 | This article has multiple issues. Please helpimprove it or discuss these issues on thetalk page.(Learn how and when to remove these messages) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
|
| Paris Peace Conference |
|---|
 |
Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye |
Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine |
ALeague of Nations mandate represented alegal status underinternational law for specific territories followingWorld War I, involving the transfer of control from one nation to another. These mandates served as legal documents establishing the internationally agreed terms for administering the territory on behalf of theLeague of Nations. Combining elements of both atreaty and aconstitution, these mandates containedminority rights clauses that provided for the rights of petition and adjudication by thePermanent Court of International Justice.[1]
The mandate system was established under Article 22 of theCovenant of the League of Nations, entered into force on 28 June 1919. Two governing principles formed the core of the Mandate System, being non-annexation of the territory and its administration as a "sacred trust of civilisation" to develop the territory for the benefit of its native people.[2]
According to historianSusan Pedersen,colonial administration in the mandates did not differ substantially from colonial administration elsewhere. Even though the Covenant of the League committed thegreat powers to govern the mandates differently, the main difference appeared to be that the colonial powers spoke differently about the mandates than their other colonial possessions.[3]
With the dissolution of the League of Nations afterWorld War II, it was stipulated at theYalta Conference that the remaining mandates should be placed under the trusteeship of theUnited Nations, subject to future discussions and formal agreements. Most of the remaining mandates of the League of Nations (with the exception ofSouth West Africa) thus eventually becameUnited Nations trust territories.
The mandate system was established by Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, drafted by the victors of World War I. The article referred to territories which after the war were no longer ruled by their previous sovereign, but their peoples were not considered "able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world". The article called for such people's tutelage to be "entrusted to advanced nations who by reason of their resources, their experience or their geographical position can best undertake this responsibility".[4]
U.S. PresidentWoodrow Wilson and South African GeneralJan Smuts played influential roles in pushing for the establishment of a mandates system.[5] The mandates system reflected a compromise between Smuts (who wanted colonial powers to annex the territories) and Wilson (who wanted trusteeship over the territories).[6][7]
All of the territories subject to League of Nations mandates were previously controlled by states defeated in World War I, principallyImperial Germany and theOttoman Empire. The mandates were fundamentally different from theprotectorates in that the mandatory power undertook obligations to the inhabitants of the territory and to the League of Nations.
The process of establishing the mandates consisted of two phases:
The divestiture of Germany's overseas colonies, along with three territories disentangled from its European homeland area (theFree City of Danzig, theMemel Territory, and theSaar), was accomplished in theTreaty of Versailles (1919), with the territories being allotted among the Allies on 7 May of that year. Ottoman territorial claims were first addressed in theTreaty of Sèvres (1920) and finalised in theTreaty of Lausanne (1923). The Ottoman territories were allotted among the Allied Powers at theSan Remo conference in 1920.
 | This sectiondoes notcite anysources. Please helpimprove this section byadding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged andremoved. Find sources: "League of Nations mandate" – news ·newspapers ·books ·scholar ·JSTOR(August 2025) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
The League of Nations decided the exact level of control by the mandatory power over each mandate on an individual basis. However, in every case the mandatory power was forbidden to construct fortifications or raise an army within the territory of the mandate, and was required to present an annual report on the territory to thePermanent Mandates Commission of the League of Nations.
The mandates were divided into three distinct groups based upon the level of development each population had achieved at that time.
The first group, orClass A mandates, were territories formerly controlled by the Ottoman Empire that were deemed to "... have reached a stage of development where their existence as independent nations can be provisionally recognised subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a Mandatory until such time as they are able to stand alone. The wishes of these communities must be a principal consideration in the selection of the Mandatory."
The second group of mandates, orClass B mandates, were all former German colonies inWest andCentral Africa, referred to by Germany asSchutzgebiete (protectorates or territories), which were deemed to require a greater level of control by the mandatory power: "...the Mandatory must be responsible for the administration of the territory under conditions which will guarantee freedom of conscience and religion." The mandatory power was forbidden to construct military or naval bases within the mandates.
Class C mandates, including South West Africa and the South Pacific Islands, were considered to be "best administered under the laws of the Mandatory as integral portions of its territory."
| Class | Mandate | Territory | Mandate Power | Prior name | Prior sovereignty | Comments | Current state | Document |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A | Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon | Greater Lebanon | France | Ottoman sanjaks ofBeirut,Tripoli, andMount Lebanon | Ottoman Empire | 29 September 1923 – 24 October 1945. Joined the United Nations on 24 October 1945 as an independent state and Founding Member | Lebanon |  |
| Syria | Ottoman sanjaks ofDamascus,Hauran,Latakia,Homs,Hama,Aleppo, andZor | 29 September 1923 – 24 October 1945: This mandate includedHatay Province (a former Ottoman Alexandrettasanjak), which broke away from the mandate on 2 September 1938 to become a separate French protectorate, which lasted until Hatay Province was ceded to the newRepublic of Turkey on 29 June 1939. Joined the United Nations on 24 October 1945 as an independent state | Syria | |||||
| Mandate for Palestine | Mandatory Palestine | United Kingdom | Ottoman sanjaks ofJerusalem,Nablus, andAcre | 29 September 1923 – 15 May 1948.[8][9][10] AUnited Nations Partition Plan for Palestine for peacefully dividing the remainder of the Mandate failed.[11] The Mandateterminated at midnight between 14 May and 15 May 1948. On the evening of 14 May, the Chairman of theJewish Agency for Palestine had declared theestablishment of theState of Israel.[12] Following thewar, 75% of the area was controlled by the new State of Israel.[13] Other parts, until 1967, formed theWest Bank of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and theAll-Palestine Government under theEgyptian-controlledGaza Strip. | Israel Palestine | .png) | ||
| Emirate of Transjordan | Ottoman sanjaks ofHauran andMa'an | In April 1921, theEmirate of Transjordan was provisionally added as an autonomous area under the United Kingdom,[14][15] and it became the independentHashemite Kingdom of Transjordan (laterJordan) on 17 June 1946 upon joint ratification of theTreaty of London of 1946. | Jordan | |||||
| Indirect | Mandatory Iraq | Various Ottoman sanjaks | The draftBritish Mandate for Mesopotamia was not enacted and was replaced by theAnglo-Iraqi Treaty of October 1922.[16] Britain committed to act the responsibilities of a Mandatory Power in 1924.[17] Iraq attained independence from the United Kingdom on 3 October 1932. | Iraq |  | |||
| B | Belgian Mandate for East Africa | Ruanda-Urundi | Belgium | German East Africa | German Empire | From 20 July 1922 to 13 December 1946. Formerly two separate German protectorates, they were joined as a single mandate on 20 July 1922. From 1 March 1926 to 30 June 1960, Ruanda-Urundi was in administrative union with the neighbouring colony of theBelgian Congo. After 13 December 1946, it became a United Nations trust territory, remaining under Belgian administration until the separate nations ofRwanda andBurundi gained independence on 1 July 1962. | Rwanda Burundi |  |
| British Mandate for East Africa[18] | Tanganyika Territory | United Kingdom | From 20 July 1922 to 11 December 1946. It became a United Nations trust territory on 11 December 1946, and was granted internal self-rule on 1 May 1961. On 9 December 1961, it became independent while retaining the British monarch as nominal head of state, transforming into a republic on the same day the next year. On 26 April 1964, Tanganyika merged with the neighbouring island ofZanzibar to become the modern nation ofTanzania. | Tanzania | Equivalent document as for Ruanda-Urundi, with all articles substantially the same[19] | |||
| British Mandate for the Cameroons | British Cameroon | United Kingdom | German Kamerun | Became part of the United Nations trust territories after World War II on 13 December 1946 | Part ofCameroon andNigeria | Equivalent document as for French Cameroons, with all articles substantially the same[20] | ||
| French Mandate for the Cameroons | French Cameroon | France | Under aResident and aCommissioner until 27 August 1940, then under agovernor. Became part of the United Nations trust territories after World War II on 13 December 1946 | Cameroon |  | |||
| British Mandate for Togoland | British Togoland | United Kingdom | German Togoland | British Administrator post filled by the colonial Governor of the BritishGold Coast (present dayGhana) except 30 September 1920 – 11 October 1923 Francis Walter Fillon Jackson). Transformed on 13 December 1946 into a United Nations trust territory; on 13 December 1956 it ceased to exist as it became part of Ghana. | Volta Region,Ghana | Equivalent document as for French Togoland, with all articles substantially the same[20] | ||
| French Mandate for Togoland | French Togoland | France | French Togoland under a Commissioner till 30 August 1956, then under aHigh Commissioner as the Autonomous Republic ofTogo | Togo |  | |||
| C | Mandate for the German Possessions in the Pacific Ocean situated South of the Equator other than German Samoa and Nauru | Territory of New Guinea | Australia | German New Guinea | German Empire | Included German New Guinea and "the group of islands in the Pacific Ocean lying south of the equator other than German Samoa and Nauru".[21] From 17 December 1920 under an (at first Military) Administrator; after (wartime) Japanese/U.S. military commands from 8 December 1946 under UN mandate as North East New Guinea (under Australia, as administrative unit), until it became part of presentPapua New Guinea at independence in 1975 | Part ofPapua New Guinea | Equivalent document as for Nauru, with all articles substantially the same[21] |
| Mandate for Nauru | Nauru | United Kingdom | British mandate, administered by Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. Became part of the United Nations trust territories after liberation from Japanese occupation in World War II | Nauru |  | |||
| Mandate for the German Possessions in the Pacific Ocean lying North of the Equator[22] | South Seas Mandate | Japan | Known as theSouth Seas Mandate. Became part of the United Nations trust territories and administered by the United States after World War II | Palau Marshall Islands Federated States of Micronesia Northern Mariana Islands | Equivalent document as for Nauru, with all articles substantially the same[21] | |||
| Mandate for German Samoa | Western Samoa | New Zealand | German Samoa | From 17 December 1920 a League of Nations mandate, renamed Western Samoa (as opposed toAmerican Samoa), from 25 January 1947 a United Nations trust territory until its independence on 1 January 1962 | Samoa | Equivalent document as for Nauru, with all articles substantially the same[21] | ||
| Mandate for German South West Africa | South West Africa | South Africa[23] | German South West Africa | From 1 October 1922,Walvis Bay's administration (still merely having aMagistrate until its 16 March 1931 Municipal status, hence aMayor) was also assigned to the mandate. | Namibia | Equivalent document as for Nauru, with all articles substantially the same[21] |
According to the Council of the League of Nations, meeting of August 1920:[24] "draft mandates adopted by the Allied and Associated Powers would not be definitive until they had been considered and approved by the League... the legal title held by the mandatory Power must be a double one: one conferred by the Principal Powers and the other conferred by the League of Nations."[25]
Three steps were required to establish a Mandate under international law: (1) The Principal Allied and Associated Powers confer a mandate on one of their number or on a third power; (2) the principal powers officially notify the council of the League of Nations that a certain power has been appointed mandatory for such a certain defined territory; and (3) the council of the League of Nations takes official cognisance of the appointment of the mandatory power and informs the latter that it [the council] considers it as invested with the mandate, and at the same time notifies it of the terms of the mandate, after ascertaining whether they are in conformance with the provisions of the covenant."[25][26]
TheU.S. State Department'sDigest of International Law says that the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne provided for the application of the principles ofstate succession to the "A" Mandates. The Treaty of Versailles provisionally recognised the former Ottoman communities as independent nations.[4] It also required Germany to recognise the disposition of the former Ottoman territories and to recognise the new states laid down within their boundaries.[27] The terms of the Treaty of Lausanne required the newly created states that acquired the territory detached from the Ottoman Empire to pay annuities on the Ottoman public debt and to assume responsibility for the administration of concessions that had been granted by the Ottomans. The treaty also let the States acquire, without payment, all the property and possessions of the Ottoman Empire situated within their territory.[28] The treaty provided that the League of Nations was responsible for establishing an arbitral court to resolve disputes that might arise and stipulated that its decisions were final.[28]
A disagreement regarding the legal status and the portion of the annuities to be paid by the "A" mandates was settled when an Arbitrator ruled that some of the mandates contained more than one State:
The difficulty arises here how one is to regard the Asiatic countries under the British and French mandates. Iraq is a Kingdom in regard to which Great Britain has undertaken responsibilities equivalent to those of a Mandatory Power. Under the British mandate, Palestine and Transjordan have each an entirely separate organisation. We are, therefore, in the presence of three States sufficiently separate to be considered as distinct Parties. France has received a single mandate from the Council of the League of Nations, but in the countries subject to that mandate, one can distinguish two distinct States: Syria and the Lebanon, each State possessing its own constitution and a nationality clearly different from the other.[29]
After theUnited Nations was founded in 1945 and the League of Nations was disbanded, all but one of the mandated territories becameUnited Nations trust territories, a roughly equivalent status.[11] In each case, the colonial power that held the mandate on each territory became the administering power of the trusteeship, except that of theEmpire of Japan, which had been defeated in World War II, lost its mandate over the South Pacific islands, which became a "strategic trust territory" known as theTrust Territory of the Pacific Islands under U.S. administration.
The sole exception to the transformation of the League of Nations mandates into UN trusteeships was that ofSouth Africa and its mandated territorySouth West Africa. Rather than placing South West Africa under trusteeship like other former mandates, South Africa proposedannexation, a proposition rejected by theUN General Assembly. Despite South Africa's resistance, theInternational Court of Justice affirmed that South Africa continued to have international obligations regarding the South West Africa mandate. Eventually, in 1990, the mandated territory, nowNamibia, gained independence, culminating from theTripartite Accords and the resolution of theSouth African Border War — a prolonged guerrilla conflict against theapartheid regime that lasted from 1966 until 1990.
Nearly all the former League of Nations mandates had becomesovereign states by 1990, including all of the former UN trust territories with the exception of a few successor entities of the gradually dismembered Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (formerly Japan's South Pacific Trust Mandate). These exceptions include theNorthern Mariana Islands which is acommonwealth inpolitical union with the U.S. with the status ofunincorporated organised territory. The Northern Mariana Islands does elect its owngovernor to serve as territorialhead of government, but it remains a U.S. territory with itshead of state being the President of the United States andfederal funds to the commonwealth administered by theOffice of Insular Affairs of theU.S. Department of the Interior.
RemnantMicronesia and theMarshall Islands, the heirs of the last territories of the Trust, attained final independence on 22 December 1990. (The UN Security Council ratified termination of trusteeship, effectively dissolving trusteeship status, on 10 July 1987.) TheRepublic of Palau, split off from theFederated States of Micronesia, became the last to effectively gain its independence, on 1 October 1994.
70. Palestine was part of the Ottoman Empire. At the end of the First World War, a class "A" Mandate for Palestine was entrusted to Great Britain by the League of Nations, pursuant to paragraph 4 of Article 22 of the Covenant
LONDON, July 19. – The A mandates, which govern the British occupation of Palestine and the French occupation of Syria, came today before the Council of the League of Nations.
