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The dynasty rose from the consolidation of power among the Khitans in the 8th century and their expansionist campaigns in the latter half of the 9th century. Eventually the Yila chieftain,Abaoji, became the leader of the Khitans and proclaimed a Chinese-style dynastic state in 916. The Liao dynasty launched multiple military campaigns against neighboring states and peoples including theKumo Xi,Shiwei,Tatars,Zubu,Khongirad,Balhae,Goryeo,Later Tang, and theSong dynasty. Its conquests include theSixteen Prefectures (including present-dayBeijing and part of Hebei) by fueling aproxy war that led to the collapse of theLater Tang (923–936). In 1004, the Liao launched an expedition against theNorthern Song dynasty. After heavy fighting and large casualties between the two empires, both sides worked out theChanyuan Treaty. Through the treaty, the Liao forced the Northern Song to recognize them as peers and heralded an era of peace and stability between the two powers that lasted approximately 120 years. It was the first state to control all of Manchuria.[7]
The Liao dynasty was destroyed by theJurchen-ledJin dynasty in 1125 with the capture of theEmperor Tianzuo of Liao. However, the remaining Liao loyalists, led byYelü Dashi (who would become Emperor Dezong), established theWestern Liao dynasty (or "Qara Khitai"), which ruled over parts ofCentral Asia for almost a century beforebeing conquered by theMongol Empire. Although cultural achievements associated with the Liao dynasty are considerable, and a number of various statuary and other artifacts exist in museums and other collections, major questions remain over the exact nature and extent of the influence of the Liao culture upon subsequent developments, such as the musical and theatrical arts.
The "Great Khitan State" (Chinese:大契丹;pinyin:Dà Qìdān) was founded in 907 byAbaoji (Emperor Taizu of Liao). In 938 or 947, Abaoji's successor,Emperor Taizong of Liao, officially renamed the dynasty as "Great Liao" (Chinese:大遼;pinyin:Dà Liáo). This was probably due to the inclusion of non-Khitan peoples in the state. The name was changed back to "Great Khitan" in 983 during the reign of theEmperor Shengzong of Liao due to a reassertion of Khitan identity. In 1066,Emperor Daozong of Liao reintroduced the dynastic name "Great Liao" and the title remained in official use until the dynasty's collapse. Both "Great Khitan" and "Great Liao" enjoyed about 100 years of usage each.[8]
In the Khitan script, the state's name included both the words "Khitan" and "Liao" at the same time, but their order was reversed depending on which took precedence. When the state was called the "Great Khitan" in Chinese, the corresponding Khitan language name was "Great Khitan Liao" (Great Qidun Hura), whereas when it was the "Great Liao" in Chinese, the corresponding Khitan name was "Great Liao Khitan" (Great Hura Qidun). The full name in the Khitan language was thus either "Great Central Khitan Liao State" (Great Tiaudu Qidi Xura Guren) or "Great Central Liao Khitan State" (Great Tiaudu Xura Qidi Guren). It is uncertain what the word "Liao" (Hura) actually meant in the Khitan language. There are several theories for its possible meaning including "black", "broad", "country", the "Liao River", or simply a prestigious term whose original meaning had been lost.[9]
In 1124, thesuccessor state established byYelü Dashi in theWestern Regions also officially adopted the dynastic name "Great Liao". In historiography, however, this regime is more commonly called the "Western Liao" or "Qara Khitai". The Qara Khitans used neither "Western Liao" or "Qara Khitai" to refer to themselves. They regarded themselves as the legitimate continuation of the Liao dynasty and continued to use the Khitan name "Great Liao Khitan" ("Great Liao" in Chinese) as their self designation. Western Liao is a Chinese designation and Qara Khitai is a Turko-Mongol term. "Qara Khitai" cannot be found in any Muslim sources before the Mongol invasions, after which Turko-Mongol speakers mistook the word for "Liao" (Hura) asqara (black).[10] Muslim historians initially referred to the state as "Khitai", which may have come from theUyghur form of "Khitan", in whose language the final -n or -ń became -y. They adopted the name "Qara Khitai" after the Mongol invasions.[11][12]
Due to the dominance of the Khitans during the Liao dynasty in Northeast China and Mongolia and later the Qara Khitai in Central Asia where they were seen as Chinese, the term "Khitai" came to mean "China" to people near them in Central Asia, Russia and northwestern China. The name was then introduced tomedieval Europe via Islamic and Russian sources, and became "Cathay". In the modern era, words related to Khitay are still used as aname for China byTurkic peoples, such as theUyghurs in China'sXinjiang region and theKazakhs ofKazakhstan and areas adjoining it, and by some Slavic peoples, such as theRussians andBulgarians.[13]
The earliest reference to a Khitan state is found in theBook of Wei, a history of theNorthern Wei dynasty (386–534) that was completed in 554.[14] Several books written after 554 mention the Khitans being active during the late third and early fourth centuries. TheBook of Jin (648), a history of theJin dynasty (266–420), refers to the Khitans in the section covering the reign ofMurong Sheng (398–401). TheSamguk Sagi (1145), a history of theThree Kingdoms of Korea, mentions a Khitan raid taking place in 378.[15]
According to sinologistsDenis C. Twitchett and Klaus-Peter Tietze, it is generally held that the Khitans emerged from theYuwen branch of theXianbei people. Following a defeat at the hands of another branch of the Xianbei in 345, the Yuwen split into three tribes, one of which was called theKumo Xi. In 388 the Kumo Xi itself split, with one group remaining under the name Kumo Xi and the other group becoming the Khitans.[14] This view is partially backed up by theBook of Wei, which describes the Khitans originating from theXianbei.[14] Beginning in the Song dynasty, some Chinese scholars suggested that the Khitans might have descended from theXiongnu people. While modern historians have rejected the idea that the Khitan were solely Xiongnu in origin, there is some support for the claim that they are of mixed Xianbei and Xiongnu origin. Beginning withRashid-al-Din Hamadani in the fourteenth century, several scholars have theorized that the Khitans wereMongolic[16][17] in origin, and in the late 19th century, Western scholars made the claim that the Khitans wereTungusic in origin (modern linguistic analysis has discredited this claim[18]).
After splitting from the Yuwen, the Khitans and Kumo Xi fled to the region of Songmo (modern southernHexigten Banner and westernOngniud Banner). According to theNew Book of Tang, the territory of the Khitans rested on what is now the area south ofXar Moron River and east of the Laoha. The Khitans then faced a joint invasion by theRouran Khaganate andGoguryeo, which caused them to migrate south to the east of Bailang River (modernDaling River).[19]
By the time theBook of Wei was written in 554, the Khitans had formed a state in what is now China'sJilin andLiaoning Provinces.[14] The Khitans suffered a series of military defeats to other nomadic groups in the region, as well as to the ChineseNorthern Qi (550–577) andSui (589–618) dynasties. Khitan tribes at various times fell under the influence of Turkic tribes such as theUighurs and Chinese dynasties such as the Sui andTang. In theBook of Sui (Volume 84), the Khitan are described as "bellicose in plundering and raiding borders"[20] and "the most uncourteous and arrogant among all barbarians".[20] According to theHistory of Liao, the Khitans were nomads who migrated according to the season. They depended on horses for their livelihood and let them graze openly while their men were demobilized. Their men drankkumiss and practiced archery to hunt for their daily needs. Due to their way of life, they often had the upper hand in military affairs.[21]
There were eight Khitan tribes: the Xiwandan, Hedahe (Adahe), Fufuyu (Jufufu), Yuling (Yuyuling), Rilian, Piqie (Pilier), Li (black), and Tuliuhan (Tuliuyu).[22] The eight tribes shared power by rotating leadership triennially.[23] The Khitan federation presented tribute to theNorthern Yan (409–436), which in return invested the Khitan khan as Prince Guishan. The Khitans also regularly presented tribute to theNorthern Wei (386–534) court in the form of horses and animal skins. Trade occurred on the border in Helong (modernChaoyang) and Miyun. In 553, the Khitans suffered a defeat to the armies ofNorthern Qi (550–577) and lost a large portion of their population as well as cattle. For a time they resided inGoguryeo.[24] In 584, they submitted to the Sui dynasty (581–618). In 605, they were attacked by the Türks and lost 40,000 men and women.[24] The eight tribes of old dispersed. Only two Khitan leaders are known from this period: Hechen and Wuyu. The title of Khitan chieftains was Mofuhe or Mohefu.[24]
Sometime during the Sui dynasty, the military organization of the Khitans became more advanced. According to theBook of Sui, "In the case of a military operation, the chieftains discussed it together. In mobilizing troops, tallies needed to be matched".[25] In the early 7th century, the Dahe clan unified the Khitan tribes in a federation that was able to raise 34,000 troops.[22] The tribal composition of the Dahe Confederation is listed as Daji, Hebian, Duhuo, Fenwen, Tubian, Ruixi, Zhuijin, and Fu. The Hedahe were the leading tribe of the Confederation, from which its name is taken from.[26] Other tribes mentioned are: Danjieli, Yishihuo, Shihuo, Nawei, Pinmo, Nahuiji, Jijie, and Xiwa.[27] The component tribes were largely autonomous and the Dahe were only responsible for foreign affairs.[26] After the Dahe united the Khitans, the system of rotating leadership was replaced by "Shixuan", electing a leader based on their talent and ability from the Dahe lineage.[23] The other clans had the right to vote but not to be elected.[28] Brothers, cousins, and nephews often succeeded rather than the son of the previous leader.[29] No internal conflicts among the Khitan tribes are recorded after the unification of the Dahe.[26]
Khitans eating. Tomb mural, Chifeng city, Inner Mongolia
In 628, the Dahe Confederation led by Mohui submitted to the Tang. In 648, they submitted to the Tang again under the leadership ofKuge. Kuge was appointed the Governor-general of Songmo and several prefectures were set up for Khitan tribes: Qiaoluo for the Daji, Tanhan for the Hebian, Wufeng for the Duhuo, Yuling for the Fenwen, Rilian for the Tubian, Tuhe for the Ruixi, Wandan for the Zhuijin, Pili for the Fu. The chieftains of the tribes were appointed as prefects.[30] The Tang emperor bestowed the Chinese surname Li on the Dahe and appointed their leader to a governorship that was "an office specifically created for the indirect management of the Khitan tribes".[31] Some Khitan tribes such as the Songmo, Xuanzhou, Neiji, Yishige, and Yishihuo were not included in the Dahe Confederation. The Neiji tribe led by Sun Aocao submitted to the Tang in 619. Aocao's great-grandsonSun Wanrong was appointed prefect of Guicheng.[32]
Towards the turn of the century, however, Tang control of the north began to slip. The Governor-general ofYingzhou, Zhao Wenhui, regarded the Khitan chieftains as his servants. The Khitan chieftain Sun Wanrong and his brother-in-law, the governor of Songmo,Li Jinzhong, felt insulted and bullied by Zhao. In 696, a famine occurred in Khitan territory and Zhao failed to provide relief, sparking a rebellion. The Dahe leader, Li Jinzhong, captured Yingzhou and declared himself "Wushang Khagan" (paramount khagan). The Tang sent 28 generals against the Khitans but were defeated at Xiashi Gorge (Lulong County). The Tang troops continued to suffer defeat until Li Jinzhong died of disease.Qapaghan Qaghan of theSecond Turkic Khaganate offered to aid the Tang in return for subdued Türkic households under Tang control. The Türks attacked the Khitans from the north while the Tang invaded from the south. The Khitans suffered a heavy defeat before Sun Wanrong rescued the situation and counterattacked, seizing Yingzhou andYouzhou. A 170,000 strong Tang army was sent against the Khitans and defeated. Another 200,000 soldiers were sent against the Khitans but failed to stop their advance. However the Khitans failed to account for the Türks sacking their capital, Xincheng, and the defection of theKumo Xi from their ranks. Sun Wanrong was killed by his servant. Although the rebellion was defeated, it took over fifteen years from 700 to 714 before the Tang were able to reassert control over the Khitans.[33]
In 720 the military chief (Yaguan) Ketuyu attacked the reigning Khitan ruler, Suogu. Suogu fled to Yingzhou seeking Chinese protection. General Xue Tai was ordered to punish Ketuyu but he failed and was captured along with Suogu and the Kumo Xi king Li Dapu. Ketuyu enthroned Suogu's cousin Yuyu as the new Khitan ruler. Ketuyu sent tribute to the Tang court but the official in charge treated him with rudeness. Ketuyu murdered the Khitan ruler Shaogu and defected to the Türks. Ketuyu suffered a defeat against the Tang in 732 and fled while his Kumo Xi allies surrendered to the Tang. In 734, Ketuyu defeated a Tang army with the support of his Türkic allies and then lost another battle against Tang forces under the command of Zhang Shougui. The Tang convinced a Khitan military official, Li Guozhe, to murder Ketuyu and the Khitan ruler Qulie, who had been enthroned by Ketuyu.[34]
Khitan crown (female), silverLiao tomb mural showing Khitan men with banners, drums, and maces
The rebellion of Ketuyu ended Dahe supremacy in 730. Li Guozhe, chief of the Yishihuo tribe, and Nieli, also from the Yishihuo tribe, founded a new confederation. Nieli enthroned Zuwu Khagan from the Yaonian clan as the supreme ruler of the Khitans, while Nieli became the military chief. Although there was a khagan, the military chief's power actually exceeded that of the khagan throughout the duration of the confederation.[35] The ten tribes of the Yaonian Confederation consisted of the Danlijie, Yishihuo, Shihuo, Nawei, Pinmo, Nahuiji, Jijie, Xiwa, Yaonian, and Yila.[36] Other tribes are also mentioned: the Yishi, Pin, Chute, Wukui, Niela, Tulübu, and Tuju.[37]
The Tang governorAn Lushan launched two invasions into Khitan territory in 751 and 755. After being soundly defeated by the Khitans during the first invasion, An Lushan was successful in the second. An then led a rebellion against the Tang that included Khitan troops in his army. An had a Khitan eunuch named Li Zhuer who worked for him as a teenager but An Lushan castrated him. Li Zhuer was highly trusted by An Lushan, and he and two other men served as his personal attendants. Li Zhuer was approached by conspirators who wanted to kill An when he became ill and started abusing his subordinates. An was hacked to death by Li Zhuer and another conspirator, Yan Zhuang, who was beaten by An before.[38][39] TheAn Lushan Rebellion marked the beginning of the end of the Tang dynasty.[40]
Following the An Lushan Rebellion, the Khitans became vassals of the Uighurs while simultaneously paying tribute to the Tang, a situation that lasted from 755 until the fall of the Uighurs in 840. There were 29 recorded tribute activities to the Tang from 756 to 841.[41] From 840 until the rise of Abaoji, the Khitans remained a tributary of the Tang dynasty.[42] Towards the end of that period, the Khitans began a series of major conquests. Under the reign of Xianzhi Khagan (860?–882?), the Khitans subjugated the Kumo Xi and Shiwei.[43] Two campaigns were launched against the Kumo Xi. Xianzhi captured 700 Xi households who were later settled as the Dieladieda tribe under Abaoji's reign. Saladi, Abaoji's father, captured 7,000 Xi households and moved them to Qinghe in the region of Raole (west of modernNingcheng County).[44] During the Xiantong reign period (860–874), Xianzhi sent envoys to the Tang court twice.[41] According to theZizhi Tongjian, during the Xiantong period, the Khitans' territory expanded drastically and by the time of Abaoji, all the Kumo Xi, Shiwei, Tatars, western Türks, and Jurchens had been defeated.[45]
The location ofBalhae in the year 900Khitan man in tomb painting in Aohan Banner, Inner MongoliaKhitan tomb mural inInner Mongolia – attendants holding a musical instrument, bow and arrows, boots, and a falconLiao orJin dynasty (1115–1234) helmets and mask
Abaoji, posthumously Emperor Taizu of Liao, was born in 872 to the Yila chieftain, Saladi. According to theLater Tang envoy Yao Kun, who met the Khitan ruler in person, Abaoji was extremely tall (9chi; over two meters).[46]
By the time of Abaoji, the Yila had become the largest and strongest of the Khitan tribes, even though the Yaonian khans still held overall power.[47] The Yila tribe descended from the Yishihuo, who settled closer to Han civilization than other Khitans. In the 730s, the Yila became a tribe independent of the Yaonian. Under the influence of Han culture, Yundeshi (820s–860s?), Abaoji's grandfather, became the first Khitan to practice and teach settled agriculture. Shulan, Abaoji's uncle, was the first Khitan to practice masonry and build walled cities. To their south, the Han people ofYouzhou Jiedushi fled the rule ofLiu Rengong, most of them ending up in Yila territory.[48] Han farmers were resettled by Abaoji and Han craftsman taught the Khitans how to spin and weave. The adoption of agrarian culture, Han refugees, and more advanced labor organization made the Yila tribe far richer than other Khitans.[49] Abaoji placed Han intellectuals such as Kang Moji, Han Yanhui, and Han Zhigu into his administration. Kang Moji was responsible for legal matters between Khitans and Han. Later he supervised the building of the capital city. Han Yanhui was made an official in charge of military affairs and oversaw the subdued Han population, settling them and making sure they did not flee. Han Zhigu participated in strategy and decision making. He later took charge of the department handling Han affairs and managed protocols of foreign affairs. He also combined Han institutions and Khitan customs to make them easier to understand for Khitans.[50]
Abaoji held the title of Dama Yueshali, the commander of the khagan's personal guard, in the late 9th century.[51] In 901, Abaoji was elected Yilijin (chieftain) of the Yila by the triennial council. None of the Khitans except the Yaonian used surnames at the time, but later in the 930s, Abaoji's clan adopted Yelü as their surname. At the same time their consort clan also began using the surname Xiao.[47]
After his accession as leader of the Yila, Abaoji raided theTang dynasty, attacked theJurchens, and established superiority over theShiwei andKumo Xi. In 903, Abaoji was named Yüyue, the supreme commander of all Khitans, second only to the Yaonian Khagan. Two years later, he led 70,000 cavalry toDatong to form a blood oath with theShatuo warlordLi Keyong. Abaoji and Li Keyong had a conversation about the Khitan way of succession. Abaoji was concerned that he would be replaced in three years and Keyong noted that there was also a practice of replacement for his post. He told Abaoji that he could just refuse to be replaced.[52]
In 907, Abaoji demanded that he be made Khagan, and ascended as supreme leader of the Khitans with support from seven other tribes.[53] Abaoji then slaughtered the other Khitan chieftains, alarming the Khitan elite, many of whom saw his action as a move towards Han-style emperorship. Abaoji's rule went unchallenged until 910, when he disregarded Khitan calls for another member of the family to assume the position of Khagan. In 912 and 913, members of Abaoji's family attempted armed insurrections. After the first insurrection was discovered and defeated, Abaoji pardoned the conspirators. After the second, only his brothers were pardoned, with the other conspirators suffering violent deaths. The brothers plotted rebellions in 917 and 918, both of which were easily crushed.[54][55]
In 916, Abaoji assumed the title ofCelestial Emperor, proclaimed aChinese era name, and built aConfucian temple. He named his eldest son,Yelü Bei, from his primary consort,Shulü Ping, as heir apparent and demanded the entire nobility to swear fealty to him. Two years later, the Liao court was moved to the "Supreme Capital" (Shangjing), a newly built walled city with a grand park and imperial tents where the Chinese palaces would normally be located. Abaoji fostered the construction of 30 more walled cities for his captured ethnic Han subjects to inhabit. The Supreme Capital was joined by the "Eastern Capital" (Dongjing). Administration of the empire was divided between a Northern Administration overseeing steppe and tribal affairs and a Southern Establishment overseeing the settled and Han population. The two institutions were headed by chancellors, the northern one appointed by the Xiao consort clan, and the southern one appointed by the ruling Yelü clan.[55][56]
In 917, Abaoji receivednaphtha as a gift from the state ofWuyue.[57]
In 920, Abaoji ordered the development of a Khitan writing system known as theKhitan large script. While superficially similar to Chinese writing, it arbitrarily adds and reduces strokes to Chinese characters to compose words, making it completely unrecognizable to Han readers. In 925, the arrival of aUyghur delegation led Abaoji to order his younger brother,Yelü Diela, to study theOld Uyghur language. Uyghur influence led to the development of aKhitan small script with more phonetic elements. The Khitan script was used for memorial inscriptions on wood and stone and record keeping in the Northern Administration. Almost no extensive documents written in Khitan script have survived, suggesting that few were ever produced. In the Southern Establishment, Chinese was the administrative language, which many Khitans learned, including Abaoji's sons.[58] In a conversation with Yao Kun, an envoy from Later Tang, Abaoji said he spoke Chinese but did not speak it in the presence of other Khitans, because he feared that they would emulate the Han and grow soft.[59]
During his reign, Abaoji attacked numerous neighboring peoples and expanded Liao territory exponentially. Against the steppe nomads, he led campaigns in 908 against theShiwei, in 910 the Kumo Xi, in 912 theZubu, in 915 theKhongirad, and again in 919 to subdue the Khongirad.[60] From 922 to 923, he raided theJin and its successor,Later Tang.[61] A year later he attacked theTatars.[62] His campaigns continued right up until his death in 926 with the conquest ofBalhae and the creation of the puppet Kingdom ofDongdan.[63] Most of Balhae's population was relocated to what is nowLiaoning. The destruction of Balhae resulted in three independent groups beyond Khitan control: the northwestern Balhae people in modernHeilongjiang, the Balhae people west of theYalu River, and the state ofJeongan in the upper valley of theMudan River that emerged after the dissolution of Dongdan.[64][65]
Abaoji died of typhoid fever at the age of 54 on 6 September 926.[59]
Zhuoxie tu, a 10th-century painting of a rest stop for a Khitan khan
Yelü Deguang, posthumouslyEmperor Taizong of Liao, was the second son ofShulü Ping and not the first in line for the Khitan throne. His elder brother, the 26-year old heir apparentYelü Bei, was disliked by the conservative Khitan elites for his intellectual pursuits. As apolymath, Yelü Bei was skilled in painting, writing in both Khitan and Chinese languages, and possessed a large personal library. He also had a taste for Chinese culture, music, medicine, and prognostication. Chinese-style primogeniture was also not a custom among the Khitans, who had elected their leader since the time of the Dahe Confederation, which was why Abaoji had them swear allegiance to Yelü Bei when he announced him as heir apparent.[66] Bei's mother, Shulü Ping, who was exceptionally powerful in her own right, commanding thousands of horsemen and leading troops on campaign, took control of all military and civil affairs as regent, after having cut off her right hand to be buried with her husband. Shulü Ping herself disproved of her first son as heir due to his Chinese leanings and used all her influence to have Bei set aside for his younger brother, Deguang, who had participated in the 922–923 and 924–925 campaigns. Toward the end of 927, Bei approached his mother and formally withdrew his claim. Deguang succeeded the throne.[67]
Bei was still ruler of theDongdan Kingdom in formerBalhae, given to him by his father after participating in its conquest.[68] Taizong, who still regarded him as a threat, ordered in 929 that the capital of Dongdan and all its inhabitants be moved to the Eastern Capital (Dongjing). Dongdan lost its semi-autonomous status. In 930, Bei fled by sea to theLater Tang court and was received byLi Siyuan as an honored guest. In 937, he was killed byShi Jingtang, who overthrew Later Tang and ruledLater Jin (Five Dynasties) as a puppet of the Khitans.[69]
In 929, theKhongirad rebelled. In the same year, Taizong sent his younger brother,Yelü Lihu, to attack the Later Tang atDatong. In 933, Taizong led a campaign against someTangut tribes. The most important expansion of Khitan territory during this period, however, came from political instability in the south. In 933, the Later Tang emperor died. His son,Li Conghou, lasted only five months before his adoptive brother,Li Congke, killed him. Li Congke ordered a powerful governor, Shi Jingtang, to be transferred for closer supervision by the court, leading to his rebellion. Hard pressed by Li Congke, Shi Jingtang sought aid from the Khitans. Taizong led a 50,000 strong cavalry force to his aid and defeated the Later Tang army nearTaiyuan. On 28 November 936, Shi Jingtang was invested as emperor of Later Jin by the Khitans. In 938, the puppet emperor of Later Jin transferred theSixteen Prefectures over to the Khitans, granting them access to the strategic fortifications of northern China and theCentral Plains.[70] A new "Southern Capital" (Nanjing) was constructed at modernBeijing.[55][56] Shi Jingtang behaved as a vassal and even allowed Khitan envoys to cross his territory to contactSouthern Tang, his geopolitical rival.[71]
Shi Jingtang died in 942. His nephew and successor,Shi Chonggui, came under the influence of an anti-Khitan court led by the army commanderJing Yanguang. In 943, Shi Chonggui revoked the trading privileges of the Khitans inKaifeng and confiscated their property, sending their representative back to the Khitan court. Taizong invaded in the following year but suffered a defeat in 945, having to escape the battle on a camel. However, with persistence, the Khitans wore down the Jin forces, and in 946, the Jin commander in chief, Du Chongwei, surrendered. In early 947, Taizong entered Kaifeng unopposed. The Jin emperor and his family were exiled to the Supreme Capital. The Jin army was disarmed and disbanded, their horses confiscated. With this great victory, Taizong formally adopted a dynastic name, the "Great Liao".[72][73] With the conquest of Later Jin, the Liao acquired the Jade Seal of State Transmission (chuanguo yuxi). Ideologically, the Liao therefore regarded itself as the legitimate successor of the Later Jin, and the ruler of China. It hence chose the Water element, the element that follows the Metal element, the dynastic element of the Later Jin, according to the sequence of creation of the Five Elements (wuxing). It also chose the Water element's corresponding color black as its dynastic color.[74]
His victory did not last. Having brought inadequate supplies, the Khitans wantonly looted the city and plundered the countryside provisions, and imposed harsh levies on the local populace, causing them to become resentful and attack them. Rather than stay and govern the conquered city, the Khitans decided to ship everything of value, from Jin officials and palace women to maps and music instruments, back to the Supreme Capital. Taizong also faced another threat from Taiyuan, whereLiu Zhiyuan announced a newLater Han (Five Dynasties) dynasty. The occupation of Kaifeng lasted three months before Taizong withdrew. Shortly before reaching Liao territory, Taizong suddenly fell ill and died near modern-dayShijiazhuang at the age of 45 on 18 May 947.[75]
The King of Dongdan Goes Forth (東丹王出行圖), scroll, light colors on silk. 146.8 x 77.3 cm.National Palace Museum, Taipei. Attributed to Li Zanhua (李贊華 909–946), but possibly a later artist.
Khitans hunting with birds of prey, 9–10th centuries
Yelü Ruan, posthumouslyEmperor Shizong of Liao, was the son ofYelü Bei, and not the designated heir ofEmperor Taizong of Liao, who wasYelü Lihu, Taizong's younger brother. However Taizong had raised Ruan after Bei's departure in 930 and the relationship between them was as close as father and son. Ruan participated in the invasion ofLater Jin, earning himself as a capable warrior and commander. Upon Taizong's death, Ruan declared himself emperor before "his father's coffin".[76]
Lihu attacked Ruan while he was on his way back to the Supreme Capital but was defeated. His mother,Shulü Ping, then led her own army to confront Ruan. The two armies faced each other on theXar Moron River, south of the Supreme Capital, for several days. The deadlock was resolved by a royal cousin named Yelü Wuzhi and ultimately Lihu, who the Khitan nobility viewed as cruel and spoiled, was unable to gain enough support to further challenge Shizong. After a peace was brokered, Ruan formally assumed the role of emperor and the title of emperor. Shizong promptly exiled both Empress Shulü Ping and Yelü Lihu from the capital, ending their political ambitions. Shizong hoped this would secure his position but he quickly became disillusioned as the internal situation of the Liao remained unstable. In 948, the second son of Taizong, Yelü Tiande, conspired to murder the emperor. The conspiracy failed and the conspirators' lives were spared. Among them, Xiao Han, a nephew of Shulü Ping, conspired against Shizong again in the following year. Despite being spared again, Xiao Han returned to his old ways a third time, resulting in his execution.[77]
In 947, a planned invasion ofGoryeo was aborted when the Khitans realized that enemy defenses were more formidable than they had thought.[64]
From 949 to 950, Shizong invadedLater Han. In late 951, Shizong decided to invadeLater Zhou. Before the army set off, Shizong and his entourage got drunk after making sacrifices to his father. Chage, the son ofAbaoji's younger brother, Anduan, took advantage of the situation to kill Shizong. Chage was executed. Shizong died at the age of 33 and had not produced a son of age to inherit the throne. Shizong's rule was characterized by a series of rebellions from within his extended family. Although ruling for only four years, Shizong oversaw the formalization of the dual government system, which brought the structure of the Southern Establishment closer to the model used by the Tang dynasty.[78]
Geyuan Temple Wenshu Hall built in 966 is the oldest extant Liao building
Yelü Jing, posthumouslyEmperor Muzong of Liao, succeeded his cousin,Emperor Shizong of Liao. Muzong was a heavy drinker and spent most of his time either hunting or sleeping. The Chinese called him the "Sleeping Prince".[79] The first half of his reign was marred by continued instability within his family. A younger brother of Shizong, Louguo, hatched a plot with one of his uncles to defect toLater Zhou. He was executed when the plot was discovered. In 953, a son ofYelü Lihu named Wan also conspired against the emperor. Wan was spared but his co-conspirators were executed. In 959, Dilie, one of Louguo's co-conspirators, plotted rebellion. The next year, Wan's older brother, Xiyin, was arrested for plotting rebellion. Lihu was implicated and died in prison.[80]
During Muzong's reign, the Liao assistedNorthern Han in fending off an attack byLater Zhou in 952. The Zhou attacked Han again in 954, and the Khitans once again came to their aid. The Khitans captured some Han troops by mistake and handed them back. On some occasions, Han envoys would visit the Liao to discuss strategic matters.Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou believed that the Liao dynasty were poised to invade the Zhou. In 958, the Han reported renewed attacks by the Zhou. In the following year, the Zhou invaded Liao territory, taking some border prefectures. Muzong headed south to confront the Zhou invasion but the Zhou emperor fell sick and had to return toKaifeng. He died soon after and the Zhou invaders withdrew.[81] In 960, the Zhou were replaced by theSong dynasty, which attacked Han in 963, and was repelled with the aid of the Khitans. Border skirmishes occurred between the Liao and Song in 963 and 967.[82]
There were minor troubles with theShiwei andKhongirad in 965, but otherwise the northern frontier remained calm for the Liao.[83]
In 969, Muzong spent an entire month drinking and began to act violently and irrationally, butchering some of his bodyguards. On 12 March, six of his personal attendants murdered him. He was 37 years old. Muzong was the second and last Liao emperor to succeed Abaoji who was not a direct descendant of Yelü Bei.[82][84]
Yelü Xian, posthumouslyEmperor Jingzong of Liao, was the son ofEmperor Shizong of Liao. During his reign, theFive Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period came to an end with the rise of theSong dynasty, which replacedLater Zhou in 960. The Song had defeated all the competing states except forNorthern Han by 978. Realizing their precarious situation, the Han strengthened their ties to the Liao with monthly courtesy missions starting in 971. In 974, the Song began negotiations with Liao for a possible neutrality treaty. The diplomatic efforts ended in failure and the Song invaded Han in 976 and 977, both times being repelled by Liao intervention. With the conquest ofWuyue in 978, the Song concentrated all their forces on an invasion of Han. This time they intercepted Liao forces en route to Han and crushed them. In the summer of 979,Emperor Taizong of Song tookTaiyuan and annexed Northern Han. Taizong then made the disastrous mistake of attempting to invade Liao. His already overextended and tired troops advanced on the Supreme Capital. Initial skirmishes ended in the Song army's favor but they lost a crucial pitched battle on theGaoliang River. Taizong was wounded and fled south in a donkey cart. Capitalizing on the Liao victory, Jingzong launched a punitive expedition in 980, and defeated a Song army. In another campaign in 982, the Liao army was defeated and Jingzong was forced to retreat.[85]
Aside from conflict with the Song, the Liao also experienced trouble with theTanguts in 973. In 975, conflict with remnants of the Balhae people led to an invasion ofJeongan, which failed.[64] TheJurchens looted Liao territory in 973 and 976. In 981, captured Chinese soldiers attempted to enthrone a son of Xiyin but the plot failed, and Xiyin was forced to commit suicide.[85]
In 977, an examination hall was established outside the Southern Capital.[86]
On 13 October 982, Jingzong fell sick during a hunting trip and died in his camp. He was 34 years old. Before his death, he designated his eldest son, the 11 year old Longxu, as his successor.[85]
Yelü Longxu, posthumouslyEmperor Shengzong of Liao, succeeded his father,Emperor Jingzong of Liao. He was only 11 years old at the time of his father's death so actual power fell to the regent, his motherXiao Yanyan (Empress Dowager Chengtian). Until her death in 1009, the Khitan empire was ruled by her and three ministers, two of whom were Chinese.[87] Xiao Yanyan was an extremely capable ruler, being both astute in politics and warfare, commanding an ordo to herself capable of fielding 10,000 cavalry. According to theHistory of Liao, "most of his [Shengzong] success must be attributed to his mother's instruction."[88] TheHistory of the Khitan Kingdom and two Song dynasty visitors of the Liao court speculate that the Empress Dowager Chengtian had sexual relations with a man named Han Derang, who she had originally been betrothed to before the imperial clan's interference, and had a child with him. Lu Zhen, who was a Song ambassador, described in his report on his trip to the Liao court the appearance of Chengtian. According to Lu, Chengtian appeared to be about 50 years old, wore a kingfisher feather cap and jade pendants in her ears, and sat on a stack of cushions on a chair. She had a dozen or so female Khitan attendants tending to her. Lu also saw a boy about 10 years old playing in front of her who resembled Han Derang. Lu thought the boy was probably their son. TheHistory of the Khitan Kingdom further states that while serving as regent, Chengtian asked Han to resume their relationship. The two of them copulated many times, had Han's wife poisoned, and produced a son. Han became one of her main advisers and rose to the position of commander in chief of the Northern Chancellery, which was usually reserved for the Yelü and Xiao clans.[89]
Under Shengzong's reign, a number of administrative advances were produced. In 983, theTang Code was ordered to be translated into Khitan for use by the Northern Administration and in 994, it was decided that any Khitan that transgressed the Ten Abominable Crimes would suffer the same punishment as a Chinese. In 1027, a revised Chinese style legal code was ordered.[90] The firstjinshi examination was held in 988, and they continued until the end of the dynasty.[86] However, only two or three graduates out of ten were employed. The examinations focused on lyric-meter poetry and rhapsodies and only the Chinese took them.[91] In 991, the first veritable records were produced, with those of Jingzong's reign taking up 20 chapters. In 994, the Khitans produced their own calendar. Rules on what matters should be recorded were made in 1011.[92] In 991, the Khitans conducted their first general census and in 997 another census was taken for the tribal population.[93]
TheKumo Xi were completely integrated into Khitan administration by 997. The prior arrangement of vassalage and tribute had lasted since the time ofEmperor Taizong of Liao, but a series of reforms between 994 and 997 discontinued that role. The Kumo Xi king became a salaried official and Chinese style administrative units were set up in Kumo Xi territory. Their former capital became the "Central Capital" (Zhongjing), which received an inner and outer wall, aConfucian temple, and public buildings were constructed between 1018 and 1020.[94]
Militarily, the Khitans came into conflict with both theSong dynasty and the Korean kingdom ofGoryeo. In 986,Emperor Taizong of Song conducted a three-pronged invasion and quickly overwhelmed the Khitan border defenses, but the tide turned as they ventured deep into enemy territory. The empress dowager and her 15 year old son, Shengzong, personally rode with their army to confront the Song invasion.[95] Far from their supply lines, the Song armies were surrounded and attacked from all sides, resulting in resounding victories for the Khitans on all three fronts. Despite their victory, the frontier was severely damaged and many people fled their homes. The region would not recover for years.[96]
In 986,Li Jiqian of theTanguts submitted to the Khitans and three later, was given a member of the Khitan imperial family as bride and installed as "King of Xia".[97]
In 985–86, the Khitans attackedJeongan. In 991, they established three fortified military colonies in the lowerYalu valley, and annexed Jeongan.[65][64][98] Resistance from Jeongan ended in 999.[99] In 992, the Khitansinvaded Goryeo, sending a force supposedly 800,000 strong, and demanded that Goryeo cede territories along the Yalu River. Goryeo appealed for assistance from the Song dynasty, with whom they had a military alliance, but no Song assistance came. After the initial battles, the Khitans made steady southward progress before reaching theCheongcheon River, at which point they called for negotiations with Goryeo military leadership. While the Khitans initially demanded total surrender from Goryeo, and Goryeo initially appeared willing to consider it,Sŏ Hŭi was eventually able to convince the Khitans to accept Goryeo as atributary state instead. The Khitans negotiated a peace that forced Goryeo to adopt the Liao calendar and end tributary relations with Song (a violation of King Taejo’s testamentary injunction never to make peace with the Khitan).[100][101] In exchange, Goryeo diplomatSŏ Hŭi's negotiations gained Goryeo the incorporation of the land between the border of Liao and Goryeo up to the Yalu River, which was at the time occupied by troublesomeJurchen tribes, citing that in the past the land belonged toGoguryeo.[102][103][104] By 994, regular diplomatic exchanges between the Khitans and Goryeo began.[105]
After securing the border with Goryeo, the Khitans attacked the Song dynasty in 994 and laid siege to Zitong, but was repelled by its defenders withfire arrows.[106] The Khitans began a series of campaigns against the Song in 999. While generally successful on the battlefield, they failed to secure anything of value from the Song. This changed in 1004 when Shengzong and his mother led a lightning strike campaign right to the outskirts of the Song capital of Kaifeng by only taking cities that surrendered, while avoiding protracted sieges of the cities that resisted heavily.Emperor Zhenzong of Song marched out and met the Khitans at Chanyuan, a small city on the Yellow River. In January 1005, the two sides signed theChanyuan Treaty, which stipulated that the Song would give the Liao 200,000 bolts of silk and 100,000 ounces of silver each year, that the two emperors would address each other as equals, that they would finalize the location of their disputed border, and that the two dynasties would resume cordial relations. While the sums (referred to as gifts by the Song and as tributes by the Liao) were later increased to 300,000 bolts of silk and 200,000 ounces of silver per year out of Song fears that the Khitans might form a military alliance with theWestern Xia, no major wars were fought between the Khitans and the Song for over a century following the signing of the treaty.[107] By signing the treaty, the Song functionally renounced its claim over theSixteen Prefectures.[108] Part of the border demarcated by the treaty was on the barrier-less North China Plain in Hebei. To fortify these most perilous borderlands, the Song created an extensive defensive forest along the Song-Liao border to thwart potential Khitan cavalry attacks.[109]
Four years after the Song invasion, conflict with Goryeo erupted again. In 1009, the Goryeo generalKang Cho murderedMokjong of Goryeo and putHyeonjong of Goryeo on the throne with the intention of serving as the boy'sregent. The Khitans immediatelysent an army of 400,000 men to Goryeo to punish Kang Cho; however, after an initial period of military success and the breakdown of several attempts at peace negotiations, Goryeo and the Khitans entered a decade of continuous warfare. In 1018 the Khitans suffereda major defeat and their army was all but annihilated at theBattle of Gwiju by the Goryeo forces under GeneralKang Kam-ch'an. The next year, the Khitans assembled another large army to march on Goryeo. At this point both sides realized that they could not defeat each other militarily, so in 1020 King Hyeonjong resumed sending tribute, and in 1022 the Khitans officially recognized the legitimacy of King Hyeonjong's reign. In the same year, a Liao envoy was sent to invest Hyeonjong as king, and when he died in 1031, his successorWang Hŭm was also invested by the Liao court as king. Goryeo broke off relations with Song and the Liao ceded territory around theYalu to Goryeo. The relationship between Liao and Goryeo would remain peaceful until the end of the Liao dynasty.[110] However, according to historian Bielenstein, Goryeo maintained diplomatic relations with Song,Hyeonjong kept his own reign title, and the two states concluded peace as equals in 1022.[111]
In 1006, theKingdom of Guiyi sent tribute to Shengzong's court, which seems to have encouraged him to attack theGanzhou Uyghur Kingdom. Expeditions against the Ganzhou Uyghurs were conducted in 1008, 1009, and 1010. These achieved limited success resulting in the deportation of some of the captured population. In 1027, the Khitans laid siege toGanzhou but failed to take the city, and ended in disaster when they were ambushed byZubu tribes.[112]
In the 1020s, the Southern Establishment tried to extend its taxation system to theBalhae people of the defunctDongdan Kingdom, who formerly only had to pay a tribute. The Balhae people were ordered to build boats to transport grain to the Southern Capital. The journey was dangerous and many boats were lost, leading to resentment. In the summer of 1029, a distant descendant of Balhae royalty,Da Yanlin, rebelled at the Eastern Capital. He imprisoned minister Xiao Xiaoxian and his wife, killed the tax commissioners and chief military commander, and declared his own Xing Liao dynasty. He requested aid from Goryeo but they refused to help. Other Balhae people serving in the military also refused to join him. Instead only a handful ofJurchens joined his regime. In 1030, Xingliao and its Jurchen and Goryeo allies were defeated by a Liao pincer attack led by Punu.[113] A year later, one of Da Yanlin's officers betrayed him and opened the Eastern Capital's gates to the Khitans. His short lived dynasty came to an end. The old Balhae nobility were resettled near the Supreme Capital while others fled to Goryeo.[114]
Shengzong died on 25 June 1031 at the age of 60. At his deathbed, he entrusted his ministers Xiao Xiaomu and Xiao Xiaoxian to enthrone his eldest son, the 15 year oldYelü Zongzhen.[115]
The 15 year old Yelü Zongzhen, posthumouslyEmperor Xingzong of Liao, was born toEmperor Shengzong of Liao and one of his lesser consorts,Xiao Noujin. Despite his parentage, he was raised as the adopted son of Empress Qitian (Xiao Pusage). Noujin fabricated a plot by Qitian to rebel and had her banished and then forced to commit suicide. Noujin declared herself the regent, made her birthday a public holiday, and began holding court and conducting duties normally within the purview of the emperor. In 1034, Noujin plotted to replace Xingzong with his younger brother, Zhongyuan, whom she had brought up herself. Zhongyuan wanted no part of this and informed Xingzong of their mother's plans, resulting in Noujin's banishment to their father's mausoleum. For his part in defeating the coup, Zhongyuan was given the title of "Imperial Younger Brother" and filled a succession of high ranking posts: commander in chief, northern commissioner of military affairs, and viceroy of the Southern Capital.[116] Noujin's relatives remained in power at court. In 1037, Xingzong attempted to reconcile with these elements by treating Noujin with great respect and paying her visits. Xingzong appointed her brother, Xiao Xiaomu, as northern chancellor. In 1039, Noujin returned to the capital and underwent a rebirth ceremony to symbolically re-establish her position. TheSong dynasty began sending separate envoys to pay respects to her.[117]
Xingzong's reign saw the codification of law in 1036 with the promulgation of theXinding tiaozhi which contained 547 articles and compiled all the laws sinceAbaoji's reign. In 1046, all local administrators were ordered to report all legal cases to the Supreme Capital. The laws were further revised in 1051. The universal application of the law was opposed by the pro-Khitan faction of Zhongyuan. In 1043, Chinese living in the Southern Establishments were forbidden from owning bows and arrows. In 1044, at the suggestion of Zhongyuan, Khitan police inspectors were established in each of the capitals to protect Khitan interests. In 1046, Khitans were forbidden to sell slaves to Chinese.[118] On the other hand, restrictions on theBalhae people relaxed and they were allowed to playpolo, a game regarded as a military exercise.[119]
Militarily, the Liao seemed to be in decline during Xingzong's reign. The number of wars conducted in previous decades had put a great burden on the people. In the late 1030s, Xingzong asked his ministers for advice on dealing with growing distress, impoverishment, internal discontent, and banditry due to excessive demands for corvée and military service. TheConfucian scholar, Xiao Hanjianu, advocated for withdrawing overextended garrisons from far off frontiers and the cessation of expansionist policies that incorporated useless territory. Instead, these forces should be concentrated in key areas to the south and east. In 1039, a census was conducted to provide a basis for levying manpower. The army was short on horses so the sacrifice of horses and oxen in ceremonies was banned in 1043. The army and its dependencies were organized into registries in 1046 and these registries were further revised in 1051. There was also concern about the quality of the troops' training, especially the Chinese troops that specialized in artillery and crossbows, skills that augmented the Khitans' cavalry forces.[120]
In 1042, the Khitans took advantage of theLi Yuanhao's invasion of Song to ask for territorial concessions from the Song. Negotiations resulted in the Liao dropping their territorial claims and an increase in annual tribute from the Song to 200,000 tales of silver and 300,000 bolts of silk. WhenLi Yuanhao asked the Khitans in 1043 to join him in attacking the Song, Xingzong refused. In 1044, someTanguts living in Liao territory rebelled and sought refuge inWestern Xia. The Khitans blamed Yuanhao for instigating the rebellion and immediately sent an invasion force led by Zhongyuan and the northern commissioner for military affairs Xiao Hui. Liao forces enjoyed an initial victory but failed to take the Xia capital and were brutally mauled by Yuanhao's defenders.[121] According to Song spies, there was a succession of carts bearing Liao dead across the desert.[122] In 1048, the Xia emperor died and the throne passed to an infant. The Khitans saw their opportunity for vengeance and invaded in a three pronged attack. The army under Xingzong's personal command encountered little resistance but had to withdraw owing to the lack of water and pasture for its horses. Xiao Hui's army advanced on theYellow River with a flotilla of warships but was ambushed and defeated. The third army raided a Tangut palace in theHelan Mountains, capturing Yuanhao's young widow and some high-ranking officials. The Khitans invaded again the next year and plundered the Xia countryside and accepted the surrender of a Tangut general. The Western Xia agreed to become a tributary and peaceful relations were restored by 1053.[123]
In 1044,Datong formally became the "Western Capital" (Xijing), completing the five capital regions.[124]
Xingzong fell sick and died on 28 August 1055. He was 39 years old.[123]
ThePagoda of Fogong Temple, built byEmperor Daozong of Liao in 1056 at the site of his grandmother's family home.[125]Liao dynasty gold wire phoenix crownFunerary mask and crown from the Liao dynastyGilt silver crown, excavated in 1986 from the tomb of Princess of Chen and her husband inTongliao,Inner Mongolia.Gilt bronze statue of the six-tusked elephant holding the throne of Puxian (Samantabhadra), the Bodhisattva of Universal Virtue,c. 1000 Liao dynasty
Yelü Hongji, posthumouslyEmperor Daozong of Liao, succeeded his father,Emperor Xingzong of Liao, having already gained experience in governing while his father was alive. Unlike his father, Daozong did not face a succession crisis. While bothXiao Noujin and Zhongyuan still held substantial power, neither disputed the succession.[126]
Daozong's reign began with increasedsinicization. In 1055 all officials, and not just the emperor and members of the Southern Establishment, were required to wear Chinese court dress at major ceremonies. Daozong himself was highly taken with Chinese learning, poetry,Confucianism, andBuddhism. He placed greater emphasis on Chinese education and theimperial examinations for selection of officials. The number ofjinshi passed in each examination increased from 50 to 60 during Xingzong's reign to over 100 under Daozong. In 1059 prefectural and county schools were established, as well as institutions for higher learning in the capitals. In 1060, a secondGuozijian was set up in the Central Capital in addition to the one in the Supreme Capital. In 1070 a special palace examination called the "Examination for the worthy and good" (Xianliang ge) was established, requiring entrants to submit 100,000 characters worth of writing. In 1072 Daozong personally wrote the questions for the palace examination.[127]
In the early years, the court was dominated by two men, Xiao Ge and Xiao Ala. Xiao Ala was the son of Xiao Xiaomu and part of Xiao Noujin's extended family. He was a close friend of Xingzong and had served as state counselor and viceroy of the Eastern Capital. He was also married to an imperial princess. Upon Daozong's accession, Ala was made northern commissioner for military affairs, putting him alongside Xiao Ge as two of the most powerful men at court. The two had a falling out and Ala asked to retire. Instead he was sent to be viceroy of the Eastern Capital in 1059. In 1061 he returned to court and voiced harsh criticisms at the government. Ge denounced him to the emperor, and in spite of Empress Dowager Renyi's pleas, the emperor ordered Ala strangled. This left the court in the hands of Xiao Ge (who retired the next year), Yelü Renxian, and Yelü Yixin.[128] Yixin grew up in poverty but rose to become a palace attendant under Xingzong and by the end of his reign, a guard commander. Under Daozong, Yixin was made southern chancellor and then transferred to the northern Chancellery in 1059. Renxian rose to prominence during negotiations with theSong dynasty in 1042. In 1060 Zhongyuan tried to have Renxian, who opposed his faction, removed from the southern Chancellery, but Yixin interceded on his behalf by going directly to Daozong.[129]
In 1059 the tribal judges were ordered to refer all capital cases to the local prefect or magistrate for review. If anyone claimed that the sentence was unjust, it was to be referred to the central government for a decision. This possibly led to the rebellion of pro-Khitan elements under Zhongyuan in 1063. In 1061, Zhongyuan's son Nielugu was appointed southern commissioner for military affairs, and became a figurehead for dissident noblemen. Chief among the dissidents was Xiao Hudu, the northern commissioner for military affairs. In 1063, the dissidents ambushed Daozong while he was out on a hunting trip. Daozong was wounded when he had his horse shot out from under him by crossbowmen. He was saved by his servants while his mother, the Empress Dowager Renyi (Xiao Tali), led the guards to ward off the attackers. The battle lasted until dawn. Nielugu was killed by a stray arrow, Hudu fled and drowned himself, and Zhongyuan also fled and committed suicide. Yelü Ming, viceroy of the Southern Capital and a co-conspirator in the rebellion, did not give up when he heard of Zhongyuan's demise. He led a force ofKumo Xi into the capital and armed them with weapons to prepare for combat, but his deputy governor mobilized the Chinese garrison to resist them. When orders from the emperor arrived, Ming was executed. All the conspirators and their families, among them Xiao Ge, were executed, resulting in extensive changes in Liao leadership.[130]
After the rebellion, Yelü Yixin and his ally Yelü Renxian jointly controlled the Northern Commission for Military Affairs for a while. In 1065, Renxian became commander in chief. For the next 15 years, Yixin exercised unrivaled influence in court and acted opportunistically to advance self-interest, selecting corrupt and worthless men for office, taking bribes, and allowing the military to do anything they wanted. Renxian tried to contain him but eventually left for the post of viceroy of the Southern Capital. Daozong remained aloof from politics, providing no real leadership, and instead opted to pursue his own scholarly interests. In 1064 he ordered a search for books lacking in the imperial collection. In 1074 the government distributed copies of theRecords of the Grand Historian and theBook of Han. In the same year a bureau for compiling national history was established, which produced in 1085Veritable Records for the first seven reigns. Daozong gathered prominent scholars around him to expound on various canonical texts and greatly patronizedBuddhist monks.[131] In 1090 a Song envoy commented on how lavishly the emperor patronized the Buddhist clergy and their all-pervasive influence on society. In the latter years of Daozong's reign, he all but abandoned his administrative duties. So ambivalent about administration was the emperor that he selected officials by having the candidates roll dice. This was how the historian who compiled the record of his reign was selected.[132]
Asia in 1100, showing the Khitan Empire and its neighbors
Khitan resistance to Han influence did not disappear after the rebellion. In 1064 the private publication of books was banned, a measure that would have only impacted the urban Han elite. In 1067 Daozong underwent a traditional rebirth ceremony, while still engrossed in his studies, to re-establish his legitimacy as leader of the Khitans. In 1070 the Han were forbidden from hunting, which was considered a military exercise.[133] Daozong recognized that the Khitan and Han customs were different, so he ordered Yixin and Renxian to revise the universal laws to take this into account. The new laws, well over 1,000 articles and twice the size of theXinding tiaozhi of 1036, receiving further amendments between 1075 and 1085, were so out of step with actual practice that they proved unenforceable. In 1089 the new laws were abandoned and theXinding tiaozhi was reinstated.[133] It is clear that while Daozong had a predilection towards Han culture, he also recognized that there were limits to how far he could advance pro-Han measures while governing Khitan elites. In 1074 the scholarly official Yelü Shuzhen suggested adopting Han style surnames for all Khitan tribes, which Daozong rejected, declaring that "the old order should not be changed suddenly".[134]
Yelü Renxian, the only man whose influence rivaled Yelü Yixin, died in 1072. In 1075, Daozong's son and heir apparent, Prince Jun, who was both well educated and skilled as a horseman and archer, emerged as a potential threat to Yixin's influence over Daozong. To remove Jun, Yixin first set in motion plans to eliminate his mother,Xiao Guanyin. One of her household members accused her of having an affair with a palace musician, Zhao Weiyi. In addition, Yixin and his ally, the Han scholar Zhang Xiaojie, fabricated evidence that the empress had written erotic poems to Zhao. Believing Yixin's evidence, Daozong ordered Zhao and his clan executed and the empress, Xiao Guanyin, to commit suicide. Her body was returned to her family wrapped in a mat. Yelü Jun swore revenge for her mother's death and shortly after her suicide, Yixin survived an attempted assassination. Xiao Guanyin was replaced by the sister of one of Yixin's henchmen, Xiao Xiamo, whose other sister was married to Yixin's son. After the death of Empress Dowager Renyi in 1076, the new empress, Xiao Tansi, was installed.[135] The next year, Yixin implicated a number of officials, all his enemies, with plotting a coup to replace Daozong with Jun. While the emperor was initially unmoved, Yixin fabricated a false confession by Jun, resulting in his demotion to commoner status and imprisonment. Yixin then sent emissaries to kill Jun and persuaded the viceroy of the Supreme Capital to report his death as a result of illness. Jun's wife was also killed when she was summoned to court by Daozong, who had almost immediately come to regret his actions.[135]
The new empress remained barren so Daozong decided upon Jun's son,Yelü Yanxi, as heir. In 1079 when the emperor was about to leave on his winter hunting trip, Yelü Yixin tried to persuade him to leave his grandson behind. Various courtiers hostile to him immediately protested this and convinced Daozong to take his grandson with him. This incident seemed to finally awaken the emperor to Yixin's true nature. In 1080 Yixin was demoted and sent to Xingzhong. A year later he was found guilty of trading prohibited goods with a foreign state and sentenced to death. Zhang Xiaojie and the new empress were both exiled from the capital, although Zhang would later be allowed to return and died peacefully in the late 1080s.[136] From then on, Yanxi was carefully groomed for the throne. In 1086 Daozong showed him the armour and weapons ofAbaoji andEmperor Taizong of Liao, describing to him the hardships of the campaigns on which the dynasty was founded. A few weeks later Yanxi underwent a rebirth ceremony. In 1088 he was assigned to his first office. A year later he was married and sons were born in 1089 and 1093.[132]
Economically the Liao dynasty suffered greatly from natural disasters during Daozong's reign. Starting from 1065, not a year went by without an area being struck by some natural disaster. At first it was mainly the southern agricultural regions that were effected but in the 1080s and 1090s, the tribal areas also seem to have experienced immense suffering, resulting in displaced families and vagrants. The government constantly lost revenue due to payments of relief and the granting of tax exemptions. In 1074, the Eastern Capital region was hit by severe flooding, after which orders were given to construct flood control works. This was opposed on grounds that the necessary labor levies involved would cause even greater hardship and unrest. In the winter of 1082–83, unusually heavy snowfall killed up to 60–70 per cent of tribal livestock and horses.[137]
Militarily the reign of Daozong saw little conflict with other settled states. In 1074 there was a border demarcation crisis with the Song but it was resolved by peaceful diplomacy in 1076. In 1078Goryeo's king asked for territory east of theYalu River, which was rejected without any trouble or break in relations. The situation on the northwestern borderland was less stable and events toward the end of Daozong's reign would see the subjugation of theZubu tribes, some of whom lived in Liao territory but had long resisted Khitan rule. There were outbreaks of warfare with the Zubu previously in 997–1000, 1007, 1012–23, and 1027. In 1063, 1064, and 1070, prohibitions were placed on the trade of metals to theWestern Xia, Zubu tribes, andUyghurs. In 1069, there was a renewed Zubu rebellion which was put down by Yelü Renxian. In 1086 the Zubu chieftain attended court and Daozong ordered his grandson, Yelü Yanxi, to be friendly towards him as he was a valuable ally. However, in 1089, Zubu leadership passed to Mogusi. In 1092, the Khitans attacked several tribes in the northwest neighboring the Zubu and the Zubu became involved. In 1093 Mogusi led a series of raids deep into Liao territory and drove off many of the state herds of horses. Other tribes such as the Dilie (Tiriet), who had previously rebelled in 1073, also joined Mogusi. It took until 1100 for the northern commissioner for military affairs, Yelü Wotela, to capture and kill Mogusi. His death did not end warfare with the northwestern tribes and it took another two years to defeat the remaining Zubu forces. The war against the Zubu was the last successful military campaign waged by the Liao dynasty.[138]
Daozong died on 12 February 1101 at the age of 68. He was succeeded by his grandson, Yelü Yanxi.[139]
Collapse of the Liao dynasty (1117–1124)Depiction ofXiongnu cavalry in theEighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute, commissioned byEmperor Gaozong of Song. While the subjects are the Xiongnu, the hairstyle depicted is distinctlyKhitan, and likely based on northern steppe peoples contemporary to the Song.Miniature model of aKhitan tent found in the Hadatu tomb in 1973Fragment of a tomb mural showing a Khitan boy
The accession of Yelü Yanxi, posthumouslyEmperor Tianzuo of Liao, proceeded without incident. His first act upon becoming emperor was to desecrate the tomb of Yelü Yixin and all those who brought about the deaths of his grandmother and parents. The corpses of Yixin and his allies were mutilated. The deceasedEmperor Daozong of Liao was interred together with the empress who had been forced to commit suicide. Tianzuo's father, Jun, was given a posthumous temple name as though he had reigned as emperor.[140]
Natural disasters continued to plague the Liao dynasty intermittently. In 1105 Tianzuo went out in disguise to see the suffering of the people, but nothing else on record hints at what he may have prescribed in policy. In the same year, merchant families were barred from taking thejinshi exam, which suggests continuedsinicization in the Liao mode of governance. Between 1103 and 1105, theWestern Xia repeatedly requested theKhitans to attack theSong dynasty, but the Liao court refused. The Liao cemented its relations with theTanguts with a marriage alliance and sent an envoy requesting the Song to stop its attacks on Western Xia. Diplomatic relations with the neighboring settled states remained cordial and even theZubu sent embassies pledging their allegiance in 1106, 1110, and 1112.[140]
Despite international peace on several fronts, the Liao dynasty would fall to theJurchens by 1125. The Jurchens were aTungusic people who lived in fragmented tribes stretching northward from the border ofGoryeo. They had been in contact with the Khitans ever sinceAbaoji's rise to power. Despite their marginal status, they were militarily significant enough that the Song considered them a potential ally against the Liao, and periodically caused trouble for the Khitans. The Liao categorized the Jurchens into three groups: "civilized" Jurchens (shu nüzhi) descended from tribes captured by the Liao in the 10th century and assimilated into Khitan society, "obedient" Jurchens (shun nüzhi) subordinate to the Liao and had regular contact with the court, and "wild" Jurchens (sheng nüzhi) who inhabited the lowerSonghua River valley and the eastern mountains of modernHeilongjiang. The wild Jurchens were nominally subordinate to the Liao but were functionally independent. During the 11th century, one of the wild Jurchen clans, theWanyan, established dominance over their neighbors and created a semblance of Jurchen unity. The Liao court recognized this and conferred on their chieftains the title of military governor.[141]
As the Wanyan clan consolidated their control over the Jurchens, relations with the Liao also became increasingly strained. The Jurchens resented the behavior of Liao officials atNingjiang, the main border trading post, who constantly cheated them. The Liao also placed on them the obligation of supplying the Liao emperor withgyrfalcons calledhaidongqing, only bred on the coastal regions and required the Jurchens to fight across the territory of their neighbors, the Five Nations, to access. Liao envoys also habitually beat their village elders and abused their women.[141] Khitan envoys raped Jurchen women and girls, causing resentment from the Jurchens.[142]
The Jurchen problem reared its head in late 1112 when Tianzuo embarked on a fishing expedition to the Huntong River (modernSonghua River) where the Jurchen tribes were expected to pay homage to the emperor. As a symbolic gesture of obeisance, the Jurchen chieftains were supposed to get up in turn and dance in the emperor's camp, but one of them,Aguda, refused. Even after being bidden three times, Aguda still refused to dance. Tianzuo wanted him executed for his act of defiance but the influential chancellor, Xiao Fengxian, dissuaded him from that course and belittled the harm Aguda could do. This would prove to be a fatal mistake as Aguda was elected ruler of the Jurchens in the following year. Aguda immediately began harassing the Liao for the return of Ashu, a Jurchen chieftain who opposed Wanyan hegemony and had taken refuge in Liao territory, and when his demands were refused, began building fortifications on the Liao border. In the late autumn of 1114 Aguda attacked Ningjiang. Underestimating the Jurchen threat, Tianzuo only sent someBalhae detachments from the Eastern Capital, which were utterly defeated. Another force composed of Khitan andKumo Xi troops led by Xiao Sixian, the brother of Xiao Fengxian, was also defeated on the Songhua. Despite Sixian's incompetence, he escaped punishment, leading to demoralization of Khitan generals. By the end of the year, several border prefectures had been taken by the Jurchens and some neighboring tribes had also joined them.[143]
In 1115 Tianzuo sent envoys to negotiate with the Jurchens, but Aguda had already declared himself emperor of theJin dynasty, and rejected the Liao letters because they did not address him by his new title. Aguda continued to demand the return of Ashu and the withdraw of Liao troops from Huanglong, the major administrative center of the region. Huanglong fell to the Jin in late autumn. Tianzuo assembled a massive army west of the Songhua and crossed the river in the winter of 1115. His invasion was undermined by a plot to dethrone him and install his uncle, Prince Chun. The conspirators led by Yelü Zhangnu deserted the army and sent messengers informing Chun of their plan. Chun refused to take part in the coup and beheaded Zhangnu's messengers. The rebels then went about the countryside creating havoc until they were defeated by a small group of loyal Jurchens. Zhangnu was caught trying to escape to the Jin disguised as a messenger and was executed by being cut in half at the waist. More than 200 implicated nobles were executed and their families condemned to slavery.[144]
Meanwhile, in 1114, Balhae descendants took advantage of the Jurchen-Khitan war and rebelled under the leadership of Gu Yu, who commanded 30,000 soldiers. They defeated Khitan armies twice before they were destroyed.[145] In early 1116 another rebellion occurred at the Eastern Capital when a Balhae officer named Gao Yongchang declared himself emperor of the Yuan dynasty and requested aid from the Jin. The Jin relief troops to Yuan easily repulsed the Liao troops but then turned on the Balhae rebels and killed Gao Yongchang. With the destruction of the Yuan dynasty, the entire region east of theLiao River fell to the Jin. To ensure Chun's continued loyalty, he was made commander in chief of the Liao armies and entrusted with defense operations against the Jin. Chun proved to be an awful commander. His new army, composed of Balhae refugees, inflicted more damage on the civilian population than the enemies. When the Jin attacked Chunzhou on the Songhua in early 1117, the Liao army melted away, not even offering a token resistance. At the end of the year, the Jin forces crossed the Liao River, defeated Chun's army, and conquered several prefectures.[144]
After the Jin's initial conquests, a lull in military activity followed. In 1118 Tianzuo initiated peace negotiations, but the Jin demands were so onerous, requesting half of the Liao empire in addition to payments of silk and silver, that they were impossible to meet. Aguda was unable to immediately continue military campaigns against the Liao due to stretched resources. In 1119 a rebellion against the Jin occurred at the Eastern Capital and had to be suppressed. This brief interlude was no less kind to the Liao, which was plagued by famine, local rebellions, and defections to the Jin. Hostilities renewed in the spring of 1020 when Aguda broke off negotiations.[146]
The Jin captured the Supreme Capital in mid-1120 and stopped its advance to escape the summer heat. In the spring of 1121, Tianzuo's second wife, Lady Wen, conspired with her brother in law, General Yelü Yudu, to depose the emperor and enthrone her son. The plot was uncovered by Xiao Fengxian, whose sister, Lady Yuan, also hoped to have her son succeed. Lady Wen was forced to commit suicide but Yudu escaped and defected to the Jin. He was allowed to remain in command of his troops and in the winter of 1121–22, he led Jin forces to capture the Central Capital. Leaving Prince Chun in charge of the Southern Capital, Tianzuo embarked on a prolonged flight from the Jin, passing throughJuyong Pass to the Western Capital. Shortly afterward, Tianzuo grew tired of Xiao Fengxian's manipulations, which had caused the death of his son, and had him commit suicide. Tianzuo then fled to theYin Mountains where he tried to recruit fresh troops from local tribes. Following his trail, the Jin took the Western Capital in the spring of 1122. TheTanguts, fearing an invasion of their border, sent troops in support of Tianzuo and blocked the Jurchen advance. Soon after Aguda arrived, he defeated a Khitan-Tangut force near the Xia border, and turned back east to take the Southern Capital, where Prince Chun had been declared the new Liao emperor (Northern Liao).[147]
Only three months after becoming emperor, Chun died, leaving his widowed empress in charge. In the late autumn of 1122, her commanders Guo Yaoshi and Gao Feng defected with their troops to the Song. They led Song troops in an attack on the Southern Capital, but even in the Liao's withered state, the Song army was still unable to overcome Khitan defenses and failed to take the city. In the winter, Aguda took the Southern Capital, and the remaining Khitans fled in two groups to the west. One group led by Xiao Gan fled to Western Xia where they set up a short lived Xi dynasty that lasted only five months before Gan died at the hands of his own troops. The other group, led byYelü Dashi, joined Tianzuo at the Xia border. In the early summer of 1123, Dashi was captured by the Jin and forced to lead them to Tianzuo's camp, where the entire imperial family except for Tianzuo and one son were captured. Tianzuo sought refuge withEmperor Chongzong of Western Xia, who while initially receptive, changed his mind after warnings from the Jurchens and declared himself a vassal of Jin in 1124. Tianzuo fled further north into the steppes where he traded his clothes for food from theKhongirad. In spite of all these setbacks, Tianzuo still held onto the delusion of retaking the Western and Southern Capitals, and attacked nearby prefectures. Dashi, who had rejoined Tianzuo, grew tired of his behavior and left for the west. Tianzuo was captured in early 1125 and taken to the Jin court where he held the title of "king of the seashore" (haipin wang). According to theHistory of Liao, Tianzuo died at the age of 54 in 1128.[148]
Yelü Dashi fled northwest and established his headquarter at the military garrison of Kedun (Zhenzhou) on theOrkhon River. Dashi secured the allegiance of the garrison forces numbering 20,000 and set himself asgurkhan (universal khan). In 1130, Dashi led his host further west in search of new territory. Within a year, he had established himself as suzerain ofQocho and gained a foothold inTransoxiana. After conquering theKarakhanid city ofBalasaghun (in modernKyrgyzstan), he attempted to reclaim former Liao territory, which ended in disaster. Failing in that endeavor, Dashi established a permanent Khitan state in Central Asia known as theQara Khitai or the Western Liao dynasty. The new Liao empire expanded to theAral Sea, defeating theKara-Khanid Khanate andSeljuk Empire at theBattle of Qatwan in 1141, and establishing their dominance in the region. With several key trading cities, the Qara Khitai was a multicultural state that showed evidence of religious tolerance. "Qara," which means black, corresponds to the Liao's dynastic color black and its dynastic element water.[74]
Yelü Dashi's dynasty was usurped by theNaimans underKuchlug in 1211 and traditional Chinese, Persian, and Arab sources consider the usurpation to be the end of the dynasty.[149] The empire ended with theMongol conquest in 1218.[150]
Liaopaiza authorizing an imperial decree with the utmost urgencyLiao seal with the Chinese inscription 臨潢府軍器庫之印 "Seal of the Armoury of Linhuang Prefecture"
At its height, the Liao dynasty controlled what is now Shanxi,Hebei, Liaoning, Jilin,Heilongjiang, andInner Mongolia provinces in China, as well as northern portions of theKorean peninsula, portions of theRussian Far East, and much of the country of Mongolia.[152][153] The peak population is estimated at 750,000 Khitans and two to three million ethnic Han Chinese.[154]
There were two ceremonies for the ascension of Khitan leaders, the Chaice Yi (Recognition Ceremony) and Zaisheng Yi (Rebirth Ceremony). These ceremonies were created during the reign of Zuwu khagan (r. 735–745) when leaders were elected.[155] The Liao dynasty inherited these ceremonies as symbolic rituals for the enthronement of the emperor.[156] The Rebirth Ceremony was then performed every 12 years by the emperor and confirmed his right to rule.[157] The Rebirth Ceremony was a ritual that involved burning a special building that the emperor entered in order to be reborn, ceremonial actors, libations, ritual objects, incantations, and undressing and redressing in special clothes. While the rite was officially restricted to only the male ruler (emperor), both the regent Empress Dowager Chengtian (Xiao Yanyan) and Fatian (Xiao Noujin) undertook the Rebirth Ceremony to cement their rule.[158][117][95]
The Liao employed two separate governments operating in parallel with one another: a Northern Administration in charge of Khitan and other nomadic peoples, most of whom lived in the northern half of Liao territory, and a Southern Administration in charge of the Chinese populace that lived predominantly in the southern half. When Abaoji first established the system, these two governments did not have strict territorial boundaries, but Emperor Shizong established formally delineated boundaries for the two administrations early in his reign. The newly delineated Northern Administration had large Han Chinese, Balhae, andUighur populations, and was given its own set of parallel northern and southern governments.[159]
The governments of the Northern Administration and the Southern Administration operated very differently. The Northern Administration operated under a system which Twitchett and Tietze called "essentially a great tribal leader's personal retinue".[160] Many of the governmental appointments dealt with tribal affairs, herds, and retainers serving the imperial house, and most powerful and high-ranking positions dealt with military affairs. The overwhelming majority of officeholders were Khitans, mainly from the imperial Yelü clan and the Xiao consort clan.[161] The tribal borderlands of the Liao empire were never clearly defined and constituted a region of loosely subject peoples who sometimes fled or assimilated into the Liao polity. Two groups proved particularly difficult to deal with: the Jurchens in the northeast and the Zubu tribes in Mongolia[162]
The Southern Administration was more heavily structured, with Twitchett and Tietze calling it "designed in imitation of a T'ang model".[160] Unlike the Northern Administration, many of the low- and medium-ranked officials in the Southern Administration were Han Chinese.[163] Certain ethnic Han families in particular, descended from meritorious officials, played an important role in the Liao government and became powerful clans: the Han, the Zhao, the Liu and the Ma.[164]
The Han clan ofJizhou was particularly powerful and was extremely prominent in the early history of the Liao dynasty. They had a significant influence on the enthronement of emperors as well as on military policies into the early 11th century. However, although they may have descended from a prominent Han Chinese ancestor, by the 920s they were culturally indistinguishable from Khitan elites and had been thoroughly inducted into the Khitan aristocracy.[165]
The Liao dynasty was further divided into five "circuits", each with a capital city. The general idea for this system was taken from the Balhae, although no captured Balhae cities were made into circuit capitals.[166] The five capital cities wereShangjing (上京), meaning Supreme Capital, located in modern-day Inner Mongolia; Nanjing (南京), meaning Southern Capital, located near modern-dayBeijing; Dongjing (東京), meaning Eastern Capital, located near modern-day Liaoning; Zhongjing (中京), meaning Central Capital, located in modern-dayHebei province near theLaoha river; and Xijing (西京), meaning Western Capital, located near modern-day Datong.[167] Each circuit was headed by a powerful viceroy who had the autonomy to tailor policies to meet the needs of the population within his circuit.[163] Circuits were further subdivided into administrations called fu (府), which were metropolitan areas surrounding capital cities, and outside of metropolitan areas were divided into prefectures called zhou (州), which themselves were divided into counties called xian (縣).[168]
Despite these administrative systems, important state decisions were still made by the emperor. The emperor met with officials from the Northern and Southern Administrations twice a year, but aside from that the emperor spent much of his time attending to tribal affairs outside of the capital cities.[169]
Horse and Archer, believed to have been painted byYelü Bei.Liao dynasty cavalry armour
The Khitan were originally divided into 8 tribes (部) each led by a commander (大人) replaced once every three years. Abaoji then declared himself king to prevent the other clans from replacing him. The tribes convened for discussions for mobilisations or warfare. From these military origins developed the Khitan custom of convening assemblies.[170] After ascending the throne, Abaoji divided his own Ila tribe into two and entrusted them to members of his family, requiring him to establish a new guard by drawing recruits from each tribe.[171]
The Liao army was originally just 2,000 men picked from various tribes and cities asAbaoji's personal retinue. To these 2,000 men were added captives taken fromBalhae and the prefecture of Jingzhou. By the time it became anorda, the emperor's private army, it contained 15,000 households, and could field up to 6,000 horsemen. The Liao nobles each had their own private domain (touxia) with private military forces which the Liao government "borrowed" for campaign. These domains consisted of "mandatory prefectures and counties" which were founded by nobles or chieftains to resettle their captives. According to theHistory of Liao, the Liao nobles treated the state as if it was their family. They provided private armies to assist the government during times of war. The larger ordas comprised up to a thousand or more horsemen while smaller ones several hundred horsemen. By the end of the dynasty, the emperor's ordas together constituted 81,000 Khitan households and 124,000 Balhae and Chinese households, which together could field up to 101,000 horsemen.[172] Each orda had Control Offices (tixiasi) stationed in 4 of the 5 Liao capitals and in the ethnic Han-populated Pingzhou and Fengshengzhou prefectures, to manage the military mobilisation of the parts of the local population which were attached to their orda.[173] Every successive emperor created a new orda, leaving the previous emperor's orda to guard his predecessor's mausoleum.[174] Military affairs came under the authority of the Northern administration, and therefore Southern administration officials had to report to the Northern administration on military matters rather than directly to the emperor.[175]
The Liao Army was composed of 3 sections: theOrda, who were the elite personal cavalry of the Emperor, the tribal cavalry of Khitans and an auxiliary force of non-Khitan tribes, and militia infantry of Han Chinese and other sedentary peoples, who also provided the foot archers and catapult crews. Appanage territories were often granted to commanders.[176] Khitan tribal manpower was still available for service both in China and in the steppe, but tribal chieftains, now living in towns became more detached from the tribal structure. The Khitan forces therefore enjoyed both the grain supply and weapon manufacturing facilities of sedentary society and the horse and livestock supply to maintain mobility and meat rations in the field. The Khitans hence had an edge over the Turkic tribes on the steppe.[177]
The core of the Liao army was composed of heavy armoured cavalry. In battle they arrayed light cavalry in the front and two layers of armoured cavalry in the back. Even foragers were armoured.[178] Units of Khitan heavy cavalry were organized in groups of 500 to 700 men. Unlike some other empires originating from nomadic tribes, the Khitans preferred to fight in dense heavy cavalry formations rather than the wide formations of horse archers.[179]
Prior to their conquest of north China and the establishment of the Liao dynasty, the Khitans had no written language. In 920 the first of two Khitan scripts, theKhitan large script, was developed. A second script, theKhitan small script, was developed in 925.[182] Both scripts are based on the same spoken language, and both contain a mix oflogographs andphonographs.[183] Despite surface level similarities toChinese characters, the Khitan scripts are functionally unintelligible to Chinese readers, and neither scripts have been fully deciphered to this day.[182] The script had some 3,000 characters and was used to translate Chinese texts into the Khitan language. However the script's circulation was banned outside Khitan territory and practically none of it has survived into modern times.[184] Only a single manuscript text in the Khitan large script is known (Nova N 176), and no manuscripts in the Khitan small script are known.[185]
Mostsurviving specimens of both Khitan scripts areepitaph inscriptions on stone tablets, as well as a number ofinscriptions on coins, mirrors andseals. The Liao emperors could read Chinese, and while there were some Chinese works translated into Khitan during the Liao dynasty, theConfucian classics, which served as the core guide to the administration of government in China, are not known to have been translated into Khitan.[186]
The status of women in the Liao dynasty varied greatly, with the Khitan Liao (like many othernomadic societies) having a much more egalitarian view towards women than the Han Chinese did. Khitan women were taught how to hunt, and managed family herds, flocks, finances, and property when their husbands were at war.[187][188][189] Upper-class women were able to hold governmental and military posts.[189] Han Chinese living under the Liao dynasty were not forced to adopt Khitan practices, and while some Han Chinese did, many did not.[190]
Women among the Khitan elite had arranged marriages, in some cases for political purposes.[191][192] Men from the elite classes tended to marry women from the generation their senior. While this did not necessarily mean that there would be a large gap in ages between husband and wife, it was often the case. Among the ruling Yelü clan, the average age that boys married was sixteen, while the average age that girls married was between sixteen and twenty-two. Although rare, ages as young as twelve were recorded, for both boys and girls.[193] A special variety ofpolygamy known as sororate, in which a man would marry two or more women who were sisters, was practiced among the Liao elite.[189][194] Polygamy was not restricted only to sororate, with some men having three or more wives, only some of whom were sisters. Sororate continued throughout the length of the Liao dynasty, despite laws banning the practice.[194] Over the course of the dynasty, the Khitan elite moved away from having several wives and towards the Han Chinese system of having one wife and one or moreconcubines.[194] This was done largely to smooth over the process of inheritance.[189]
Lower class Khitan women in the Liao dynasty did not have arranged marriages and would attract suitors by singing and dancing in the streets. The songs served as self-advertisements, with the women telling of their beauty, familial status, and domestic skills. Virginity was not a requirement for marriage among the Khitans.[191]Betrothal was seen in Khitan society as being equally serious to, if not more serious than, marriage itself, and was difficult to annul. The groom would pledge to work for three years for the bride's family, pay abride price, and lavish the bride's family with gifts. After the three years, the groom would be allowed to take the bride back to his home, and the bride would usually cut off all ties with her family.[195] Abduction of marriage-age women was common during the Liao dynasty. Khitan men of all social classes participated in the activity, and the abductees included both Khitan and Han Chinese. In some cases, this was a step in the courtship process, where the woman would agree to the abduction and the resulting sexual intercourse, and then the abductor and abductee would return to the woman's home to announce their intention to marry. This process was known asbaimen (拜門). In other cases, the abduction would be non-consensual and would result in a rape.[196] Khitan women had the right to divorce their husbands and were able to remarry after being divorced.[189]
A Liao dynasty polychrome wood-carved statue depictingGuanyin in the Water Moon pose, which raises the right knee and rests the right arm on top of it, symbolizing the divinity of thePure land, Guanyin's personal paradise, which Guanyin puts off going to until she has saved humanity.One of the famous set of lifesizeYixian glazed pottery luohans,sancai, early 12th century
Religion in Liao society was a synthesis ofBuddhism,Confucianism,Daoism, and Khitan tribal religion. During Abaoji's reign, temples of all three major religions were constructed, but afterwards, imperial patronage was restricted mainly to Buddhism, which by the early tenth century, the majority of Khitans had adopted.[197] TheBuddha was considered a protective deity by the Khitans, who named him "The Benevolent King Who Guards the Country." They invoked Buddhism whenever they went to war and made massive offerings to placate the souls of fallen soldiers.[198] The Liao began printing Buddhist texts in the 990s and an entire copy of theTripitaka was completed in 1075. Portions of it have been found in a pagoda built in 1056.[199] Buddhist scholars living during the time of the Liao dynasty predicted that themofa (末法), an age in whichthe three treasures of Buddhism would be destroyed, was to begin in the year 1052. Previous dynasties, including the Sui and Tang, were also concerned with themofa, although their predictions for when themofa would start were different from the one selected by the Liao. As early as the Sui dynasty, efforts were made to preserve Buddhist teachings by carving them into stone or burying them. These efforts continued into the Liao dynasty, with Emperor Xingzong funding several projects in the years immediately preceding 1052.[200]
Some elements of traditional Khitan tribal religion continued to be observed. The Khitans worshiped the sun and the ritual position for the emperor was to face the east where the sun rose, unlike Han Chinese emperors, who faced south. Royal dwellings also faced the east. Khitans worshiped spirits of the Muye Mountain, the legendary home of the Khitans' ancestors, and a "Black Mountain."[201] When a Khitan nobleman died, burnt offerings were sacrificed at the full and new moons. The body was exposed for three years in the mountains, after which the bones would be cremated. The Khitan believed that the souls of the dead rested at the Black Mountain, nearRehe Province.[202] Liao burial sites indicate that animistic or shamanistic practices coexisted with Buddhism in marriage and burial ceremonies. Both animal and human sacrifices have been found in Liao tombs alongside indications of Buddhist influence. Khitan hunters offered a sacrifice to the spirit of the animal they were hunting and wore a pelt from the same animal during the hunt. There were festivals to mark the catching of the first fish and wild goose, and annual sacrifices of animals to the sky, earth, ancestors, mountains, rivers, and others. Every male Khitan would sacrifice a white horse, white sheep, and white goose during theWinter solstice.[203][204] In warfare, they practiced a form ofdivination where the decision to carry out war was determined by whether or not the shoulder blade of a white sheep cracked while being heated (scapulimancy).[203]
Liao tomb and sarcophagus, and burial dress made of metal wire
The Khitans buried their elite dead with metal masks and woven-wire suits. The masks were personalized to the face of the deceased and made from bronze, silver, or gold depending on their status. The Princess of Chen and her husband were found in a silver wire-suit with gold masks and a gold headdress. Sometimes earrings are depicted on the masks as well. The Khitans believed a metal mask and suit would preserve the body and prevent decay. Some remains were cremated.[206][207][208]
The Khitans, from the 920s, adopted Tang dynasty-style tomb architecture very quickly and in increasingly elaborate forms. Liao mausoleums were based on Tang-style cultural influences, rather than the newer Song dynasty-style.[209]
Khitan hunters in a painting by Chen Juzhong, 1196
The influence of the Liao dynasty on subsequent culture includes a large legacy ofstatuary art works, with important surviving examples in painted wood, metal, and three-color glazedsancai ceramics. The music and songs of the Liao dynasty are also known to have indirectly or directly influenced Mongol, Jurchen, and Chinese musical traditions.
The rhythmic and tonal pattern of theci (詞) form of poetry, an important part ofSong dynasty poetry, uses a set of poetic meters and is based upon certain definitive musical song tunes. The specific origin of these various original tunes and musical modes is not known, but the influence of Liao dynasty lyrics both directly and indirectly through the music and lyrics of the Jurchen Jin dynasty appears likely. At least one Han Chinese source considered the Liao (and Jurchen) music to be the vigorous and powerful music of horse-mounted warriors, diffused through border warfare.[210][211]
Liao gold waist ornament
Another influence of the Liao cultural tradition is seen in theYuan dynasty'szaju (雜劇) theater, its associated orchestration, and thequ (曲) andsanqu (散曲) forms ofClassical Chinese poetry. One documented way in which this influence occurred was through the incorporation of Khitan officers and men into the service of the Mongol forces during the first Mongol invasion of 1211 to 1215.[212] This northern route of cultural transmission of the legacy of Liao culture was then returned to China during the Yuan dynasty.[citation needed]
A brickstupa in the Khitan city of Hedong (Bars-Hot)
The Chinese state news agencyXinhua announced in January 2018 that the ruins in Duolun County, Inner Mongolia, of an ancient palace that served as the summer retreat for the royal family and retinue of the Liao dynasty, had been discovered. They would move each year from mid-April to mid-July to avoid the heat. The site includes foundations of 12 buildings of more than 2,500 square feet that have been recorded and artifacts, such as glazed tiles, pottery and copper nails that were used to date the site.[213]
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—— (1986c),Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics, Taipei: Caves Books
—— (1986d),Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1, Paper and Printing, Taipei: Caves Books
—— (1986e),Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 4, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Apparatus, Theories and Gifts, Taipei: Caves Books
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