi (1355–1357). TheCrusade against Francesco Ordelaffi was a campaign byInnocent IV and CardinalGil Álvarez Carrillo de Albornoz againstFrancesco II Ordelaffi in order to restore papal authority to central Italy. The pope's Angevin troops had some success against Ordelaffi through 1356, by mercenary troops sent byBernabò Visconti allowed him to hold out until 1357.[140][141][142]
Crusade of Peter I de Lusignan (1362–1365).Peter I of Cyprus (Peter I de Lusignan) was King of Cyprus and titular King of Jerusalem. He founded the chivalric Order of the Sword in 1347, dedicated to the recovery of Jerusalem, and attempted to convince nobles in Europe to mount a new crusade. His efforts were eventually merged with the Alexandrian Crusade.[143][144][145][146]
Alexandrian Crusade (1365). TheAlexandrian Crusade was an attack by Peter I of Cyprus that resulted in the destruction of Alexandria, but had little real impact. Accounts of the crusade was given byGuillaume de Machaut in hisLa Prise d'Alexandre (after 1369) and by Muslim historianal-Nuwayrī in hisKitāb al-Ilmām (1365–1374).[147][148][149][150]
Crusade of Amadeus VI of Savoy or Savoyard crusade (1366–1367).Amadeus VI of Savoy (Amadeo), known as the Green Count of Savoy, launched theSavoyard crusade, a minor crusade against Thrace and Bulgaria. He attacked Ottoman sultanMurad I with 15 ships and 1,700 men in 1366 in order to aid his cousin,John V Palaiologos. Recounted by Romanian historianNicolae Iorga in his work about French knightPhilippe de Mézières (c. 1327 – 1405) and Eugene L. Cox'sGreen Count of Savoy (1967).[151][152][153]
The Great Schism and the Crusades (1382–1387). TheGreat (or Western) Schism within the Catholic Church from 1378–1417 led to a number of minor crusades included that against Charles III of Naples (1382); the Despenser's Crusade (1383); and the crusade of John of Gaunt (1387). The work byWalter Ullmann on the subject is a standard reference.[154][155][156]
Crusade against Charles III of Naples (1382).Charles Durazzo became Charles III as king of Naples and titular king of Jerusalem after having his cousinJoanna I of Naples strangled in jail. In 1382 Clement VII granted crusade indulgences toLouis I of Anjou and others to dethrone Charles. A crusade associated with the Great Schism.[154][157]
Despenser's Crusade (1383).Despenser's Crusade, also known as the Norwich Crusade, was a military expedition led byHenry le Despenser in order to assist Ghent in its struggle against the supporters of antipopeClement VII. A crusade associated with the Great Schism.[154][158]
Crusade of John of Gaunt (1387).John of Gaunt led an unsuccessful crusade againstHenry of Trastámara to claim the throne of Castile by right of his wifeConstance of Castile. A crusade associated with the Great Schism.[154][159][160]
Mahdia Crusade (1390).Mahdia Crusade, also known as the Barbary Crusade or the Crusade ofLouis II de Bourbon against Mahdia, was a Franco-Genoese military expedition in 1390 that led to the siege ofMahdia, a stronghold of the Barbary pirates. A work by Belgian court historianJean Froissart called theChronicles of England, France, and the Adjoining Countries (c. 1400), referred to asFroissart's Chronicles, includes an account of this crusade.[161][162][163][164][165]
Crusade of Nicopolis (1396). Also known as theBattle of Nicopolis or the Crusade to Nicopolis. The crusader army of Hungarian, Croatian, Bulgarian, French, Serbian, Romanian and German force (assisted by the Venetian navy) was defeated by the Ottoman's at the Danubian fortress ofNicopolis, leading to the end of theSecond Bulgarian Empire.[166][167][168][169]
Crusade of Marshal Boucicaut to Constantinople (1399). In 1399,Boniface IX preached a crusade to Constantinople, andJean II Le Maingre (Boucicaut) was the only respondent. His one-man crusade consisted of raids on Turkish towns along the Black Sea coast.[170][171][172]
Crusade of Varna (1443–1444). TheCrusade of Varna, also known as the Crusade to Varna, was an unsuccessful military campaign by the European monarchies to check the expansion of the Ottoman empire into Central Europe. The crusade was called byEugene IV and led byWładysław III of Poland,John Hunyadi of Hungary,Voivode of Transylvania, Mircea the Elder of Wallachia andPhilip the Good, duke of Burgundy. The aftermath left the Ottomans free from further attempts to push it out of Europe.[173][174][175][176][177]
Crusades to Recover Constantinople (1453–1460). New crusades called for after theloss of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453. Includes the Crusade of Nicholas V (later, Callixtus III) and the unrealized Crusade of Pius II.[178][179][180][181]
Crusade of Nicholas V (1455–1456). After thefall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453, popeNicholas V planned a small crusade to recapture the city, reconfirmed byCallixtus III after Nicholas' death. OnlyJohn Hunyadi responded, defeating the Turks at Belgrade in 1456 before his untimely death. See Crusade of St. John of Capistrano (1456).[178][181][156][180][182]
Genoese Crusade to defend Chios (1455–1457). This began afterMehmed II declared war on Chios and Rhodes, and a Genoese fleet was dispatched to defend the island.[183][177]
Crusade of St. John of Capistrano (1456). Also known as theSiege of Belgrade of 1456, began after the fall of Constantinople in 1453 whenMehmet II set his sights on the Kingdom of Hungary. The Ottoman forces were defeated by an army led by Catholic priestJohn of Capistrano andJohn Hunyadi. Crusade of Nicholas V (1455–1456).[184][185][182]
Occupation of Sporades (1457). Occupation of the northernSporades islands by papal galleys.[181][186]
Siege of Rhodes (1480). In 1480, an Ottoman fleet unsuccessfully began theSiege of Rhodes. The Ottoman army under the command ofMesih Pasha was defeated by theKnights Hospitaller garrison led byPierre d'Aubusson. Gulielmus Caoursin, vice-chancellor of the Hospitaller, was also an eye-witness to the siege.[187][188][189][190][191]
Anti-Turkish Crusade (1480–1481). A crusade of popeSixtus IV againstMehmet II to protect southern Italy. Primarily consisted of the Crusade of Otranto.[192][193]
Crusade of Otranto (1481). A crusade to recapture the city after theOttoman invasion of Otranto. The citizens, killed by the Ottomans for refusing to convert to Islam, are known as themartyrs of Otranto. Part of the Anti-Turkish Crusade of Sixtus IV.[194][195]
Spanish Crusade in North Africa (1499–1510). Following theend of Muslim rule in Hispania, a number of cities were recaptured including:Melilla (1497),Mers el-Kebir (1505),Canary Islands (1508),Oran (1509), Rock of Algiers, Bougie and Tripoli (1510).[196]
Siege of Rhodes (1522). TheSiege of Rhodes was the second and ultimately successful attempt by the Ottoman empire to expel the Knights Hospitaller from their island stronghold of Rhodes.[191][197]
Crusade of the Emperor Charles V to Tunis (1535). Also known as theConquest of Tunis. In 1535, Tunis, then under the control of the Ottoman empire, was captured by emperorCharles V and his allies.[198][199]
Crusade of the Emperor Charles V to Algiers (1541). Also known as theAlgiers Expedition, was an unsuccessful attempt to dislodge to Ottomans from Algiers.[198][199]
Spanish Crusade to Mahdia (1550). Also known as theCapture of Mahdia. A Spanish naval expedition supported by theKnights of Malta underClaude de la Sengle, besieged and captured the Ottoman stronghold ofMahdia. Mahdia was abandoned by Spain three years later, with its fortifications demolished to avoid reoccupation of the city.[200]
Crusade of King Sebastian of Portugal to Morocco (1578). Also known as theBattle of Alcácer Quibir or the Battle of Three Kings. The battle was between the army of deposed Moroccan sultanAbu Abdallah Mohammed II allied withSebastian I of Portugal, against a large Moroccan army under the new sultanAbd Al-Malik I who was allied with the Ottomans. Al-Malik and the Ottomans won a decisive victory.[201][202]
Great Turkish War. TheGreat Turkish War, also known as The Fourteenth Crusade,[203] was a crusade undertaken by the Holy League ofPope Innocent XI[204] against the Ottoman Empire which met with an unprecedented Crusader success leading to the recovery of most of Hungary, Transylvania, Podolia and Morea to Christian rule and the beginning of the decline of the Ottoman Caliphate.[205] The war is referred to asFelaket Seneleri meaning 'The Disaster Years' by Ottoman Turkish historians.[206]
Crusades against the Byzantine empire began shortly after the First Crusade and continued throughout its existence. These include the following.[207][208][209][109]
| Crusade | Time | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Crusade of Bohemond of Taranto | 1107–1108 | Also known as Bohemond's Crusade. A campaign led byBohemond of Taranto against the Byzantine empire that ended with theTreaty of Devol.[210][211][212][213] |
| Crusading Project against Byzantium | 1149–1150 | This was an effort byRoger II of Sicily andLouis VII of France to aid the East and exact revenge on the Greeks after the Second Crusade.[214][215][216][217] |
| Fourth Crusade | 1202–1204 | Also known as the Unholy Crusade. See details above. |
| Crusade against the Bulgars | 1205 | This was a call for a crusade againstKaloyan, king of the Bulgarians, byRenier of Trit, duke of Philippopolis. Their offense was that they had aligned themselves with enemies of the Cross of Christ, theBogomils andPaulicians. Nothing came of the request. This and other aspects of the easternByzantine commonwealth were exhaustively studied by contemporary Russian historianDimitri Obolensky.[218][219] |
| Crusade of William VI of Montferrat | 1225 | A minor crusade ofWilliam VI of Montferrat to support his claims to the throne ofThessalonica (rarely mentioned).[220][221] |
| Anti-Byzantine Crusades | 1261–1320 | This included three attempts to regain the Byzantine empire from thePalaiologos dynasty. Theloss of Constantinople in 1261 happened during a papal interregnum, and the next year the newly-seatedUrban IV authorized a crusade to retake the city. Nothing beyond the defeat of the Byzantines at the navalbattle of Settepozzi in 1263. Urban IV renewed his call for crusade in 1264, for the succor ofthe Morea, but to no avail. In 1281,Charles I of Anjou,Philip of Courtenay and the Venetians planned an incursion into the Byzantine Empire for the recapture of Constantinople. This was blessed byMartin IV, labeling it a crusade. This was thwarted by thewar of the Sicilian Vespers. After thePeace of Caltabellotta, the final anti-Byzantine crusade was hatched.Charles of Valois, the husband ofCatherine of Courtenay, titular Latin empress of Constantinople, sought to use theCatalan Grand Company to advance his goals, but the company proved unable to effectively organize.[222][217][130][223] |
Some pilgrimages are referred to as crusades, especially if the journey resulted in some military activity. Some examples include the following.[224]
| Crusade | Time | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Norwegian Crusade | 1107–1110 | TheNorwegian Crusade, also known as the Crusade ofSigurd Jorsalfar. See above.[22] |
| Crusade or Pilgrimage of Fulk V of Anjou | 1120–1122 | The Crusade or Pilgrimage ofFulk V of Anjou. The future king of Jerusalem traveled to the Holy Land and joined the Knights Templar, according toOrdoric Vitalis'Historia Ecclesiastica (c. 1141).[225][226] |
| Pilgrimage of Rognvald Kali Kolsson | 1151–1153 | ThePilgrimage of Rognvald Kali Kolsson was also known as the Crusade of Rognvald Kali Kolsson. In 1151,Rognvald set out on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land as described in theOrkneyinga saga. The earl's party left Orkney in the late summer of 1151 in fifteen ships, with six sailing to Jerusalem while Rognvald stoppeded in Narbonne. After visiting Jerusalem, the party returned via Constantinople, where they were received by the emperor, then sailed to Apulia where they took horses for the journey to Rome, arriving back in Orkney in time for Christmas 1153.[227] |
| Crusade or Pilgrimage of Henry the Lion | 1172 | A pilgrimage to Jerusalem byHenry the Lion documented byArnold of Lübeck in hisChronicae Slavorum (1209), often referred to as a crusade.[228][229][230][231] |
| Crusade of Henry of Mecklenburg | 1275 | Henry I, Lord of Mechlenburg (died 1302) went on a crusade or pilgrimage to the Holy Land c. 1275 and was captured by the Egyptians and held for 32 years. The only know reference to this is by Thomas Fuller in hisHistorie of the Holy Warre, where it is referred to as the Last Voyage.[110][111] |
ThePopular Crusades were generated by enthusiasm for crusading, but unsanctioned by the Church.[232]
| Crusade | Time | Description |
|---|---|---|
| People's Crusade | 1096 | ThePeople's Crusade (1096). A prelude to the First Crusade led byPeter the Hermit. See above. |
| Children's Crusade | 1212 | TheChildren's Crusade was a failed Popular Crusade by the West to regain the Holy Land. The traditional narrative includes some factual and some mythical events including visions by a French boy and a German boy, an intention to peacefully convert Muslims to Christianity, bands of children marching to Italy, and children being sold into slavery. Thomas Fuller referred to it as a Holy war in hisHistorie of the Holy Warre.[233][234][235][236][237][238] |
| First Shepherds' Crusade | 1251 | TheFirst Shepherds' Crusade was a popular crusade also known as the Crusade of thePastoreaux. The movement was aimed at rescuing Louis IX during his imprisonment during the Seventh Crusade. The group was dispersed in Paris.[239][240][241] |
| Crusade of the Poor | 1309 | TheCrusade of the Poor was also known as the Crusade of 1309 or the Shepards' Crusade of 1309. A popular crusade that began with the unfulfilled Crusade of Clement V (see below).[242][243][244] |
| Second Shepherds' Crusade | 1320 | TheSecond Shepherds' Crusade (1320), also known as the Pastoreaux of 1320, it was the last of the popular crusades.[245][240][246][247] |
The Crusades against Christian heretics and schismatics include the following.[248][249]
| Crusade | Time | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Albigensian Crusade | 1209–1229 | TheAlbigensian Crusade, or Cathar Crusade, was the first of the so-called religious crusades and was conducted against theCathars in southern France. The 20-year campaign was successful. One of the first actions, themassacre at Béziers, helped earn the crusade the title as "one of the most conclusive cases of genocide in religious history." After the military phase, the inquisition conducted byGregory IX in 1234 all but eliminated the Cathars. Contemporaneous chronicles of the crusade includePeter of Vaux de Cernay'sHistoria Albigensis andGuillaume de Puylaurens'Cronica, both of which appearGuizot'sCollection des mémoires relatifs à l'histoire de France (1823–1835). Thomas Fuller referred to it as a Holy war in hisHistorie of the Holy Warre (1639).[250][251][252][253][254][255] |
| Bogomils Crusades | 1234, 1252 | The Bogomils Crusades were crusades against theBogomils were called for in 1234 byGregory IX and in 1252 byInnocent IV.[256][257] |
| Crusades against the Bosnian Heritics | 1235, 1241 | The Crusades against the Bosnian Heritics, also known as theBosnian Crusades. Fought against unspecified "heretics," the action was essentially a war of conquest by Hungarian princeColoman of Galicia against theBanate of Bosnia, sanctioned as a crusade byGregory IX. The would-be crusaders only succeeded in conquering peripheral parts of the country.[258][259] |
| Despenser's Crusade | 1383 | Despenser's Crusade, also known as the Norwich Crusade, was a military expedition led byHenry le Despenser in order to assist Ghent in its struggle against the supporters of antipopeClement VII. A crusade associated with theGreat Schism.[154][158] |
| Crusades against the Hussites | 1420–1431 | The five crusades from theHussite Wars known as the Anti-Hussite Crusades.[260][261][262][263] TheFirst Anti-Hussite Crusade (1420). PopeMartin V issued a bull in 1420 proclaiming a crusade "for the destruction of the Wycliffites, Hussites and all other heretics in Bohemia". Holy Roman EmperorSigismund and many German princes laid siege to Prague with an army of crusaders from all parts of Europe, largely consisting of adventurers attracted by the hope of pillage. Sigismund was defeated that same year at thebattle of Vítkov Hill.[264][265] TheSecond Anti-Hussite Crusade (1421–1422). After the Hussite victory in 1420, a priest namedJan Želivský obtained authority over Prague. In 1421, a new crusade against the Hussites was undertaken, laying siege to the town ofŽatec. Sigismund arrived in Bohemia at the end of 1421, but was decisively defeated at thebattle of Německý Brod in 1422.[264][266] TheThird Anti-Hussite Crusade (1423–1424).Innocent IV called a new crusade against Bohemia, but it was a complete failure. Poles and Lithuanians did not wish to attack the Czechs, the Germans were hampered by internal discord, andEric VII of Denmark, intending to take part in the crusade, soon returned to Scandinavia.Sigismund Korybut, governor of Bohemia, helped broker the peace in 1424.[264] TheFourth Anti-Hussite Crusade (1426–1428). In 1426, the Hussites were attacked again by foreign forces. Hussite forces, led bySigismund Korybut andProkop the Great, defeated the invaders in thebattle of Aussig of 1426. Despite this, the pope believed that the Hussites were weakened and proclaimed a fourth crusade in 1427. CardinalHenry Beaufort was appointed leader of the crusader forces. The crusaders were defeated at thebattle of Tachov that same year. Korybut was imprisoned in 1427 for conspiring to surrender Hussite forces to the emperor Sigismund. He was released in 1428, and participated in the Hussite invasion of Silesia.[264][267] TheFifth Anti-Hussite Crusade (1431). In 1431,Frederick I, Elector of Brandenburg and papal legate cardinalJulian Cesarini led a crusader army against Bohemia. The defending army led byProkop the Great, supplemented by Polish Hussites, defeated the crusaders at thebattle of Domažlice that same year.[264][268][269] |
| Waldensian Crusade in the Dauphine | 1487–1491 | The Waldensian Crusade in the Dauphine was a crusade against theWaldensians (Vaudois), a sect regarded as heretics, beginning with the burning at the stake of 80 Waldensians in 1211. In 1487,Innocent VIII issued a bull for the extermination of the heresies of the Vaudois. Alberto de' Capitanei organized a crusade and launched an offensive against the Vaudois in Dauphiné and Piedmont.Charles I, Duke of Savoy, intervened in order to save his territories from further turmoil and promised the Vaudois peace, which did not occur before the offensive had devastated the area.Angelo Carletti di Chivasso brought about a peaceful agreement between the parties, which was short-lived as attested by theMérindol massacre of 1545, with persecution continuing until after the French Revolution.[270][271][272][273] |
Political crusades include the following.[274]
| Crusade | Time | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Political Crusade against Roger II of Sicily | 1127–1135 | Called the First Political Crusade, it began in 1127 whenHonorius II, suspicious of the growth of Norman power in southern Italy, and at Capua in December, the pope preached a crusade againstRoger II of Sicily. Upon the death of Honorius in 1130,Anacletus II andInnocent II were both claimants to the papal throne. Roger supported the antipope Anacletus. In 1135, Innocent II offered Crusader indulgences to those who fought his enemies. There is no evidence that any military action was taken, but the action is viewed as a harbinger for the political crusades of the 13th century.[275][276][277] |
| Crusade against Markward von Anweiler | 1199 | The second of the so-called political crusades, that the papacy regarded as a pre-condition to a fourth crusade. In 1199,Innocent III declared a crusade againstMarkward von Anweiler, Imperial seneschal and regent of the Kingdom of Sicily, who opposed papal claims on the regency of Sicily. Markward was regarded by Innocent as "worse than the infidels," granting those few who fought against him crusader indulgences. Among those taking arms wasWalter III of Brienne who wished to secure his claim to Taranto by virtue of his marriage toElvira of Sicily. The need for the crusade ended with Markward's death in 1202.[278][279][280] |
| Papal Quarrel with John Lackland | 1208 | The conflict betweenJohn of England andInnocent III that led to John's excommunication has been referred to as a crusade.[281][282] |
| Political Crusade in England | 1215–1217 | Two crusades were declared byHenry III of England against his rebellious subjects. The first began with a French knightSavari de Mauléon who had been in service to Hemry's predecessor,John of England, in theFirst Barons' War. The pope,Innocent III, had described Savari ascrucesignatus pro defense Regni Anglie, setting the stage for Henry to take the cross, with the inherent protections from Rome. The conflict was finally settled in 1217 with theTreaty of Lambeth between Henry andLouis VIII of France.[283][284] |
| Gregory IX's Crusade against Frederick II | 1228–1230 | TheCrusade against Frederick II, also known as theWar of the Keys. Efforts of popeGregory IX againstFrederick II. See also references under the Sixth Crusade above.[285][286][287] |
| Crusade against the Stedinger | 1233–1234 | Also known as theStedinger Crusade. The Stedinger were free farmers whose grievances over taxes and property rights turned into full-scale revolt. A papal-sanctioned crusade was called against the rebels. In the campaign of 1233, the small crusading army was defeated. In a follow-up campaign of 1234, a much larger crusader army was victorious.[288][289][290] |
| Innocent IV's Crusade against Frederick II | 1248 | PopeInnocent IV'sCrusade against Frederick II (1248). The conflict between the pope and the emperor began with the apostolic letterAd apostolicae dignitatis apicem in 1245 and was not resolved until Frederick's death in 1250.[291][292][293] |
| Crusade against Conrad IV | 1250 | A crusade againstConrad IV of Germany that was a continuation of the crusade against his father Frederick II.[294][295] |
| Another Political Crusade in England | 1263–1265 | The second of Henry III's political crusades began with theSecond Barons' War in 1263. Again a crusade was declared byHenry III of England against his enemies, with consent two papal legates to England. The death ofSimon de Montfort in 1265 put an end to this rebellion.[283][284] |
| Crusade against Frederico I of Montefeltro | 1321–1322 | The Crusade against Frederico I of Montefeltro was a crusade proclaimed byJohn XXII in 1321 against Federico I, Count of Montefeltro (1296–1322), and his brothers to regain possession of theMarch of Ancona andDuchy of Spoleto.Malatesta da Verucchio, ruler ofRimini, supported by the commune of Perugia, killed Federico and captured his brothers in 1322.[296][297][298] |
| Crusade against the Emperor Louis IV | 1328–1329 | The Crusade against the Emperor Louis IV was a crusade againstLouis IV, Holy Roman Emperor, also called the Crusade against Ludwig IV of Bavaria. Pope John XXII declared a crusade against Louis shortly after his coronation in 1328. Louis responded by installing an antipope,Nicholas V, declaring John deposed because of heresy. The crusade against Louis was renewed in 1329, andRobert of Naples sent forces against Louis and his allyFrederick II of Sicily but little came of it. Louis was also a protector of the Teutonic Knights, bestowing on the order a privilege to conquer Lithuania and Russia.[299][300] |
TheNorthern Crusades (1150–1560), also known as Baltic Crusades, occurred in northern Europe at the same time as the traditional crusades.[301][302][303]
| Crusade | Time | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Wendish Crusade | 1147 | The Wendish Crusade was the first of the Northern Crusades, usually associated with the Second Crusade. A military campaign by the Holy Roman Empire and directed against thePolabian Slavs, orWends.[304][303] |
| Swedish Crusades | 1150s–1293 | TheSwedish Crusades consisted of theFirst Swedish Crusade (1150s), likely fictional, theSecond Swedish Crusade (13th century), and theThird Swedish Crusade (1293).[305][306] |
| Drenthe Crusade | 1228–1232 | It was a papal-approved military campaign launched againstDrenthe in 1228. The crusade was led byWillibrand,Bishop of Utrecht, commanding aFrisian army. Willibrand's crusade ended inconclusively in 1232.[307][249][308] |
| Danish Crusades | 1191, 1293 | TheDanish Crusades (1191, 1293). The Danes made at least three crusades to Finland. The first is from 1187 when crusaderEsbern Snare mentioned in his christmas feast speech a major victory from the Finns. Two next known crusades were made in 1191 and in 1202. The latter one was led by the Bishop of Lund,Anders Sunesen, with his brother. The Danes also participated in the Livonian Crusades.[309] |
| Livonian Crusades | 1193–1287 | TheLivonian Crusades are the various Christianization campaigns in the area constituting modern Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia following the 1193 call ofCelestine III for a crusade against pagans in Northern Europe. It was conducted mostly by Germans from the Holy Roman Empire and Danes, and consisted of four parts: Crusades against the Livonians (1198–1209); Conquest of the Estonian Hinderland (1208–1226); Crusades against the Oeselians (1206–1261); Crusade against Curonians (1242–1267); and, Crusade against Semigallians (1219–1290). The principal original sources on these crusades are theLivonian Rhymed Chronicle and theLivonian Chronicle of Henry.[310][311] |
| Crusades against Livonians | 1198–1209 | The Crusades against Livonians (1198–1209). When peaceful means of conversion failed to convert theLivonians, bishopBerthold of Hanover arrived with a large contingent of crusaders in 1198. Berthold was surrounded soon after and killed, his forces defeated. To avenge Berthold's death,Innocent III then issued a bull declaring a crusade against the Livonians.Albert of Riga arrived the following year with a large force and in 1202, formed theLivonian Brothers of the Sword to aid in the conversion of the pagans. The Livonians led byCaupo of Turaida rebelled against the crusaders. Caupo's forces were defeated in 1206, and the Livonians were declared to be converted. Albert invaded with the forces of the Order in 1209, and the Livonians under dukeVisvaldis were forced to submit to Albert.[312] |
| Conquest of the Estonian Hinderland | 1208–1226 | The crusaders began operations against theEstonians in 1208, with the help of the newly converted Livonians. From 1208–1227, war parties rampaged through Estonia. A truce was established from 1213–1215, but the Estonians were unable to develop into a centralized state. They were led byLembitu of Lehola who was killed along withCaupo of Turaida (fighting for the crusaders), at the 1217battle of St. Matthew's Day, a crushing defeat for the Estonians. TheChronicle of Henry of Livonia relates how in 1226, papal legateWilliam of Modena successfully mediated peace in the area.[312] |
| Crusades against the Oeselians | 1206–1261 | The Estonian region ofSaaremaa, whose occupants were known as Oeselians, resisted the German crusaders, maintaining war fleets that continued to raid Denmark and Sweden. Danish armies led byValdemar II of Denmark failed in Saaremaa in 1206 and 1222, as didJohn I of Sweden in 1220. TheLivonian Brothers of the Sword finally succeeding in converting the Oeselians to Christianity in 1226 after failing in 1216. After regressing, the Oeselians once again accepted Christianity in 1241, and signed a treaty in 1255. Conflict returned in 1261 as the Oeselians once more renounced Christianity and killed all the occupying Germans. A final peace treaty was imposed that year by theLivonian Order, a branch of the Teutonic Order.[312][313] |
| Crusade against Curonians | 1242–1267 | After the defeat of the Estonians in 1126 and the Oeselians in 1241, the crusade moved against theCuronians who had attacked Riga in 1210 and 1228. Those in the north accepted peace with the Germans in 1230, but in the south the fighting continued. In 1260, the Curonians fought alongside the crusaders in thebattle of Durbe, abandoning them in the midst of battle, allowing the Lithuanians to gain victory over the Livonian Order and Teutonic Knights. The Curonians were finally subdued in 1267 and the land partitioned. This was documented byPeter of Dusburg in his 1326 workChronicon terrae Prussiae.[312][313][314] |
| Crusade against Semigallians | 1219–1290 | According to theLivonian Chronicle of Henry, theSemigallians formed an alliance withAlbert of Riga against the Livonians before 1203, and received military support to hold back Lithuanian attacks in 1205. In 1219, this alliance was shattereded after a crusader invasion in Semigallia. DukeViestards then formed an alliance with Lithuanians and Curonians. In 1228, Semigallians and Curonians attacked the main crusader stronghold, with the crusaders taking revenge and invaded Semigallia. In 1236, Semigallians attacked crusaders retreating to Riga after thebattle of Saule, but by 1254, the Semigallians had been subdued by theLivonian Order. In 1270, the Semigallians joined Lithuanian Grand DukeTraidenis in an attack on Livonia and Saaremaa. During thebattle of Karuse, the Livonian Order was defeated, and its masterOtto von Lutterberg killed. In 1287, a force of Semigallians attacked a crusader stronghold inIkšķile and plundered nearby lands. As they returned to Semigallia, they defeated the crusaders at thebattle of Garoza, the last such victory. The Semigallians were finally subdued by 1290.[312][315] |
| Prussian Crusades | 1222–1274 | ThePrussian Crusades were a series of 13th-century campaigns of Catholic crusaders, primarily led by theTeutonic Knights, to Christianize the paganOld Prussians. These include theCrusade of 1222–1223, theFirst Prussian Uprising of 1242–1249, and theGreat Prussian Uprising of 1260–1274.[316][317][318] |
| Lithuanian Crusades | 1284–1435 | TheLithuanian Crusades (1284–1435) were a series of economic Christian colonization campaigns by theTeutonic Order and theLivonian Order under the religious pretext of forcibly Christianizing the paganGrand Duchy of Lithuania to Roman Catholicism. (cf. Italian Wikipedia,Crociata lituana)[319][320][321][314] |
| Crusade of Magnus Eriksson | 1347–1351 | The Crusade of KingMagnus Eriksson of Sweden againstNovgorod began in 1348, when Magnus led a crusade, marching up the Neva, converting the tribes along that river, and briefly capturing thefortress of Orekhov. The Novgorodians retook the fortress in 1349 after a seven-month siege, and Magnus fell back, partially due to the ravages of the plague. He spent much of 1351 unsuccessfully seeking support for further crusading action among the German cities. |
Crusades in the Iberian peninsula, known as theReconquista, from 722 to 1492.[322][323]
Between 1113–1115, the Mallorca Crusade led by theRepublic of Pisa took place which is also known as theBalearic Islands Expedition. TheGranada War (1482–1491) was a series of military campaigns between 1482 and 1491, during the reign ofIsabella I of Castile andFerdinand II of Aragon, against theEmirate of Granada. It ended with the defeat of Granada and its annexation by Castile, ending Islamic rule on the Iberian peninsula.[324]
Crusades againstItalian republics and cities, and Sicily. These are documented in the work by British historianNorman Housley,The Italian Crusades: The Papal-Angevin Alliance and the Crusades Against Christian Lay Powers, 1254-1343 (1982).[325]
| Crusade | Time | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Crusade against Roger II of Sicily | 1127–1135 | See Political Crusades above. |
| Crusade against Markward von Anweiler | 1198 | Following the death ofConstance I of Sicily, a rebellion by German warlords likeMarkward von Anweiler and local Muslims broke out againstFrederick I who was under the custody ofPope Innocent III.[326] |
| War of the Keys | 1229 | TheWar of the Keys were conflicts betweenJohn of Brienne and his son-in-lawFrederick II in Italy.[327][328] |
| Genoese Crusade against Savona and Albenga | 1240 | A minor conflict summoned to suppresssupporters of Frederick II againstSavona andAlbenga.[329][330] |
| Crusade against Sicily | 1248 | Actions taken by Innocent IV after Frederick II's defeat at thebattle of Parma. |
| Crusade against Manfred of Sicily | 1255–1266 | The first crusade againstManfred of Sicily, the illegitimate son of Frederick II, was preached in 1255. The second was declared after Manfred's coronation as the King of Sicily in 1258. He was excommunicated byInnocent IV and indulgences continued to be enjoyed by those crusaders until his death at the hands ofCharles I of Anjou, brother of Louis IX, at thebattle of Benevento of 1266.[331][332][333] |
| Crusade against Ezzelino III da Romano | 1256 | A crusade preached byInnocent IV in Venice against the tyrantEzzelino III da Romano and his sonAlberico da Romano. Innocent had excommunicated the father, who won an initial victory over the crusaders. Wounded in thebattle of Cassano d'Adda of 1259, Ezzelino killed himself by self-neglect while imprisoned. The reaction to this crusade left no doubt that crusades against domestic enemies of the Church were every bit as serious as those against Muslims. Ezzelino was a "son of perdition" in Dante'sInferno, his soul consigned to Hell.[334][335][336][337] |
| Crusade against Conradin | 1268 | Conradin (1252–1268) was nominal king of Jerusalem as the son ofConrad IV of Germany. He attempted to get control of the Kingdom of Sicily, causingCharles I of Anjou to declare a crusade against him. Conradin joined with Muslim forces atLucera and was defeated by Charles atTagliacozzo and later beheaded.[338][339][340][99] |
| Crusade against the Arogonese | 1284–1285 | Also known as theArogonese Crusade, or Crusade of Aragon, was part of theWar of the Sicilian Vespers. The crusade was declared byMartin IV againstPeter III of Aragon in 1284 and was conducted byPhilip III of France. The crusade effectively ended with a French loss at thebattle of the Col de Panissars in 1265. The wars of the Sician Vespers continued until 1302.[341][342] |
| Crusade against the Venetians | 1309 | It was a dispute over the succession ofAzzo VIII d'Este, Marquis of Ferrara.[343][344] |
| Anti-Ghibelline Crusades | 1321–1322 | These were crusades preached againstMatteo I Visconti and his sonGaleazzo I Visconti in 1321 and renewed in 1325 againstAldobrandino II d'Este and his sonObizzo III d'Este and supporters in Ferrara. Angevin forces carried out the fighting for these crusades.[345][346] |
| Crusade against Bernabò Visconti | 1362–1363 | Urban V called for a crusade againstBernabò Visconti in 1362–1363 to recoverBologna for the papacy.[347] |
In the 14th century, much work was done to call for a new crusade to recapture Jerusalem. This includes proposals byBenedetto Accolti, Martin Luther'sOn War Against the Turk, Francis Bacon'sAdvertisement Touching on a Holy Warre, and Leibnitz'Project de conquête l'Egypte présenté à Louis XIV. In addition, there were other crusades that did not leave the planning stage, including the following.
| Crusade | Time | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Crusade of Emperor Henry IV | 1103 | It was a planned crusade planned by Holy Roman EmperorHenry IV that never materialized.[348] |
| Crusade of Conrad III | 1124 | The crusade was an expedition byConrad III of Germany discussed byEkkehard of Aura in hisChronicon universale.[349][350] |
| Crusade against John III Doukas Vatatzes | 1235–1237 | Following theSiege of Constantinople in 1235,Pope Gregory IX called for a crusade againstJohn III Doukas Vatatzes. In 1237, he notified John III that a crusader army would soon arrive. In reaction to this, John III formed an alliance with Frederick II.[351] Additionally, a crusade against Bulgarian TsarIvan Asen II was planned to be led byBéla IV of Hungary.[352] |
| Second Crusade against Bosnia | c. 1245–1248 | After the limited success of the firstBosnian Crusade, the pope called for a new crusade by Hungary but abandoned the plans to reevaluate the situation in Bosnia in 1248.[353] |
| Crusade Preached against the Mongols in Syria | 1260 | After the Mongol takeover of Aleppo in 1260, the Franks in the kingdom called onAlexander IV andCharles I of Anjou for help. The pope issued the bullAudiat orbis calling for a crusade against the Mongols and excommunicatingBohemond VI of Antioch for cooperating with the invaders. The abbotBenedict of Alignan was tasked with organizing the crusade, preaching it in Acre. The defeat of the Mongols at thebattle of Ain Jalut in 1260 removed the Mongol threat, at the cost of an increased threat from theMamluks.[354][355][83][84][356][357] |
| Plans for a Joint Latin-Greek Crusade | 1274–1276 | TheSecond Council of Lyon in 1274 thwartedCharles I of Anjou's hopes of leading a new crusade. Nevertheless,Gregory X was favorable to a proposal fromMichael VIII Palaiologos for a crusade against the Turks to restore the ancient Christian cities of Anatolia. Gregory's death in 1276), put an end to such talks.[358][359][360] |
| Crusade of the Genoese Women | 1300 | Boniface VIII declared 1300 aJubilee Year, and crusading planning was generated by enthusiasm for the celebration. The women of Genoa intended to go on crusade, to the point of designing and building armored suits.[361][362][363] |
| Crusade of Clement V | 1309 | It was a crusade, orpassagium generale, against the Mamluks was planned by popeClement V. The crusade was to be executed by the Knights Hospitaller underFoulques de Villaret, fresh from his successes at Rhodes, and reduced to apassagium. Instead, members of the lower classes of England, France and Germany formed a peasant army, and executed the Crusade of the Poor.[242][364][365] |
| Crusade of Philip V | 1317–1322 | There were crusades planned for or proposed during theAvignon Papacy, involving three successive kings of France, Philip V, Charles IV and Philip VI.[366] TheCrusade of Philip V (1317–1322) was a planned crusade byPhilip V of France. At theCouncil of Vienne in 1312, Philip's father Philip IV of France and popeJohn XXII had agreed to a new crusade. John continued to assure the Armenians that a crusade would soon happen, but instead turned his energies againstLudwig IV of Bavaria and to the Second Shepherds' Crusade.[367][368] |
| Crusade of Charles IV | 1322–1328 | A planned crusade was planned byCharles IV of France, continuing the interest expressed by his brother Philip V. Charles entrusted his uncleCharles of Valois to negotiate the terms, but conflicts with England took precedence. Nothing ever became of the proposed conflict and the idea died with Charles IV in 1328.[369][370] |
| Crusade of Philip VI | 1330–1332 | An anonymous documentDirectorium ad passagium faciendum proposed an extensive crusade toPhilip VI of France in 1330 or 1332. The proposal was for the conquest of the Holy Land, the Byzantine empire and Russia, InRHCDocuments arméniens, Volume 2.IV.[371][372] |
| Crusade of Urban V | 1363 | In 1363,John II of France andPeter I of Cyprus planned a crusade against the Turks in 1363 to be led by the two kings and CardinalHélie de Talleyrand. Assembling the army proved an impossible task, and John returned to prison in England. He died in London on 8 April 1364.[373] Peter I would later lead theAlexandrian Crusade. |
| Crusade of Joan of Arc | 1430 | In 1430,Joan of Arc threatened to lead a crusading army against theHussites unless they returned to the Catholic Church. This followed Martin V's threat to the Hussites and the subsequent Fourth Anti-Hussite Crusade.[374] |
| Crusade of Pius II | 1464 | At age 60,Pius II took the cross in 1464 and departed forAncona where he was to meet a small Venetian fleet to attack the Turks. Pius died before the fleet arrived. Nevertheless, a fresco of the pope byBernardino di Pinturicchio depicts an idealized (and fictional) version of his launching the crusade (Fresco #10, Pope Pius II Arrives in Ancona).[375][376][377][378] The Pope later weddedSophia Palaiologina toIvan III of Russia in attempt to win Muscovy as an ally for a crusade against the Ottomans.[379] |
| Crusade of Charles VIII | 1494 | Charles VIII of France planned a crusade on Constantinople duringhis invasion of Naples.[380] |
The consolidated list of the Crusades to the Holy Land from 1095 through 1578 is as follows.
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