 The opening of theSentences in a 14th-century manuscript (Free Library of Philadelphia, Lewis E 170, fol. 1r) | |
| Author | Peter Lombard |
|---|---|
| Original title | Sententiae in quatuor IV libris distinctae |
| Language | Latin |
| Subject | Christian theology |
| Genre | |
Publication date | c. 1158 |
| Publication place | France |
TheSentences (Latin:Sententiae in quatuor IV libris distinctae; Sententiarum. English:Sentences Divided into Four Books; Sentences) is acompendium ofChristian theology written byPeter Lombard around 1150. It was the most important religious textbook of theMiddle Ages.
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The sentence genre emerged from works likeProsper of Aquitaine'sSententia, a collection of maxims byAugustine of Hippo.[1]: 17 It was well-established by the time ofIsidore of Seville'sSententiae, one of the first systematic treatments of Christian theology.[2] In theSentences,Peter Lombard collectsglosses from theChurch Fathers. Glosses weremarginalia in religious and legal texts used to correct, explain, or interpret a text. Gradually, these annotations were compiled into separate works. The most notable precedent for Lombard'sSentences were theGlossa Ordinaria, a 12th-century collection of glosses.[3]
Lombard went a step further by compiling them into one coherent whole.[4] There had been much earlier efforts in this vein, most notably inJohn of Damascus'The Source of Knowledge. When John of Damascus' work was translated into Latin in 1150, Lombard had access to it.[1]: 17
Lombard was not alone in his project. Many other contemporary theologians were compiling glossaries, such asRobert of Melun'sSententiae andHugh of Saint Victor'sDe sacramentis christianae fidei.[5][6]: 2, 6 In 1134, Lombard went to Paris to study with Hugh, who was finishing his work at the time.[1]: 27 Their work was the signal development of 12th-century religious scholars: asystematic theology that treated the activity as a coherent practice.[7]: 34
Lombard's twin hurdles were devising an order for his material and reconciling differences among sources.Peter Abelard'sSic et Non employed a method for reconciling authorities that Lombard knew and used.[1]: 66 Abelard had also conceived of his work as a textbook.[8] Lombard's previous work,Magna glossatura, was an enormous success and quickly became a standard reference work.[9] Compiling theMagna glossatura prepared Lombard for the definitive synthesis of theSentences.[10]
TheSentences were compiled in two phases. By 1154, he had completed an initial version of the text which he read to his students in Paris during the 1156–7 academic year. The following term, he had significantly revised theSentences, and this became the definitive version.[11] The first major manuscript of theSentences was copied by Michael of Ireland in 1158. There are nearly 900 extant manuscripts of Lombard's work, which indicates how widely it was used.[1]: 55
In addition to Lombard'sMagna glossatura and theGlossa Ordinaria, theSentences relied heavily on the works ofAugustine, citing him over 1,000 times.[12]Julian of Toledo'seschatology was heavily reflected in Lombard's work.[13] TheSentences were also a remarkable snapshot of current thought.[14]: 1985–7 Editorial choices like including atable of contents made Peter's book a much more helpful reference than other glossaries.[1]: 64
Lombard arranged his material from theBible and the Church Fathers in four books, then subdivided this material further into chapters. Probably between 1223 and 1227,Alexander of Hales grouped the many chapters of the four books into a smaller number of "distinctions".[15] In this form, the book was widely adopted as a theological textbook in the high and late Middle Ages (the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries). A commentary on theSentences was required of every master of theology, and was part of the examination system. At the end of lectures on Lombard's work, a student could apply for bachelor status within the theology faculty.
In 1170,Pope Alexander III instructedWilliam of Champagne to "convoke yoursuffragans at Paris" and renounce the "vicious doctrine" (pravae doctrinae) of Peter Lombard.[16] The Pope was accusing Lombard of espousing Christological Nihilianism: the idea that Christ'shuman nature was nothing and his sole identity was divine.[17] The concerns centered on Book III of theSentences where Peter Lombard discusses thehypostatic union from a variety of angles. The debate lingered long enough that the Pope reiterated his concerns in a second letter to William seven years later.[16] The Pope's position was not universally supported among theCardinals who felt the Church faced more pressing issues.[18]
After theFourth Council of the Lateran in 1215, theSentences became the standardtextbook of theology atmedieval universities.[19][1]: ix Stephen Langton's commentary on theSentences helped establish the form.[20] Until the 16th century, no work of Christian literature, except for theBible itself, was commented upon more frequently. All the major medieval thinkers in western Europe relied on it, includingAlbert the Great,Alexander of Hales,Thomas Aquinas,Bonaventure,Marsilius of Inghen,William of Ockham,Petrus Aureolus,Robert Holcot,Duns Scotus, andGabriel Biel.
Aquinas'Summa Theologiae would not eclipse theSentences in importance until around the 16th century. Even the youngMartin Luther still wrote glosses on theSentences, andJohn Calvin quoted from it over 100 times in hisInstitutes.
David Luscombe called theSentences "the least read of the world's great books".[21] In 1947, Friedrich Stegmüller compiled a 2-volume bibliography of commentaries on theSentences.[22] By 2001, the tally of Lombard commentators ran to 1,600 authors.[23]
Modern English Translation
The Sentences Online:
Commentaries onThe Sentences:
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