| Liexian Zhuan | |||||||||||||||||||||
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| Traditional Chinese | 列仙傳 | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 列仙传 | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Literal meaning | Biographies of ExemplaryImmortals | ||||||||||||||||||||
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TheLiexian Zhuan, sometimes translated asBiographies of Immortals, is the oldestextant Chinesehagiography ofDaoistxian "transcendents; immortals; saints; alchemists". The text, which compiles the life stories of about 70 mythological and historicalxian, was traditionally attributed to theWestern Han dynasty editor and imperial librarianLiu Xiang (77–8 BCE), but internal evidence dates it to the 2nd century CE during theEastern Han period. TheLiexian Zhuan became a model for later authors, such asGe Hong's 4th century CEShenxian zhuan ("Biographies of Divine Immortals").
Liexian Zhuan combines three words:
Thecompoundlièzhuàn (列傳, lit. "arrayed lives") is aClassical Chinese term meaning "[non-imperial] biographies". TheLiexian Zhuan follows theliezhuanbiographical format of traditionalChinese historiography, which was established bySima Qian in his c. 94 BCEShiji (Records of the Grand Historian). Many later texts adopted theliezhuan format, for example, the DaoistShenxian zhuan and the BuddhistGaoseng zhuan (Memoirs of Eminent Monks).[1]
There is no standard translation ofLiexian Zhuan, and renderings include:
The difficulty of translating this title is demonstrated by Campany's three versions. Note the modern shift to translatingxian as "transcendent" rather than "immortal"; Daoist texts describexian as having extraordinary "longevity" or "long life" but not eternal "immortality" as understood in Western religions.[16][17]
The traditional attribution of theLiexian Zhuan to theWestern Han scholarLiu Xiang is regarded as dubious, and modern scholars generally believe it was compiled during theEastern Han (25-220 CE).[18] There are two kinds of evidence that Liu was not the compiler.
First, theLiexian Zhuan was not listed inBan Gu's 111 CEBook of HanYiwenzhi ("Treatise on Literature") imperial bibliography, and the 636Book of Sui was the firstofficial dynastic history to record it bibliographically. However, theYiwenzhi does list many works written and compiled by Liu Xiang, including two with similar titles:Lienǚ Zhuan (列女傳, Biographies of Exemplary Women) andLieshi zhuan (列士傳, Biographies of ExemplaryOfficials).
Second, some sections of theLiexian Zhuan refer to events after Liu Xiang's death in 8 or 6 BCE. Eastern Han historical books dating from the early 2nd century CE cite a version (or versions) of the hagiography. Internal evidence shows that some sections of the text were added in the 2nd century, and later editing occurred.[18] The hagiography contains some phrases dating from theJin dynasty (266–420), but remains the oldest surviving collection of Taoist hagiography.[11]
The attribution of theLiexian zhuan to Liu Xiang occurred relatively early, and it was accepted by theEastern Jin Daoist scholarGe Hong.[18] Ge's c. 330Baopuzi describes how Liu redacted hisLiexian Zhuan in a context explaining the reason Liu failed to produce analchemical gold elixir using the private method ofLiu An was because no teacher had transmitted the necessary oral explanations to him.
As for his compilation (撰) ofLiexian zhuan, he revised and extracted (自刪…出) passages from the book by the Qin grandee Ruan Cang阮倉, and in some cases [added] things he had personally seen (或所親見), and only thus (然後) came to record (記) it. It is not an unwarranted fabrication ([or "fiction"]非妄言也).[19]
Ge Hong usesranhou (然後, "only thus") to emphasize that the veracity ofLiexian Zhuan biographies is not tainted by Liu Xiang's failure inwaidan alchemy, indicating that the collected stories are reliable because he could not have invented them.[20] Internal evidence suggests that Liu compiled theLiexian zhuan in the very last years of his life. Although his authorship is disputed and the text is dated later than the 1st century BCE, "recent scholars have argued cogently" for the traditional attribution.[21] He concludes that the ascription to Liu Xiang is "not wholly incredible, but the text we have today contains later accretions and has also dropped some passages".[22]
Since Liu Xiang was an orthodox Confucianist and not a Daoist, hisLiexian Zhuan depiction of transcendents' lives represents knowledge from general Han culture rather than a specific religious community. In subsequent generations, his hagiography became widely known as a source forliteraryallusion among educated Chinese of later periods.[18]
From a higher perspective, the question of Liu Xiang's authorship "is irrelevant", because thereceived text is not the original. TheLiexian Zhuan was transmitted in diverse manuscript copies for ten centuries, until theSong dynasty 1019Daoist Canon incorporated a standard edition.[23]
TheLiexian Zhuan exists in many, sometimes dissimilar, versions. For instance, the original text likely contained 72 hagiographies, yet the standard version has 70, and others have 71. The c. 1029 Daoist encyclopediaYunji Qiqian includes 48 hagiographies.[21]
TwoTang dynastyleishuChinese encyclopedias, the 624Yiwen Leiju and 983Taiping Yulan extensively quote from theLiexian Zhuan.[11] Analysis ofLiexian zhuan citations preserved in these and other old sources shows that some portions of the original text have been lost from all surviving versions.[18]
The earliest extant version of theLiexian Zhuan is from theMing dynasty 1445Zhengtong daozang (正統道藏, "Daoist Canon of theZhengtong Era, 1436-1450"). Several other Ming andQing editions of the text were published, including twojiàozhèng (校正, "corrected; rectified") versions.[24]
Liexian Zhuan is also the title of a differentYuan dynasty (1206-1368) collection of 55xian biographies, including the popularEight Immortals, withwoodcut illustrations.[25]
The present Daoist canonicalLiexian Zhuan, which is divided into two chapters, comprises about 70 "tersely worded" hagiographies of transcendents.[22] In many cases, theLiexian Zhuan is the only early source referring to an individual transcendent.[26] The collection does not offer anything resembling a full biography, but only a few informative anecdotes about each person. The briefest entries have fewer than 200 characters.[18]
Employing the traditionalliezhuan ("arrayed lives") biographical arrangement, theLiexian Zhuan arranges its Daoist hagiographies in roughly chronological order, starting with themythological figureChisongzi who was Rain Master for the culture heroShennong (mythically dated to the 28th century BCE), and ending with theWestern Han herbalist andfangshi Xuan Su玄俗. They include individuals "of every rank and station, ranging from purely mythical beings to hermits, heroes, and men and women of the common people".[27] The collection includes mythic personages (e.g.,Yellow Emperor andPengzu who allegedly lived over 800 years), famous Daoists (Laozi andYinxi the Guardian of the Pass), and historical figures (Anqi Sheng who instructedQin Shi Huang (r. 247-220 BCE) andDongfang Shuo thecourt jester forEmperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BCE)).[28]
The standard format forLiexian zhuan entries is to give the subject's name, sometimesstyle name, usually native place (or the formulaic "No one knows where he came from"), and often the period in which he or she supposedly lived. Sometime after the 330s, the text was appended with sets of laudatoryzàn (贊, "encomia") that are rhymed hymns praising the recordedxian.[29] Some editions include an old preface, of uncertain authorship and date, that is not included in the Daoist canonical edition.[24]
Two sample hagiographies illustrate some common themes in theLiexian Zhuan. First, many stories focus on the supernatural techniques of transcendents and how they acquired them.[21] Mashi Huang (馬師皇) was a legendary equineveterinarian during theYellow Emperor's reign.
...a horse doctor in the time of the Yellow Emperor. He knew the vital symptoms in a horse's constitution, and on receiving his treatment the animal would immediately get well. Once adragon flew down and approached him with drooping ears and open jaws. Huang said to himself: "This dragon is ill and knows that I can effect a cure." Thereupon he performedacupuncture on its mouth just below the upper lip, and gave it a decoction of sweet herbs to swallow, which caused it to recover. Afterwards, whenever the dragon was ailing, it issued from its watery lair and presented itself for treatment. One morning the dragon took Huang on its back and bore him away[30]
Second, hagiographies often didactically representxian using their transcendental powers to support the poor and helpless.[11] Chang Rong (昌容) was able to maintain the appearance of a young woman for two centuries by only eatingRubus crataegifolius (Korean raspberry) roots:
Chang Rong was a follower of the Dao from Mount Chang (Changshan常山; i.e., theHengshan,Shanxi). She called herself the daughter of the King of Yin (Yinwang nǚ殷王女) and ate roots of rubus (penglei蓬虆). She would come and go, ascending and descending. People saw her for some two hundred years yet she always looked about twenty. When she was able to get purple grass she sold it to dyers and gave the proceeds to widows and orphans. It was like this for generations. Thousands came to make offerings at her shrine.[31]
Researchers have found evidence of anti-inflammatory effects fromR. crataegifolius root extracts.[32]
Third, like the above "decoction of sweet herbs" and "roots of rubus", about half the transcendents described in theLiexian Zhuan had powers that ultimately came from drugs. For instance, after Master Redpine took a drug calledshuiyu (水玉, "liquid jade") denoting quartz crystals in solution,[33] he transformed himself by fire, and ascended toMount Kunlun where he lived with theQueen Mother of the West. The text mentions many herbal and mineral drugs, includingpine nuts,pine resin,China root,fungus,Chinese angelica,cinnabar powder, andmica.[34]
There are no full English translations of the text analogous to theFrench critical edition and annotated translationLe Lie-sien tchouan byKaltenmark.[35][28]Giles translated eightLiexian Zhuan entries,.[2] and Campany's annotated translation of theShenxian Zhuan frequently cites theLiexian Zhuan.[12]
Footnotes