Leopold was born inVienna as his parents' third son. Initially selected for a clerical career, he received an education with a focus ontheology. In 1753, he was engaged toMaria Beatrice d'Este, heiress to theDuchy of Modena.
The marriage was never consummated and Maria Beatrice instead married Leopold's brother,Archduke Ferdinand.[6]
Upon the early death of his older brotherArchduke Charles in 1761, the family decided that Leopold was going to succeed his father asGrand Duke of Tuscany. Tuscany had been envisioned and designated as asecundogeniture, a territory and title bestowed upon the second born son, which was greater than anappanage. On 5 August 1765, Leopold marriedMaria Luisa, daughter of KingCharles III of Spain andMaria Amalia of Saxony; however, they were already married by proxy on 16 February 1764 inMadrid, more than a year before their in-person marriage. Upon the death of his father, Francis I, on 18 August 1765, he became Grand Duke of Tuscany.
For five years, Leopold exercised little more than nominal authority, under the supervision of counselors appointed by his mother. In 1770, he made a journey to Vienna to secure the removal of this vexatious guardianship and returned to Florence with a free hand. During the twenty years that elapsed between his return to Florence and the death of his eldest brotherJoseph II in 1790, he was employed in reforming the administration of his small state. The reformation was carried out by the removal of the ruinous restrictions on industry and personal freedom imposed by his predecessors of theHouse of Medici and left untouched during his father's life, by the introduction of a rational system of taxation (reducing the rates of taxation), and by the execution of profitable public works, such as the drainage of theValdichiana.[7][8]
As Leopold had no army to maintain, and as he suppressed the small naval force kept up by the Medici, the whole of his revenue was left free for the improvement of his state. Leopold was never popular with his Italian subjects. His disposition was cold and retiring. His habits were simple to the verge of sordidness, though he could display splendour on occasion, and he could not help offending those of his subjects who had profited by the abuses of the Medicean régime.[9][8]
But his steady, consistent, and intelligent administration, which advanced step by step, brought the grand duchy to a high level of material prosperity. His ecclesiastical policy, which disturbed the deeply rooted convictions of his people and brought him into collision with the Pope, was not successful. He was unable to secularize the property of the religious houses or to put the clergy entirely under the control of the lay power.[8] However, his abolition ofcapital punishment was the first permanent abolition in modern times. On 30 November 1786, after havingde facto blocked capital executions (the last was in 1769), Leopold promulgated the reform of the penal code that abolished the death penalty and ordered the destruction of all the instruments for capital execution in his land.Torture was also banned.[10][11]
In line with the theories of theAge of Enlightenment, he enlargedLa Specola with medical waxworks and other exhibits, aiming to educate Florentines in the empirical observation of natural laws.[12]
Leopold also approved and collaborated on the development of a political constitution, said to have anticipated by many years the promulgation of the French constitution and which presented some similarities with theVirginia Bill of Rights of 1778. Leopold's concept of this was based on respect for the political rights of citizens and on a harmony of power between the executive and the legislative. However, it could not be put into effect because Leopold moved to Vienna to become emperor in 1790, and because it was so radically new that it garnered opposition even from those who might have benefited from it.[13]
Leopold developed and supported many social and economic reforms.Smallpox inoculation was made systematically available, and an early institution for the rehabilitation of juvenile delinquents was founded. Leopold also introduced radical reforms to the system of neglect and inhumane treatment of those deemedmentally ill. On 23 January 1774, the "legge sui pazzi" (law on the insane) was established, the first of its kind to be introduced in Europe, allowing steps to be taken to hospitalize individuals deemed insane. A few years later Leopold undertook the project of building a new hospital, theBonifacio Hospital [it]. He used his skill at choosing collaborators to put a young physician,Vincenzo Chiarugi, at its head. Chiarugi and his collaborators introduced new humanitarian regulations in the running of the hospital and caring for the mentally ill patients, including banning the use of chains and physical punishment, and in so doing have been recognized as early pioneers of what later came to be known as themoral treatment movement.[13]
During the last few years of his rule in Tuscany, Leopold had begun to be frightened by the increasing disorders in the German and Hungarian dominions of his family, which were the direct result of his brother's strict methods. He and Joseph II were tenderly attached to one another and met frequently both before and after the death of their mother. The portrait byPompeo Batoni in which they appear together shows that they bore a strong personal resemblance to one another. But it may be said of Leopold, as ofFontenelle, that his heart was made of brains. He knew that he had to succeed his childless eldest brother in Austria, and he was unwilling to inherit his unpopularity. When, therefore, in 1789 Joseph, who knew himself to be dying, asked him to come to Vienna and become co-regent, Leopold evaded the request.[8]
He was still in Florence when Joseph II died at Vienna on 20 February 1790, and he did not leave his Italian capital until 3 March 1790.[14] Following the principle ofsecundogeniture which had allowed him to rule Tuscany, Leopold entrusted the grand duchy to his younger sonFerdinand III, who ruled until the French invasion in 1797 and then again from 1814 to 1824.
Leopold, during his government in Tuscany, had shown a speculative tendency to grant his subjects a constitution. When he succeeded to the Austrian lands, he began by making large concessions to the interests offended by his brother's innovations. He recognized the Estates of his different dominions as "the pillars of the monarchy", pacified the Hungarians and Bohemians, and divided the insurgents in theAustrian Netherlands (now Belgium) by means of concessions. When these failed to restore order, he marched troops into the country and re-established his own authority, and at the same time the historic franchises of the Flemings. Yet he did not surrender any part that could be retained of what Maria Theresa and Joseph had done to strengthen the hands of the state. He continued, for instance, to insist that nopapal bull could be published in his dominions without his consent (placetum regium).[15] One of the harshest actions Leopold took to placate the noble communities of the various Habsburg domains was to issue a decree on 9 May 1790 that forced thousands of Bohemian serfs freed by his brother Joseph back into servitude.
Leopold lived for barely two years after his accession as Holy Roman Emperor, and during that period he was hard pressed by peril from west and east alike. The growing revolutionary disorders in France endangered the life of his sisterMarie Antoinette, the queen ofLouis XVI, and also threatened his own dominions with the spread of subversive agitation. His sister sent him passionate appeals for help, and he was pestered by the royalist émigrés, who were intriguing to bring about armed intervention in France.[15]
From the east he was threatened by the aggressive ambition ofCatherine II of Russia and by the unscrupulous policy ofPrussia. Catherine would have been delighted to see Austria and Prussia embark on a crusade in the cause of kings against theFrench Revolution. While they were busy beyond theRhine, she would have annexed what remained of Poland and made conquests against theOttoman Empire. Leopold II had no difficulty in seeing through the rather transparent cunning of the Russian empress, and he refused to be misled.[15]
To his sister, he gave good advice and promises of help if she and her husband could escape from Paris. The émigrés who followed him pertinaciously were refused audience, or when they forced themselves on him, were peremptorily denied all help. Leopold was too purely a politician not to be secretly pleased at the destruction of the power of France and of her influence in Europe by her internal disorders. Within six weeks of his accession, he displayed his contempt for France's weakness by practically tearing up the treaty of alliance made by Maria Theresa in 1756 and opening negotiations withGreat Britain to impose a check on Russia and Prussia.[15]
Leopold put pressure on Great Britain by threatening to cede his part of the Low Countries to France. Then, when sure of British support, he was in a position to baffle the intrigues of Prussia. A personal appeal toFrederick William II led to a conference between them atReichenbach in July 1790, and to an arrangement which was in fact a defeat for Prussia: Leopold's coronation as King of Hungary on 11 November 1790, preceded by a settlement with theDiet in which he recognized the dominant position of theMagyars. He had already made an eight months' truce with the Turks in September, which prepared the way for the termination of thewar begun by Joseph II. The pacification of his eastern dominions left Leopold free to re-establish order in Belgium and to confirm friendly relations with Britain and theNetherlands.[15]
During 1791, the emperor remained increasingly preoccupied with the affairs of France. In January, he had to dismiss the Count of Artois (afterwardsCharles X of France) in a very peremptory way. His good sense was revolted by the folly of the French émigrés, and he did his utmost to avoid being entangled in the affairs of that country. The insults inflicted on Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, however, at the time of their attemptedflight to Varennes in June, stirred his indignation, and he made a general appeal in thePadua Circular to the sovereigns of Europe to take common measures in view of events which "immediately compromised the honour of all sovereigns, and the security of all governments." Yet he was most directly interested in negotiations with Turkey, which in June led to a final peace, theTreaty of Sistova being signed in August 1791.[15]
On 25 August 1791, he met the King of Prussia atPillnitz Castle, nearDresden, and they drew up theDeclaration of Pillnitz, stating their readiness to intervene in France if and when their assistance was called for by the other powers. The declaration was a mere formality, for, as Leopold knew, neither Russia nor Britain was prepared to act, and he endeavored to guard against the use which he foresaw the émigrés would try to make of it. In face of the reaction in France to the Declaration of Pillnitz, the intrigues of the émigrés, and attacks made by the French revolutionists on the rights of the German princes inAlsace, Leopold continued to hope that intervention might not be required. When Louis XVI swore to observe the constitution of September 1791, the emperor professed to think that a settlement had been reached in France. The attacks on the rights of the German princes on the left bank of the Rhine, and the increasing violence of the parties in Paris which were agitating to bring about war, soon showed, however, that this hope was vain.[15] Leopold meant to meet the challenge of the revolutionists in France with dignity and temper; however, the effect of the Declaration of Pillnitz was to contribute to the radicalization of their political movement.
As a patron of the arts, Leopold II had an impact on the arts and culture of both Tuscany and Vienna. He was particularly passionate about Italianopera as practiced in the city of Florence. While the Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1765 to 1790, he was a major patron of the composerTommaso Traetta and subsidized the costs of staging many new innovative operas by that composer; including the first staging in Florence of Traetta's 1763 masterworkIfigenia in Tauride. He also was a patron of the opera singersGiovanni Manzuoli,Giusto Fernando Tenducci, andTommaso Guarducci.[16]
Upon his succession to Holy Roman Emperor in 1790, Leopold II brought his passion for Florentine opera to the Vienna court, and brought with him many of the musicians and opera singers he enjoyed in Tuscany to Vienna. Many of the previously active singers, librettists, and composers at the Vienna court, such as librettistLorenzo Da Ponte, were dismissed by Leopold II as he significantly changed the staffing of artists in the Vienna court.[16]
Before Leopold IIopera buffa had been the center of the Vienna court, but after his succession and by Leopold's directionopera seria and ballet became the central repertoire of both theBurgtheater andKärntnertortheate.[16] Following this shift,Mozart, who had previously written the opera buffasThe Marriage of Figaro (1786),Don Giovanni (1787), andCosì fan tutte (1790) with Da Ponte, created the opera seriaLa clemenza di Tito which was commissioned by the Estates ofBohemia for the festivities that accompanied Leopold's coronation as king of Bohemia inPrague on 6 September 1791.[17] This shift toward opera seria and ballet continued in Vienna beyond Leopold II's reign decades into the 19th century.[16]
Leopold as Grand Duke of Tuscany together with his family
Portrait of Leopold as Grand Duke of Tuscany shortly before becoming Holy Roman Emperor,c. 1790
Coronation in Frankfurt am Main 9 October 1790. Silver strike of a coronation coin with Leopold'smotto "pietate et concordia" above theImperial Regalia.
His mother Empress Maria Theresa was the last Habsburg and he was one of 16 children. His brother Joseph II died without any surviving children, but Leopold in turn had 16 children, just like his mother, and became the founder of the main line of theHouse of Habsburg-Lorraine.
^Eberhard Weis, "Enlightenment and Absolutism in the Holy Roman Empire: Thoughts on Enlightened Absolutism in Germany",The Journal of Modern History, vol. 58, Supplement pp. S181–S197, 1986.
^In 2000 Tuscany's regional authority instituted an annual holiday on 30 November to commemorate the event. The November event is also commemorated by 300 cities around the world asCities for Life Day.
^A complete discussion of Leopold's involvement with the coronation and its musical performances is found inDaniel E. Freeman,Mozart in Prague (2021), pp. 193–230.
Vovk, Justin C. (2010).In Destiny's Hands: Five Tragic Rulers, Children of Maria Theresa. iUniverse: Bloomington, Ind.ISBN978-1-4502-0081-3.
Gentlemen's Magazine, London, March 1792, pp. 281–282, detailed account of the death at Vienna of his Imperial Majesty Leopold II.
Rice, John A. "Emperor and Impresario: Leopold II and the Transformation of Viennese Musical Theater, 1790–1791. PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1987.
Generations are numbered by male-line descent from the first archdukes. Later generations are included although Austrian titles of nobility were abolished in 1919.
Generations are numbered from the children ofFrancesco de' Medici, firstGrand Duke of Tuscany. Later generations are included but the grand duchy was abolished in 1860.
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