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Liberalism has been a notable ideology inPoland for hundreds of years. Polish liberalism emphasizes the preservation of democracy and opposition to authoritarianism. Liberalism was first developed in Poland as a response to the Polish–Lithuanian monarchy, and it continued to develop in response to thepartition of Poland through the 19th century and Communist rule in the 20th century. Poland has officially been a liberal democracy since 1989, though its status has been challenged as a result of illiberal reforms in the 2010s and 2020s.
The origin of liberalism in Poland is disputed, and two different systems have been credited as the foundation of Polish liberalism. These are the system ofgentry democracy in the 16th century and the reforms underStanisław August Poniatowski in the 18th century. Gentry democracy introduced many ideas to Poland that have parallels in liberalism, includingindividual liberties,legalism, and the nation as a distinct entity from its ruler.[1] The first major advocate of liberal ideas in Poland wasStanisław Konarski, who criticized theliberum veto in his workOn an Effective Counsel in the 1760s. Over the following decades, theMonitor covered the details of social and cultural life in Poland while spreading ideals of a national identity independent of the aristocracy.Józef Wybicki wrote for theMonitor at this time, and his writings reflected his studies ofMontesquieu.Hieronim Stroynowski wrote the handbookThe Study of Natural and Political Law, Economics and the Law of Nations, which emphasized individual freedoms, private property, contract, and free trade. The rule of Stanisław August Poniatowski brought thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth to an end in the 18th century during thePolish Enlightenment.[2]
Liberalism developed in Poland gradually and was influenced by several philosophers.Stanisław Staszic was a prominent philosopher during the Polish Enlightenment, advocatingelections andphysiocracy.Hugo Kołłątaj recognized the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as a single unitary state with national sovereignty and argued that the contributions of artisans and tradesmen contributed to a country's wealth as well as agriculturists. He also advocated permanentexecutive government and legal protections of citizens' rights. TheConstitution of 3 May 1791 implemented many of these legal ideas and established aconstitutionalist system in the final years of the Commonwealth.[3]
Following the partition of Poland in 1795, the Polish people did not have a government until theDuchy of Warsaw was established as aclient state of theFrench Empire in 1807. Under this government, the reformists of the Commonwealth were given control over a state bureaucracy and a uniform legal code guided bycameralism. Serfdom was also banned under the Duchy.[4] Its leader,Stanisław Węgrzecki, advocated early liberalism under a "monarch without despotism". The Duchy was dissolved following the fall of the French Empire in 1815, and theKingdom of Poland was established as an autonomous territory of theRussian Empire. This government underwent liberal reforms that incorporatedpaternalist actions by the government to support the people. Liberal ideas were spread by professorsJan Śniadecki andKrystyn Lach-Szyrma as well as theFreemasons.[5]
By the 1820s, aconservative backlash to liberalism resulted in several liberal publications being shut down and limited the spread of liberal ideas. TheKaliszanie presented a limited opposition to the conservative majority in government during this time. In advancing liberalism, they advocated personal liberty through anindependent judiciary andfreedom of the press.[6] The ideology of the Kaliszanie was inspired by the political ideas ofBenjamin Constant and the economic ideas ofAdam Smith.[7] As with many central European countries, Polish liberals were accepting of liberalism in amonarchy instead ofrepublicanism throughout the 19th century.[8] Following theNovember Uprising in 1831, Poland lost much of its autonomy and Polish liberalism was further impaired. Polish liberalism saw a revival in the 1840s by focusing on economic rather than political developments. Agricultural advances and the development of railroads strengthenedcapitalism in Poland and provided new opportunities for Polish society. Intellectual and cultural developments also contributed to the advancement of liberal ideas in Poland during this time, typically throughperiodicals and the spread ofHegelianism. The system oforganic work was implemented to advance these developments.[9] TheRevolutions of 1848 represented a major advancement for liberalism in Europe, but thePolish uprising did not succeed in freeing Poland from subjugation.[10]
Liberalism further established itself as the predominant political ideology of Poland in the second half of the 19th century, and it was strengthened through the spread ofpositivist philosophy and the economic ideas ofJózef Supiński.[11][12] The previously suppressed Russian partition of Poland experienced a revival of liberalism in the late 1850s. Polish liberals in the 1860s were represented by the Whites and opposed by the socialist Reds. Whites such asJózef Ignacy Kraszewski andKarol Ruprecht supported Polish independence but believed that a premature insurrection would harm the Polish people.[13] Liberalism in the 1860s and 1870s was primarily spread through liberal periodicals, such asGazeta Narodowa andDziennik Literacki. Liberal thought was divided between the followers ofStanisław Smolka that wished to establish afederalist system within Austria and the followers ofFlorian Ziemiałkowski that wished to reform the existing governmental system. A new group of radical positivists andrationalists led byAleksander Świętochowski continued to influence Polish liberalism.[14]
In the 1880s, Polish liberals began to allow for an increased role of government in their philosophy. Beyond military matters, Polish liberals also began to support regulation of the economy by the government to protect the free market and prevent poverty. Positivists also endorsed liberal ideas ofcultural assimilation, but cultural prejudice andantisemitism in Poland prevented many other liberals from adopting beliefs.[15] Positivists resistedmodernism andethnic nationalism.[16] Going into the 20th century, liberalism had grown stronger in the Austrian partition while it had been replaced by conservatism in the Prussian partition. Politics became increasingly radical in the Russian partition, and a faction of liberals led by Świętochowski responded with the "progressive democracy" movement, opposing mob rule and partisanship.[17] Other ideas taken on by Polish liberalism in the 1900s includedfeminism andanti-clericalism.[18]
After becoming independent at the end ofWorld War I, liberal ideas were incorporated into the new Polish government. It was based on western parliamentary government such as that of theFrench Third Republic, and it incorporated individual rights such as freedom of expression and freedom of religion.[19] Despite this, Poland did not have a strong liberal movement during its interwar independence. The economy of Poland had already been liberalized, and political ideas focused on national identity over individualism. The most prominent liberals at this time wereKraków School economists, advocating individualism over nationalism and collectivism.[7] As a result of the primarily agricultural nature of the Polish economy and the relative lack of industrialization, state intervention became commonplace to spur growth.[20] Hyperinflation and poverty in the 1920s expanded this involvement, and variouswelfare initiatives were implemented.[21] Liberal government ended in the Second Polish Republic following thecoup in 1926.[22]
Theinvasion of Poland in 1939 ended liberal government in the country and brought about 50 years of one-party rule. DuringWorld War II, Poland was occupied byNazi Germany and theSoviet Union. When the war ended, thePolish People's Republic was established as a Communistclient state of the Soviet Union. Liberalism in Communist Poland was preserved by a contingent of Polish citizens along with the Catholic Church.[7] At several points under Communist rule, major protests took place in support of liberalizing the economy.[23] Poland began to liberalize in the 1970s and 1980s as the Communist government adopted increasingly pro-capitalist policies in response to theeconomic calculation problem and other issues caused by aplanned economy.[7] In the final years of Communist rule, the Polish government began to liberalize its economy and restored ties with many international institutions, including theInternational Monetary Fund and theWorld Bank.[24]
Following the end of Communist rule, Poland underwent a new phase of liberalization. Poland's transition to a liberal democracy appeared to be more unstable due to the country's history of nationalism and the severity of its economic collapse, but liberalism was successfully established in Poland during the 1990s.[25] Free market economists were elected into office and implemented reforms to create a free market in Poland.[7] TheConstitution of Poland was ratified in 1997. Poland ascended toNATO in 1999, and NATO initiated a series of reforms to place the Polish military undercivilian control.[26] Poland ascended to theEuropean Union in 2003.
Law and Justice (PiS), which has been a major party in Poland since 2005, has been described as "illiberal", and Poland's government under Law and Justice has been described as an "illiberal democracy".[27][28][29] Following the establishment of a PiS-controlled government in 2015, a form of illiberal legalism was established in Poland.[30] Under this government,non-governmental organizations, academics, and universities associated with liberalism were penalized or driven out.[31]
In the 19th century, the prevalence of liberalism varied among the partitions. It was a major ideology among philosophers in the Austrian and Russian partitions, but it was overshadowed by conservatism in the Prussian partition.[17] Women are more likely than men to vote for liberal candidates in Poland, and thepoliticization of abortion in Poland has been credited with popularizing liberalism among women in the country.[32] Liberalism is also been associated with secularism in Poland, and it is opposed by highly religious voters and highlyCatholic voters in particular. Liberalism is also associated with younger voters, wealthier voters, and urban voters.[33]
Polish liberalism has been shaped by the country's turbulent history, including its partition between European great powers in the 18th century and its period of Communist rule in the 20th century. During the 19th century, Polish liberalism was divided among many factions based on different philosophies, including positivism, rationalism, and radicalism.[14] Modern Polish liberalism has been described as being combined with elements ofconservatism andrepublicanism following the end of Communist rule.[7] The history of statelessness in Poland has been credited with a limited popularity of liberalism and a distrust of institutions.[34] Liberals are primarily represented in Polish government by theCivic Coalition.[35] Polish liberals in the 21st century are defined by their adherence to constitutional democracy and rule of law against authoritarianism and nationalism.[36][37] Liberals in Poland also support theright to abortion,freedom of religion, andLGBT rights.[38]
Various philosophers, politicians, economists, and other individuals have contributed to liberalism in Poland.
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