Lazare Nicolas Marguerite, Comte Carnot | |
|---|---|
 Portrait byLouis-Léopold Boilly, 1813 | |
| 41stPresident of the National Convention | |
| In office 20 May 1794 – 4 June 1794 | |
| Preceded by | Robert Lindet |
| Succeeded by | Claude-Antoine Prieur-Duvernois |
| Member of theCommittee of Public Safety | |
| In office 14 August 1793 – 6 October 1794 | |
| Director of theFrench Directory | |
| In office 4 November 1795 – 5 September 1797 | |
| Preceded by | None |
| Succeeded by | Philippe-Antoine Merlin de Douai |
| Minister of War | |
| In office 2 April 1800 – 8 October 1800 | |
| Preceded by | Louis-Alexandre Berthier |
| Succeeded by | Louis-Alexandre Berthier |
| Minister of Interior | |
| In office 20 March 1815 – 22 June 1815 | |
| Monarch | Napoleon I |
| Preceded by | François-Xavier-Marc-Antoine de Montesquiou-Fézensac |
| Succeeded by | Claude Carnot-Feulin |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1753-05-13)13 May 1753 Nolay,Burgundy,France |
| Died | 2 August 1823(1823-08-02) (aged 70) Magdeburg,Saxony,Prussia |
| Resting place | Panthéon,Paris |
| Political party | Marais |
| Children | Sadi Carnot Lazare Hippolyte Carnot |
| Profession | Mathematician, engineer, military commander, politician |
| Signature |  |
| Military service | |
| Allegiance |  Kingdom of France Kingdom of the French First French Republic First French Empire |
| Branch/service | Army |
| Years of service | 1771–1815 |
| Rank | Divisional general |
Lazare Nicolas Marguerite, Comte Carnot (French:[lazaʁnikɔlamaʁɡəʁitkaʁno]; 13 May 1753 – 2 August 1823) was a Frenchmathematician,physicist,military officer, politician and a leading member of theCommittee of Public Safety during theFrench Revolution. His military reforms, which included the introduction of mass conscription (levée en masse), were instrumental in transforming theFrench Revolutionary Army into an effective fighting force.
Carnot was elected to theNational Convention in 1792, and a year later he became a member of the Committee of Public Safety, where he directed the French war effort as one of the Ministers of War during theWar of the First Coalition. He oversaw the reorganization of the army, imposed discipline, and significantly expanded the French force through the imposition of mass conscription. Credited with France's renewed military success from 1793 to 1794, Carnot came to be known as the "Organizer of Victory".
Increasingly disillusioned with the radical politics of theMontagnards, Carnot broke withMaximilien Robespierre and played a role in the latter's overthrow on9 Thermidor and subsequent execution. He became one of the five initial members of theDirectory but was ousted after theCoup of 18 Fructidor in 1797 and went into exile.
FollowingNapoleon's rise to power, Carnot returned to France and in 1800 was brieflyMinister of War. A fervent Republican, he chose to withdraw from public life after Napoleon's coronation as Emperor. In 1812, he returned to serve under Napoleon and oversaw thedefense of Antwerp against theSixth Coalition, and during theHundred Days he was Napoleon'sMinister of the Interior. Carnot was exiled after thesecond Bourbon Restoration and died inMagdeburg,Prussia in 1823.
In addition to his political career, Carnot was also an eminent mathematician. His 1803Géométrie de position is considered a pioneering work in the field ofprojective geometry. He is also remembered for developing theCarnot wall, a system of fortification that became widely employed in continental Europe during the 19th century.
Carnot was born on 13 May 1753 in the village ofNolay, inBurgundy, as the son of a local judge and royal notary, Claude Carnot and his wife, Marguerite Pothier. He was the second oldest of seven children. At the age of fourteen, Lazare and his brother were enrolled at theCollège d'Autun, where he focused on the study of philosophy and the classics. He held a strong belief instoic philosophy and was deeply influenced by Roman civilization. When he turned fifteen, he left school in Autun to strengthen his philosophical knowledge and study under theSociety of the Priests of Saint Sulpice. During his short time with them, he studied logic, mathematics and theology under the Abbé Bison.
Impressed with Lazare's work as a scholar, theduc d'Aumont [fr] (Marquis de Nolay) recommended a military career for the youngster. Carnot was soon sent by his father to the Aumont residence to further his education. Here, he was enrolled in M. de Longpré's pension school in 1770 until he was ready to enter one of two prestigious engineering and artillery schools in Paris. A year later, in February 1771, he was ranked the third highest among twelve who were chosen out of his class of more than one hundred who took the entrance exams. It was at this point when he entered theÉcole royale du génie de Mézières, appointed as asecond lieutenant. Studies at the Mézières included geometry, mechanics, geometrical designing, geography, hydraulics and material preparation. On 1 January 1773 he graduated the school, ranked as afirst lieutenant. He was eighteen years old.[1]
Carnot obtained a commission as alieutenant inLouis Joseph, Prince of Condé's engineer corps. At this moment, he made a name for himself both in the line of (physics) theoretical engineering and in his work in the field offortifications. While in the army, stationed in Calais, Cherbourg andBéthune, he continued his study of mathematics. In December 1783, he received a promotion to the rank ofcaptain.[2]
In 1784 he published his first workEssay on Machines, which contained a statement that foreshadowed the principle of energy as applied to a falling weight, and the earliest proof thatkinetic energy is lost in the collision ofimperfectly elastic bodies. This publication earned him the honor of theAcadémie des Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres de Dijon. Another turning point was his essay onVauban in which he praised the engineer on his works while at the same time developing his own career as a writer/engineer. Vauban's work had a profound effect on his work as a general and engineer. In 1786 he became acquainted with Robespierre, a lawyer inArras, in the local literary club. In 1788 he returned to Béthune, where he was imprisoned with alettre de cachet, because of a broken promise to marry a woman from Dijon. After his release he was stationed inAire-sur-la-Lys and married Sophie Dupont fromSaint-Omer in May 1791. For two months he served as president of the local literary society.[3]
In September 1791 he became a delegate forPas-de-Calais to theLegislature. While a member of the Legislative Assembly, Carnot was elected to theCommittee of Public Instruction. He believed that all citizens should be educated. As a member of that committee, he wrote a series of reforms for the teaching and educational systems, but they were not implemented due to the violent social and economic climate of the Revolution.
After the Legislative Assembly was dissolved, Carnot was elected to theNational Convention in September 1792. He spent the last few months of 1792 on a mission toBayonne, organizing the military defense effort in an attempt to ward off any possible attacks fromSpain. Upon returning to Paris, Carnot voted for the death ofLouis XVI, although he had been absent for the debates surroundinghis trial.[4] By mid-February Carnot proposed that annexation be undertaken on behalf of French interests whether or not the people to be annexed so wished.[5] Following the king's veto of the Assembly's efforts to suppressnonjuring priests on 27 May, on a proposal of Carnot andServan in the Assembly to raise a permanent militia of volunteers on 8 June,[6] and the reinstatement of Brissotin ministers dismissed on 18 June, the monarchy faced an abortivedemonstration of 20 June.[7]
On 14 August 1793 Carnot was elected to theCommittee of Public Safety, where he took charge of the military situation as one of the Ministers of War.[4] He was friendly withJohan Valckenaer who tried to hasten the invasion of theDutch Republic.
With the establishment of theDirectory in 1795, Carnot became one of the five initial directors. For the first year, the Directors did well working harmoniously together as well as with the Councils. However, difference of political views led to a schism between Carnot andÉtienne-François Letourneur, followed byFrançois de Barthélemy, on the one side, and the triumvirate ofPaul François Jean Nicolas, vicomte de Barras,Jean-François Rewbell andLouis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux on the other side. Carnot and Barthélemy supported concessions to end the war, and hoped to oust the triumvirate and replace them with more conservative men. After Letourneur had been replaced by another close collaborator of Carnot, François de Barthélemy, both of them, alongside many deputies in theCouncil of Five Hundred, were ousted in theCoup of 18 Fructidor (4 September 1797), engineered by GeneralsNapoleon Bonaparte (originally, Carnot'sprotégé) andPierre François Charles Augereau. Carnot took refuge inGeneva, and there in 1797 issued hisLa métaphysique du calcul infinitésimal.
The creation of theFrench Revolutionary Army was largely due to his powers of organization and enforcing discipline. In order to raise more troops for the war, Carnot introducedconscription: thelevée en masse approved by the National Convention was able to raise France's army from 645,000 troops in mid-1793 to 1.5 million in September 1794. He was the first to execute the modern waging of war with mass armies and strategic planning realized by the Revolution. As a military engineer, Carnot favored fortresses and defensive strategies.[8] He developed innovative defensive designs for forts, including theCarnot wall, named after him. However, with the constant invasions he decided to take his strategic planning to an offensive strike. From his intellect sprang the maneuvers and organization that turned the tides of war from 1793 to 1794.[9]
The basic idea was to have a massive army separated into several units that could move more quickly than the enemy and attack from the flanks rather than head on, which had led to resounding defeats before Carnot was elected to the Committee of Public Safety. This tactic was extremely successful against the more traditional tactics of existing European armies. It was his initiative to train the conscripts in the art of war and to place new recruits with experienced soldiers rather than having a massive volunteer army without any real idea of how to wage battle.
Once the problem of troop numbers had been solved, Carnot turned his administrative skills to the supplies that this massive army would need. Many of the munitions and supplies were in short supply: copper was lacking for guns so he ordered church bells seized in order to melt them down; saltpeter was lacking and he called chemistry to his aid; leather for boots was scarce so he demanded and secured new methods for tanning. He quickly organized the army and helped to turn the tide of the war. It added significantly to discontent with the course of the Revolution in stillBourbon-loyalist areas—such as theVendée, which had broken out inopen revolt five months earlier—but the government of the time considered it a success, and Carnot became known as theOrganizer of Victory.[4] In autumn 1793, he took charge of French columns on theNorthern Front, and contributed toJean-Baptiste Jourdan's victory in theBattle of Wattignies.
Carnot met Robespierre for the first time in Arras where he was assigned for military duty and shortly afterRobespierre finished his legal studies. Both of them were members of the literary club, and they sangSociete des Rosati together. The group was founded in 1778 and was inspired by the works ofChapelle,La Fontaine andChaulieu. It was here where they became acquaintances and eventually friends. Robespierre preceded Carnot into the Academy of Arras entering in April 1784 while he entered in 1786.[10]
While they were active members of the Committee of Public Safety in 1794, tensions between Carnot and Robespierre began to rise massively. During his time on the committee, which was heavily radical, Carnot signed a total of 43 decrees and drafted 18 of them. Most of them dealt with military tactics and education.[11] Despite leaning on Jacobin beliefs, Carnot was considered the "conservative" of his half. He was not an official member of the radical group and therefore took on his own independent beliefs in regards to many issues.[12] One of these issues included Robespierre's proposal on an egalitarian social system with which he feverishly disagreed.[13]
Although he had taken no steps to oppose theReign of Terror, he and some othertechnocrats on the committee, includingRobert Lindet andLouis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, turned onMaximilien Robespierre and his allies during theThermidorian Reaction by having him arrested. Robespierre was later killed along with 21 of his followers. Shortly after Robespierre's fall, Carnot was charged for his role during the time but the charges were quickly dismissed when he became a member of the Directory.[citation needed]
In 1795, Carnot appointed Napoleon Bonaparte as general in chief of theArmy of Italy. He is known to be the only member of the Directory to have supported Napoleon during this time.[14]
In 1800 Bonaparte appointed Carnot asMinister of War, and he served in that office at the time of theBattle of Marengo. In 1802 he voted against the establishment of Napoleon'sConsular powers for life and the passing of the title to his children, for as Carnot said when speaking of the power necessary to govern a state "If this power is the appendage of a hereditary family it becomes despotic."[citation needed]
AfterNapoleon crowned himself emperor on 2 December 1804, Carnot'srepublican convictions precluded his acceptance of high office under theFirst French Empire, and he resigned from public life. Probably in response to the fall of the fortress ofVlissingen to the British during theWalcheren Campaign in 1809, Napoleon employed Carnot to write a treatise describing how fortifications could be improved, for the use of theÉcole militaire de Metz [fr]. Building on the theories of the controversial engineerMontalembert, Carnot advanced ideas on how the long-establishedbastioned system of fortification could be modified for close defense and to allow forcounter attack by the besieged garrison.[citation needed]
In 1812, Carnot returned to office in defense of Napoleon during the disastrousinvasion of Russia and was assigned thedefense ofAntwerp against theSixth Coalition. He surrendered only at the demand of the Count of Artois, the younger brother ofLouis XVIII who later reigned asCharles X. He was later made a Count of the Empire by Napoleon as Lazare Nicolas Marguerite, Comte Carnot. During theHundred Days, Carnot served asMinister of the Interior for Napoleon, and was exiled as aregicide during theWhite Terror after theSecond Restoration during the reign of Louis XVIII.
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In 1803 Carnot produced hisGéométrie de position. This work deals withprojective rather thandescriptive geometry.Carnot is responsible for initiating the use ofcross-ratios:"He was the first to introduce the cross (anharmonic) ratio of four points of a line taking account of its sign, thereby sharpeningPappus's concept. He then proved that this ratio is invariant for the four points obtained by cutting four lines of apencil of lines with different secants. In this way, he established the harmonic properties of thecomplete quadrilateral."[15] This approach to geometry was used byKarl von Staudt four decades later to set a newfoundation to mathematics.
TheBorda–Carnot equation influid dynamics and several theorems ingeometry are named after him: one thatdescribes a property of the incircle and the circumcircle of triangle, one thatdescribes a relation between triangles and conic sections and one thatdescribes a property of certain perpendiculars on triangle sides.
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Published in 1810 under the title"Traité de la Défense des Places Fortes", his ideas on fortification were further developed in the third edition which was published in 1812. An English translation, "A Treatise on the Defence of Fortified Places" was published in 1814. Although few of his proposals were accepted by mainstream engineers, theCarnot wall, a detached wall at the foot of theescarp, became a common feature in fortifications built in the mid-19th century.[16]
He lived inWarsaw,Congress Poland, and then moved to theKingdom of Prussia, where he died in the city ofMagdeburg. Carnot's remains were interred at thePanthéon in 1889, at the same time as those ofThéophile Corret de la Tour d'Auvergne,Jean-Baptiste Baudin andFrançois Séverin Marceau-Desgraviers.
Carnot survived all the phases of theFrench Revolution, from its beginnings in 1789 until the fall ofNapoleon in 1815. On the social and political front, Carnot was the author of many reforms sought to improve the country. One of these was the proposal for compulsory public education for all citizens. He also penned a proposal for the new Constitution which included the "Declaration of the Duties of the Citizens" that held that there should be not only education but military service for all citizens of France between the ages of twenty and twenty-five.
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He also published essays about engineering theory.Essai sur les machines en général won honorable mention from the Academie sur Science of Paris in 1780. It was revised and published in 1783. In this he outlined a mathematical theory of power transmission in mechanical systems.His essayPrincipes fondamentaux de l'équilibre et du mouvement 1803 was a further revision and expansion of the earlier work.
Carnot's son,Nicolas, was influenced by his father's work when he undertook his research into thethermal efficiency of steam engines.
Carnot's name is one of the72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.
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| Preceded by | Minister of War 2 April 1800 – 8 October 1800 | Succeeded by |
| Preceded by | Minister of Interior 20 March 1815 – 22 June 1815 | Succeeded by |
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Head of state:Napoleon | ||
| Foreign Affairs |  Napoleon | |
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Preceded byGovernment of the first Bourbon restoration • Followed byFrench Provisional Government of 1815 | ||
French Provisional Government of 1815 (22 June 1815 to 7 July 1815) | ||
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Preceded byFrench government of the Hundred Days • Followed byMinistry of Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord | ||
