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Law enforcement in India is imperative to keep law andorder in the nation.Indian law is enforced by a number ofagencies. India has a multi-layered law enforcement structure with bothfederal andstate/union territory level agencies, including specialized ones with specific jurisdictions.[1] Unlike manyfederal nations, theconstitution of India delegates the maintenance of law and order primarily to thestates and territories.[2]
Under theConstitution, police and public order is a subject governed bystates. Therefore, each of the28 states have their own police forces. Thecentre is also allowed to maintain its own police forces to assist the states with ensuring law and order. Therefore, it maintains sevencentral armed police forces and some other central police organisations for specialised tasks such as intelligence gathering, investigation, research and record-keeping, and training.[1]
TheMinistry of Home Affairs (MHA) is responsible for most law enforcement duties at thefederal level. It includesCentral Armed Police Forces (CAPFs) and Central Police Organizations (CPOs). Larger metropolitan cities have their own police forces under their respective state police (except theKolkata Police that is autonomous and reports to state's Home Department). TheIndian Police Service (IPS) is anAll India Civil Service, which provides leadership at senior ranks across state police forces, central armed police forces, central investigative agencies, and regulatory bodies.[3] India has some special tactical forces both on the federal and state level to deal with terrorist attacks and counter insurgencies like Mumbai Police Quick Response Team,National Security Guard,Anti-Terrorism Squad, Delhi Police SWAT,Special Operations Group (Jammu and Kashmir), etc.
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TheCentral Government has established a number of Central Police Organisations (CPOs) to fulfill diverse law enforcement and security roles. These CPOs can be broadly categorized into two groups:[3]
Central Armed Police Forces (CAPFs): These are armed police forces responsible for internal security, counter-insurgency operations, and border guarding. They include organizations such as theAssam Rifles,Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF),Border Security Force (BSF),Central Industrial Security Force (CISF),Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP), andSashastra Seema Bal (SSB).
Central Police Organisations (CPOs): This group comprises organizations that perform specialized functions such as police research and development, criminal investigation, intelligence gathering, police training and forensic science. These include:
In addition, there are police training institutions, such as theNational Police Academy (NPA) and the North Eastern Police Academy (NEPA). There is aRailway Protection Force (RPF) that functions under the control of theMinistry of Railways.
Some intelligence and investigating agencies under theMinistry of Finance also do policing work. They are involved in collecting intelligence and investigating economic offences pertaining to customs, excise, income tax, foreign exchange, money laundering, and narcotics smuggling. Some of these are theCentral Economic Intelligence Bureau,Directorate General of Revenue Intelligence,Directorate of Enforcement,Financial Intelligence Unit,Directorate General of GST Intelligence, andDirectorate General of Income Tax (Investigation).
Most federal law-enforcement agencies are under theMinistry of Home Affairs. The head of each agency is typically anIPS officer. The constitution assigns responsibility for maintaining law and order and policing to the states and territories, and almost all routine policing—including the apprehension of criminals—is done by state-level police forces. The constitution also permits the central government to participate in police operations and organization by authorizing the creation of the Indian Police Service.
Central police forces can assist a state's police force if requested by a state government. During the 1975–77Emergency, the constitution was amended on 1 February 1976 to permit the central government to deploy its armed police forces without state permission. The amendment was unpopular, and use of the central police forces was controversial. After the Emergency was lifted, the constitution was again amended in December 1978 to restore the status quo.
The principal national ministry concerned with law enforcement is the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), which supervises a large number of government functions and agencies operated and administered by the central government. The ministry is concerned with matters pertaining to the maintenance of public peace and order, the staffing and administration of the public services, delineation of internal boundaries, and the administration ofunion territories.
In addition to controlling the IPS, the Ministry of Home Affairs maintains several agencies and organizations dealing with police and security. Police forces in theunion territories are under the MHA. TheMinister of Home Affairs is the cabinet minister responsible for the ministry; theHome Secretary, anIndian Administrative Service (IAS) officer, is the ministry's administrative head.
TheBorder Security Force (BSF) is responsible for policing India's land borders in peacetime and preventing trans-border crimes. A central police force under the Ministry of Home Affairs, its duties include VIP security, election supervision, guarding vital installations andcounter-naxal operations.
TheIndo-Pakistani War of 1965, which highlighted the inadequacy of the existing border-management system, led to the formation of the Border Security Force as a unified central armed police force mandated with guarding India's boundary withPakistan. The BSF's policing capability was used in theIndo-Pakistani War of 1971, against thePakistani Armed Forces, in areas which were the least threatened. During wartime or when ordered by the central government, the BSF is commanded by theIndian Army; BSF troops participated in the 1971Battle of Longewala in this capacity. After the 1971 war (which led to the creation ofBangladesh), responsibility for policing the border with Bangladesh was assigned to the force.
Originally charged with guarding India's external borders, the BSF has been tasked withcounter-insurgency andcounter-terrorism operations. Wheninsurgency in Jammu and Kashmir broke out in 1989 and theJammu and Kashmir state police and the thinly-deployedCentral Reserve Police Force (CRPF) needed extra force to cope with spiraling violence, the central government deployed the BSF to Jammu and Kashmir to combatKashmiri militants.
BSF operates a Tear-Smoke Unit at itsacademy inGwalior,Madhya Pradesh, which suppliestear gas andsmoke shells for riot prevention to allstate police forces. It operatesdog squads, and runs the National Dog Training and Research Centre. The BSF, one of several Indian police forces which have its ownair and water wings, provides helicopter, dog and other support services to the state police.
TheCentral Industrial Security Force's (CISF) primary task is to provide industrial security.[4] It guards industrial installations nationwide which are owned by the central government, securesseaports andairports, and provides security for certainnon-governmental organizations. The CISF provides security for nuclear-power plants, space installations, mints, oil fields and refineries, heavy-engineering and steel plants,barrages, fertilizer units, hydroelectric andthermal power stations, and other installations partially (or wholly) run by the government.[5]
TheCentral Reserve Police Force's (CRPF) main objective is to assist states and union territories' law-enforcement agencies in maintaining law and order and containinginsurgency. It is deployed as ananti-terrorist unit in several regions, and operates abroad as part ofUnited Nations peacekeeping missions.[6]
The 90,000-memberIndo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP) is responsible for security along the 2,115-kilometre (1,314 mi) Indo-Tibetan border and its surrounding areas. ITBP personnel are trained in maintaining law and order, military tactics, jungle warfare, counter-insurgency, and internal security.They were also deployed to Indian diplomatic missions located in Afghanistan.[7]
TheNational Security Guard (NSG) is acommando unit originally created for counter-terrorism and hostage-rescue missions. Founded in 1986, it is popularly known as the "Black Cats" for its uniform. Like most military and elite-security units in India, it avoids the media and the Indian public is largely unaware of its capabilities and operational details.
The NSG draws its core members from the Indian Army, and the balance is support staff from other central police units. An NSG team and a transport aircraft is stationed atIndira Gandhi International Airport in New Delhi, ready to deploy in 30 minutes.
Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB), founded in 1963, is deployed at the Indo-Nepal and Indo-Bhutan borders. SSB, with over 82,000 personnel, is trained in maintaining law and order, military tactics, jungle warfare, counter-insurgency, and internal security. Its personnel are also deployed to theIntelligence Bureau (IB),Research and Analysis Wing (R&AW),Special Protection Group (SPG), National Security Guard. Officers begin as anassistant commandant (equivalent to deputy superintendent of police on a state force), and retire with the rank ofinspector general (IG).
TheSpecial Protection Group (SPG), the central government'sexecutive protection agency, is responsible for the protection of thePrime Minister of India and their immediate family. The force was established in 1985, after theassassination of Indira Gandhi. It providesdaily, round-the-clock security throughout India to the present Prime Minister and his family.
TheCentral Bureau of Investigation (CBI) is India's premier investigative agency, responsible for a wide variety ofcriminal andnational security matters. Often cited as established with theDelhi Special Police Establishment Act, 1946, it was formed by the central government (which controls the Delhi police) with a resolution. Its constitutionality was questioned in theGauhati High CourtNarendra Kumar vs Union of India case on the basis that all areas of policing are exclusive to state governments, and the CBI is a central-government agency. The court ruled that despite the lack of legislation, the CBI is an authorized agency of the central government for national policing. Its ruling was upheld by theSupreme Court of India, which cited the CBI's national importance.
The bureau is controlled by the Department of Personnel and Training in theMinistry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions of thegovernment of India, usually headed by thePrime Minister as theMinister of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions. India'sInterpol unit, the CBI draws its personnel from IPS officers throughout the country. Specializing in crimes involving high-ranking government officials and politicians, the CBI has also accepted other criminal cases because of media and public pressure (usually due to local-police investigative incompetence).
TheIncome Tax Department (ITD) is India's premier financial agency, responsible for a wide variety offinancial andfiscal matters. The department is controlled by the Department of Revenue in theMinistry of Finance, headed by aminister who reports directly to the prime minister. TheCentral Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT) is also part of the Department of Revenue. It provides input for policy and planning ofdirect taxes, and is responsible for the administration of direct-tax laws through the Income Tax Department. The CBDT operates in accordance with the Central Board of Revenue Act, 1963. The board members, in theirex officio capacity, are also a division of the ministry dealing with matters relating to the levy and collection of taxes, tax evasion and revenue intelligence. It is India's officialFinancial Action Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF) unit. The Income Tax Department draws its staff fromIndian Revenue Service officers nationwide, and is responsible for the investigation of economic crimes and tax evasion. Some special agents and agents can carry firearms.[8]
The Directorate of Criminal Investigation (DCI) is headed by the Director General of Intelligence (Income Tax), which was created to address cross-borderblack money. The DCI conducts unobtrusive investigations of "persons and transactions suspected to be involved in criminal activities having cross-border, inter-state or international ramifications, that pose a threat to national security and are punishable under the direct tax laws."[8]
Commissioners of the ITD's intelligence directorate posted in cities such as Delhi, Chandigarh, Jaipur, Ahmedabad, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, and Lucknow will also conduct criminal investigations for the DCI. The ITD's intelligence wing oversees the Central Information Branch (CIB), which has a repository of data on taxpayers' financial transactions.
TheDirectorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI) is an intelligence-based organization responsible for the coordination of India's anti-smuggling efforts. Officers are drawn from the Indian Revenue Service and Group B[clarification needed] of theCentral Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs.
TheCentral Economic Intelligence Bureau (CEIB) is the intelligence agency responsible for gathering information and monitoring the economic and financial sectors for economic offenses and warfare.
The Directorate General of GST Intelligence (DGGI), formerly the Directorate General of Central Excise Intelligence (DGCEI), is an intelligence-based organization responsible for tax evasion cases related to central excise duty and Goods and Service Tax (GST). Officers are drawn from the Indian Revenue Service and Group B of the Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs.
TheNational Investigation Agency (NIA), the central agency combattingterrorism, can deal with interstate terror-related crimes without permission from the states. The National Investigation Agency Bill 2008, creating the agency, was moved inParliament by the Home Minister on 16 December 2008.[9][10][11] The NIA was created in response to the2008 Mumbai attacks as a centralcounter-terrorism agency. Also dealing with drug trafficking and currency counterfeiting, it draws its officers from the IRS and theIndian Police Service.
TheNarcotics Control Bureau is responsible for anti-narcotics operations nationwide, checking the spread of contraband and the cultivation of drugs. Officers in the bureau are drawn from the IPS andIRS.
TheBureau of Police Research and Development (BPRD) was established on 28 August 1970 to modernize the police forces. It researches police issues, including training and the introduction of technology at the central and state levels.
In 1979, the National Police Commission recommended the creation of agency to maintain criminal records and a database shareable at the federal and state levels. TheNational Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) was established by combining the Directorate of Coordination Police Computers, the Central Fingerprint Bureau, the Data Section of Coordination Division of the Central Bureau of Investigation, and the Statistical Section of the Bureau of Police Research and Development.
TheCentral Forensic Science Laboratory (CFSL), a wing of the Ministry of Home Affairs, houses the only DNA repository in South and Southeast Asia. There are seven central forensic laboratories: inHyderabad,Kolkata,Bhopal,Chandigarh,Pune,Guwahati andNew Delhi. CFSL Hyderabad is a centre of excellence in chemical sciences, CFSLKolkata in biological sciences, and CFSLChandigarh in the physical sciences. The laboratories are primarily controlled by the ministry's Directorate of Forensic Science (DFS); the New Delhi lab is under theCentral Bureau of Investigation, and investigates cases on its behalf.
TheNational Institute of Criminology and Forensic Science (NICFS) was established on 4 January 1972 at the recommendation of a committee appointed by theUniversity Grants Commission (UGC). In September 1979, the institute became a department of the Ministry of Home Affairs with a full-time director. It is headed by seniorIndian Police Service officers. The institute trains incybercrime investigations, and researches aspects of criminology and forensics (including cyber forensics). It is listed as a science and technology organization by theDepartment of Science and Technology.
State police forces are organized under the purview of thestate governments, with each state and union territory maintaining its own police force. The overarching authority for police matters lies with the state's home department, led by an additional chief secretary or principal secretary, also known as the home secretary, typically anIAS officer. The political head of the state Home Departments is generally the Chief Minister or the Home Minister of the state. ThePolice Act of 1861 provides the foundational framework for the organization and functioning of police forces in India. While there may be variations in equipment and resources among different state police forces, their organizational structure and operational patterns are generally similar.
Senior police officers answer to the policechain of command, and respond to the general direction of designated civilian officials. In the municipal force, the chain of command runs to the state home secretary rather than the district superintendent or district officials.
The state police is headed by an IPS officer with the rank ofdirector general of police (DGP), who serves as the head of police force (HoPF). The DGP is assisted by two (or more)additional directors general of police (ADGs). Each ADGP is assigned specific domains of responsibility, such as law and order, crime investigation, intelligence, administration, training, or the command of armed police and other specialized units.
Other DGP rank officers in the state often head autonomous organizations outside the direct control of the DGP/HoPF, such as the state police recruitment board, fire and rescue services, police training academies, vigilance and anti-corruption bureau, prisons department, police housing corporation, and police welfare bureau.
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The Law and Order wing, also called the Civil Police or General Executive branch of the state police carries out primary law enforcement, such as maintaining order, patrolling, crime prevention, and detection, and police stations are constituted and responsible for these routine law enforcement duties. The police stations has jurisdictional area, and each headed by aStation House Officer (SHO), who is incharge of the police station. Generally, SHOs in urban areas are ofinspector rank, while in rural or smaller stations, they are ofsub-inspector rank.
Below the DGP, State police forces are organised into police zones, each comprising two or more ranges. Important zones are headed by an Additional Director General of Police (ADGP), while other zones are headed by an Inspector General of Police (IG). Ranges consist of several districts; important ranges are led by an IG, and others by a Deputy Inspector General of Police (DIG). In smaller state police forces, zones are typically headed by an IG and ranges by a DIG. In such states, Zonal IGs report to the ADGP (Law and Order). While the zonal and range structure varies from state to state, these patterns are generally consistent across most states.
Below the police range are police districts, each headed by aSuperintendent of Police (SP). Apolice district is a geographical unit of police administration, generally aligned with the administrative orrevenue district. Larger administrative districts may comprise two or more police districts. In larger or more sensitive districts, the post may be held by a Senior Superintendent of Police (SSP). The SP is responsible for maintaining law and order, crime prevention, and overall police administration within the district. If an SP is heading the district, they are generally assisted by one or two) Additional SPs. The police district is further divided into sub-divisions, circles, and police stations to ensure effective ground-level policing and administrative efficiency. The district SP reports to the Deputy Inspector General of Police (DIG) or Inspector General of Police (IG) in charge of the range. Each district is divided into sub-divisions or police circles, headed by aDeputy Superintendent of Police (DSP). Each sub-division consists of several police stations, which are commanded by anInspector of Police, designated as the Station House Officer (SHO), who is assisted by Sub-Inspectors (SIs), Assistant Sub-Inspectors (ASIs), Head constables (HCs) and Police Constables (PCs). In rural areas, a Sub-Inspector may be in charge of a police station, while a Circle Inspector (CI) supervises the functioning of multiple police stations within the police circle. sub-inspectors (and higher) can file a charge sheet in court.A police chowki (outpost) is a small local outpost under the control of a main police station. It covers a limited area and is usually staffed by a Sub-Inspector or Assistant Sub-Inspector along with a few constables. The chowki handles minor crimes, local disputes, and ensures a quick police response in the area. Serious cases are referred to the main police station.
District SPs are not empowered as executive magistrates. Thedistrict magistrate/collector (DM, an IAS officer) exercises these powers, which include promulgating Section 144 of theCode of Criminal Procedure (CrPC) and issuing arms licenses.
Special units under the civil police—such as mounted police, tourist police, highway police, coastal security, watch and ward, narcotics, women’s, and cyber cells—vary in organization across states. They typically operate under the district police or at the state level.
Apart from the general law-and-order wing, state police organizations also maintain a number of specialized departments to handle specific functions. These include theCriminal Investigation Department (CID) orCrime Branch, Intelligence Wing orSpecial Branch, Police Training Wing, State Armed Police Forces, Police telecommunication,Special Task Force,Anti-Terror Squad,Government Railway Police,State Armed Police Forces, Police Technical Services, Forensic Division, State Crime Records Bureau, Police Training Directorate, etc which are generally headed by officers of the rank of Additional Director General of Police (ADG) or Inspector General of Police (IGP).[12]
These units include the Crime Branch/CID for investigating complex crimes, theATS for counter-terrorism operations, and the EOW for investigation of economic offenses. Other specialized units may include Cyber Crime Division for cybercrimes, and Women's Police Stations for crimes against women and children.
TheGovernment Railway Police (GRP) is thesecurity police force that is responsible for policing on the railway stations and trains ofIndian Railways. Its duties correspond to those of the District Police in the areas under their jurisdiction, but only on railway property. WhileRailway Protection Force (RPF) comes underMinistry of Railways,Government of India, GRP comes under the respective state police or UT police.[13][14]
The Traffic Police in India is a specialized branch of the state police responsible for traffic enforcement, regulating vehicular movements, ensuring road safety, ensures the smooth movement of vehicles on public roads.
They regulate traffic movement, investigate road accidents, issue challans for violations, and promote awareness about road discipline and safety.
Each city or police district has its own Traffic Police unit, headed by officers such as the Deputy Commissioner of Police (Traffic) or Deputy Superintendent of Police (Traffic), depending on the state and city. These units operate through Traffic Police Stations and Traffic Enforcement Units to manage traffic control, law enforcement, and road safety operations.[15]
Several state police departments have formed Highway Patrol Units to maintain law and order, regulate traffic, and ensure safety on highways. Their structure varies across states—some operate under local district police, while others function independently under the state police.[16]
They patrol highways to prevent accidents, assist motorists, respond to emergencies, and curb crimes such as smuggling and highway robbery. The unit operates under the supervision of senior police officers, often in coordination with the local traffic police and local police stations.[17]
In most jurisdictions, the police are divided into civil (unarmed) police and armed police contingents. Civil police staff local police stations, register and investigate cases, manage routine complaints, perform traffic control, and conduct patrolling duties. They are typically equipped with lathis (bamboo staffs, sometimes fitted with iron tips).
The armed police are further divided into the district armed police/district armed reserve (DAR) and the State Armed Police Forces (also known in some states as the Provincial Armed Constabulary). District armed police units, organized along the lines of infantry battalions, function under district superintendents of police and are primarily tasked with guard, escort, and riot-control duties. The DAR operates at the district level as a reserve force to support civil police during emergencies.
The State Armed Police Forces function as a mobile armed reserve under state control, deployed for situations requiring greater force. It is under command of an additional director general of police. The State Armed Police Forces are generally organized into battalions commanded by a commandant. The commandant is assisted by deputy commandants, assistant commandants, and other armed police officers, including armed police inspectors, sub-inspectors, and members of the armed police constabulary. These units are stationed at key locations and are activated by senior officers, generally of the rank of Deputy Inspector General or above. They are usually not in day-to-day contact with the public, but are mobilized for duties such as maintaining order during large gatherings (fairs, festivals, elections, sporting events), providing security to VIPs, or responding to communal violence, labour unrest, and insurgency or terrorist activities. Depending on operational requirements, they may be equipped with firearms or only with lathis.
The State Armed Police Forces are often considered analogous to the Central Armed Police Forces and are sometimes referred to as paramilitary forces in unofficial usage. Each state maintains its own armed police contingents under different names, such as the Provincial Armed Constabulary (PAC), Special Armed Police (SAP), or other state-specific designations. These forces serve as the principal armed reserve at the state level, primarily responsible for riot control, counterinsurgency, and other internal security duties.
Recruits receive about₹ 30,000 per month. Opportunities for promotion are limited because of the system of horizontal entry into higher grades.[clarification needed] A 2016 article on the Maharashtra state police describes why reform is needed.[18]
Uniforms of state and local police vary by grade, region, and type of duty. The main service uniform for state police is khaki. Some cities, such asKolkata, have white uniforms. Headgear differs by rank and state; officers usually wear apeaked cap, and constables wearberets orsidecaps.[19] Branches such as theCrime Branch,Special Branch do not have a uniform; business dress (shirt, tie, blazer, etc.) is worn with a badge. Special-service armed police have tactical uniforms in accordance with their function, and traffic police generally wear a white uniform.[citation needed]
Some major metropolitan cities use the police commissionerate system (likeDelhi,Mumbai,Chennai,Kolkata,Bengaluru,Hyderabad,Ahmedabad,Lucknow,Jaipur etc.), headed by apolice commissioner. Demand for this system is increasing as it gives police a free hand to act freely and take control of any situation. 68 large cities and suburban areas currently have this system in India.
Even during the colonial era, the presidency towns ofCalcutta,Bombay andMadras had commissionerate system.
The police force in a city is headed by aCommissioner of Police, who is a senior Indian Police Service (IPS) officer. The rank of the Commissioner, generally above the level ofDeputy Inspector General (DIG), is determined by the respective state government. Depending on state provisions (and in the case ofDelhi, the Union government), the Commissioner may or may not be vested with magisterial powers. The Commissioner is assisted by Additional or Special Commissioners, as well as Deputy and Assistant Commissioners of Police, depending on the administrative structure prescribed by the state government.
A Police Commissioner may be vested with executive magisterial powers under state law, allowing them to act as an executive magistrate. These powers generally include enforcing Section 163 of the BNSS to prevent unlawful assemblies, issuing and regulating arms licences, granting permissions for public events and processions, and maintaining public order through preventive and emergency measures. The scope of these powers varies by state, with some Commissioners exercising full magisterial authority while in other areas certain powers remain with theDistrict Magistrate (Collector).
Police commissionerates are subordinate to the state police except for theKolkata Police, which independently reports to theDepartment of Home ofGovernment of West Bengal.
In addition to state police forces, there are several other law enforcement agencies under the control of state governments in India. These agencies are specialized in their respective areas of law enforcement. Here are some examples:
The State Excise Department is responsible for enforcing laws related to the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages and other controlled substances within the state. They regulate and monitor the licensing, taxation, and distribution of such substances.[20] They are responsible for the enforcement ofNarcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act (NDPS) and various state laws relating to narcotics. Here is a list of some State Excise Departments in India:
The State Forest Department is tasked with protecting and conserving the state's forests and wildlife. They enforce forest laws, prevent illegal logging, poaching, and smuggling of wildlife, and promote environmental conservation.[21]
The maintenance of Forest and Forest land falls within the ambit of respective Forest services of state who is headed by Indian Forest Service (IFoS) Officer. The main mandate of the service is the implementation of the National Forest Policy in order to ensure theecological stability of the country through the protection and participatory sustainable management of natural resources. An IFoS officer is wholly independent of the district administration and exercises administrative, judicial and financial powers in his own domain. Positions in state forest department, such asDistrict/Divisional Forest Officer (DFO),Conservator of Forests (CF),Chief Conservator of Forests (CCF) andPrincipal Chief Conservator of Forests (PCCF) etc., are held only by IFoS officers. The highest ranking IFS official in each state is theHead of Forest Forces (HoFF). Apart from this Forest are regularly patrolled by Forest Rangers although they don't have arrest powers but they are task in detecting and stopping smugglers of Forest produce and poacher. Upon detection the accused/s are handed over to police for further process. The duties of the Forest Service are not confined to stopping of crimes but also have responsibility to develop tourism and also to look after villages falling under Forest land. Forest Services role came to forefront due to smuggling and poaching activities of Verrappan.
There are reports of forest guards being overwhelmed by the animals and poachers and smuggler due to lack of equipment or obsolete equipment. Forest Guards have been reported not able to fight back since they have been under heavy restrictions of usage of weapons and even if available they are no match to automatic weapons employed by the poachers and smugglers.[22][23]
Although due to nature of the duty Forest guards is a male dominated profession more and more women have been recruited in forest services. This women guards are performing duty akin to their male counterparts. The role of women in Forest service is highlighted inDiscovery Channel India's four part documentary series "Lion Queens of India" based on forest guards of Gir wildlife sanctuary, Gujarat.[24]
The Forest Department although greatly restricted in carrying firearm, These firearms are only for protection of self and accompanying forest personnel including temporary workers, and the conditions of use of firearms of all descriptions are very rigidly laid out and the use of every cartridge, even for training purposes, has to be immediately accounted for to the department as well as to the Executive Magistrate having jurisdiction and the police. In case of any human casualties arising out of use of these firearms the Executive Magistrate having jurisdiction conducts enquiry and only when he finds that the use of fire arms was unauthorised, illegal, or excessive, further action is taken by the police. Injuries or death of wild animals of all descriptions has to be reported to the Chief Wildlife Warden of the state without delay first over wireless and then in writing.[citation needed] The Forest guards are generally issued .303Lee Enfield SMLE and 12 Boredouble barrel shotgun or single barrelshotgun while under special circumstanceL1A1 Self-Loading Rifle are also issued.
The Forest Department are usually travel in Mahindra Jeep or other off-road vehicle, the Forest Department also travel on motorcycles especiallyRoyal Enfield Motorcycles andHero Splendor.
The Forest guards have uniforms similar to that of police with women also being given option of Salwar kameez.
State Motor Vehicles Departments (MVDs) or Transport Departments are government agencies responsible for the administration and regulation of motor vehicles and road transport within each state in India. These departments are primarily focused on implementing and enforcing the provisions of the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988, and other relevant laws pertaining to motor vehicles. They are tasked with the enforcement ofMotor Vehicles Act and state rules. Each state has its own State Motor Vehicles Department, often headed by a Commissioner of Transport or a similar administrative position.[25]
Vigilance Departments or Anti-Corruption Bureaus are specialized law enforcement agencies under state governments, that are responsible for combating corruption and promoting integrity within the government and public administration. These departments primarily focus on preventing, detecting, and investigating corruption-related offenses involving public officials.[26]
Police in India primarily belong to theState List of theConstitution and, therefore, Policing and various Police matters falls into the jurisdiction of the respectiveState Governments.
The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) is a premier investigating agency of theGovernment of India. It derives its power to investigate from the Delhi Special Police Establishment Act (DSPE), 1946. The Jurisdiction ofCBI extends across India, but requires prior consent fromstate governments for investigations within their territories.[27]
Executive officers of the CBI, of the rank of Sub-Inspector and above, are empowered to exercise all the powers of a police officer in charge of a police station for the purpose of investigation in the concerned area.
The CBI can investigate crimes committed against central government employees, such as bribery, corruption, or misconduct. The CBI has the authority to investigate cases with inter-state or international implications, including organized crime, terrorism, human trafficking, money laundering, and other transnational offenses. The CBI can investigate offenses listed in the DSPE Act, such as those under thePrevention of Corruption Act and other central laws. The CBI can also investigate cases referred to it bycourts or thecentral government or thestate governments.
The CBI requires the consent of state governments to investigate cases within their territories. This consent can be either general or specific. While general consent allows the CBI to investigate cases without seeking permission for each case, specific consent is required for individual cases. As of 2024, 8 states have withdrawn general consent to the CBI, limiting its ability to freely investigate cases in these states. These states includePunjab,Jharkhand,Kerala,West Bengal,Telangana,Meghalaya,Karnataka andTamil Nadu.[28][29]
TheNational Investigation Agency (NIA) is a specialisedcounter-terrorism law enforcement agency in India. Unlike theCBI, it has nationwide jurisdiction, meaning it can investigate cases across the country without requiring the consent of individualstate governments. It functions under the UnionMinistry of Home Affairs.
The NIA's jurisdiction extends to offenses that threaten India's sovereignty, security, and integrity, as well as those that impact India's relations with other nations. The agency is empowered to investigate various crimes, includingterrorism, bomb blasts, aircraft and ship hijackings, human trafficking,counterfeiting, andcyberterrorism. The 2019 amendment to the NIA Act further expanded its jurisdiction to cover a wider range of offenses.[30]
TheEnforcement Directorate (ED) is responsible for enforcing economic laws and combating financial crimes. The ED has the power to investigate and prosecute cases related tomoney laundering, including tracing and attaching assets derived from criminal activities underPrevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002. The ED enforcesForeign Exchange Management Act and regulations and can investigate and impose penalties for violations of these rules. The ED's jurisdiction extends across India and it has powers to investigation and arrest, prosecution, attachment of property and confiscation of property.[31]
RPF is a security force ofIndian Railways that functions under theMinistry of Railways. RPF is primarily responsible for the protection and security of railway property, passengers and passenger areas.
It has the power to search, arrest, enquire, and prosecute offenses committed under the Railway Property (Unlawful Possession) Act 1966 and the Railways Act, 1989. The general policing powers on railway stations and trains lie with the respective State's Railway Police, known asGovernment Railway Police (GRP). The GRP has significant powers such as maintaining order, investigating crimes, and preventing crime within the railway stations and trains.
If the RPF encounters a fight or any other criminal activity on a moving train or railway premises, they typically hand over the accused individuals to theGRP for further investigation and legal action. This is because the GRP has primary jurisdiction over general law and order matters within railway premises.[32]
State governments in India have primary jurisdiction over law enforcement, including maintaining law and order, investigating crimes, prosecuting offenders, and managing prisons.[1]
Each state in India has its own state police force. At the most basic level, law enforcement is carried out bypolice stations. These stations are responsible for maintaining law and order, preventing and detecting crimes, and patrolling their designated areas.
The officer in charge of a police station, known as theStation House Officer (SHO), possesses significant powers for maintaining law and order and preventing and detecting crime within the station's jurisdictional area.
State police departments often have specialized units like theCrime Branch/CID,ATS, Economic Offences Wing and Cyber Crime Divisions to investigate complex cases that local police may not be equipped to handle. These units are typically activated when investigations require specialized expertise, when local police investigations are insufficient, or when ordered by the government or higher courts.
Each state/union territory government possess an agency to investigate and prevent corruption within the public offices. These Anti-Corruption Bureaus are responsible for the enforcement ofPrevention of Corruption Act, 1988 and related laws. ACBs have the power to investigate allegations of corruption, conduct raids, arrest suspects, and prosecute offenders. Some states lack dedicated ACBs. In such cases, theLokayukta's investigation wing handles corruption probes.
TheSupreme Court and also theKerala High Court have clarified that State Vigilance and Anti-Corruption Bureaus (ACBs) have the authority to investigate corruption offenses committed bycentral government employees. This ruling implies that in cases involving union government officials, the ACB can initiate its own investigation, a power previously exclusive to theCBI.[33][34]
State Excise and Prohibition Departments are responsible for enforcing laws related to narcotics, alcohol, and controlled substances. They enforce theNarcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985 (NDPS). State Forest and Wildlife Departments are tasked with enforcing laws related to forest and wildlife crime management. State Transport Departments/Motor Vehicles Departments are responsible for enforcing theMotor Vehicles Act and its associated rules.
Law enforcement in theunion territories of India is primarily handled by the respective Union Territory (UT) Police Forces. These forces are responsible for maintaining law and order, investigating crimes, and ensuring public safety within their jurisdictions.
TheMinistry of Home Affairs (MHA) oversees the UT Police Forces, providing administrative and policy guidance. TheAdministrator orLieutenant Governor of each UT exercises executive authority over the police force in their respective territory.
In 1972,Kiran Bedi became the first female Indian Police Service officer. Twenty years later,Asha Sinha was the first female commandant of the paramilitary forces.Kanchan Chaudhary Bhattacharya was the first female director general of police in a state when she was appointed DGP of theUttarakhand Police. In 2018, IPS Officer Archana Ramasundram became the first female paramilitary DGP (Sashastra Seema Bal).[35]
Women had previously been limited to supervisory roles in the Central Armed Police Forces.[36] The parliamentaryCommittee on Empowerment of Women recommended greater roles for women in the CAPF. In accordance with this recommendation, the Ministry of Home Affairs mandated preferential treatment for women in paramilitary constabularies and later declared that women could be combat officers in all five Central Armed Police Forces.[36] The Union Home Minister announced that female representation in theCRPF andCentral Industrial Security Force would be 15 percent and five percent in theBorder Security Force,Indo-Tibetan Border Police and Sashastra Seema Bal.[37] On 5 January 2016, it was decided that 33 percent of CRPF and CISF constabulary posts would be reserved for women in the CRPF and the CISF, and 14-15 percent in the BSF, SSB and ITBP.[citation needed]
According to theBureau of Police Research and Development (BPRD) (Data as of 01-01-2024), the sanctioned strength of the state police forces in India was 27.55 lakh, comprising 19.31 lakh Civil Police, 2.71 lakh District Armed Reserve, 3.88 lakhSpecial Armed Police, and 1.65 lakh personnel inIndian Reserve Battalions (IRBs). The sanctioned police–population ratio was 197.44 per lakh population, while the civil police strength alone was 138.40 per lakh population. The density of police personnel was 83.81 per 100 square kilometres (total police).
The actual strength of state police forces was 21.62 lakh, of which 15.25 lakh were Civil Police, 1.96 lakh District Armed Police, 3.14 lakh Special Armed Police, and 1.28 lakh in IRBs. The highest actual strength was inUttar Pradesh (3.18 lakh), followed byMaharashtra (2.07 lakh).
As of 2024, there were 848 police districts, 18,284 police stations, 343 State Armed Police battalions, and 77 police commissionerates. Tamil Nadu had the highest number of sanctioned police stations (2,349), while Ladakh had the lowest (11). Maharashtra had the highest number of commissionerates (12).
The strength of women police was 2.73 lakh (9.7% of the total), an increase from 2.64 lakh in 2023. Uttar Pradesh had the largest number of women personnel (39,373).[38]
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The recruitment process differs by position, and direct entry (where an applicant does not have to start at the lowest level) is possible. Educational requirements increase for higher posts.
Assistant superintendents of police (ASP) are recruited annually by the independentUnion Public Service Commission by competitive examination, and are appointed to the Indian Police Service. The IPS officers are then assigned to a state/union territory police force. Trainee officers undergo 44 weeks of initial training, which includes invited lawyers and management consultants. At the end of their probation, they have several weeks of orientation at the state police academy.
Non-managerial positions are selected by the state (or central) government, and are trained at police recruit schools. The length of training for inspectors is about a year; for constables, it is nearly nine months. School training staff is drawn from the police force. Police are trained in basic law, self-protection, weapons handling and other skills at recruit stations. Superior recruits receive special training.
Recruitment for state police is conducted by state police recruitment boards orstate public service commission. Eligibility standards are set by the central government, depending on state demographics.
| Vehicle | Origin | Use | Image |
|---|---|---|---|
| Royal Enfield 350/500 | India | Used for patrolling and as intercepters, Acrobatic team, convoy motorcycle. |  |
| Harley-Davidson Street 750 | USA | Exclusively used by Gujarat Police & Kolkata Police for piloting VIP convoys |  |
| Bajaj Pulsar 150 | India | Used mainly by traffic police and for responding to Calls |  |
| Hero Honda Splendor | India | Not the most common police vehicle but mainly used by police of rural regions. |  |
| TVS Apache | India | Used by traffic cops as intercepters and also for patrolling. |  |
| Tata Safari Storme | India | Used by tactical police forces (such asSWAT), senior bureaucrats, and as police responding Units[Dial-100] in Madhya Pradesh. |  |
| Mahindra Scorpio | India | Used by almost all Police Departments in India, by special forces, senior bureaucrats, income-tax and central excise officers. It is also used in escorts. |  |
| Mahindra Major jeep | India | Mainstay of all state police, being phased out from service. It was once a face for Indian Police, after being replaced by Mahindra Bolero. |  |
| Mahindra Rakshak | India | Used as an armoured personnel carrier, riot control |  |
| Tata Vajra | India | Used as an armoured personnel carrier, riot control | |
| Mahindra XUV500 | India | Used by investigation cells of police, Special Forces, senior bureaucrats, VIP escorts, and income-tax officers. | |
| Isuzu D-max | Japan, India | Used by special forces of Nagaland and Karnataka Police for ops. | .jpg) |
| Ashok Leyland MBPV | India | Used byPunjab Police SWAT Team andKerala PoliceThunderbolts (SWAT Team) | %2527s_Bullet_Proof_Vehicle.jpg) |
| Mahindra Marksman | India | Used by special forces like Riot control units of Delhi Police and Mumbai police, Karnataka police |  |
| Tata LATC | India | Used by special forces like Riot control units of Delhi Police and Mumbai police, Karnataka police |  |
| Tata Nexon | India | Electric version being employed byMotor vehicles department of State of Kerala |  |
| Maruti Suzuki SX4 | India, Japan | Used by judges, ministers, andTelecom Regulatory Authority of India advisors and as Escorts of Members of The Parliament, Delhi police |  |
| Maruti Suzuki Ertiga | India | Used inBangalore City Police's mobile beat/patrol fleet Hoysala and their all-women patrol called Pink Hosyala. | |
| Force Gurkha | India | Used exclusively byKerala Police andKerala Forest Department for patrolling rough and bad terrain, hill station and rural areas and naxal affected regions. |
|
| Toyota Innova | Japan, India | Used by police as investigator's vehicle, also used by senior bureaucrats, income-tax and central excise officers, and as highway patrol units. | %2c_South_Tangerang.jpg) |
| Chevrolet Tavera | India, US | It is used by police in all sorts of activities. Also used by senior bureaucrats and as highway patrol units and also are used for customs raids.
|  |
| Tata Xenon | India | used by NSG, Indian Army, and Several police Departments like Lucknow police, Mumbai police, Madhya Pradesh police, etc. |  |
| Toyota Fortuner | Japan, India | Used by ministers and high-ranking law-enforcement officials of NIA, CBI, and IB. It has been also deployed by ITBP on China border. |  |
| Mahindra TUV 300 | India | Used as patrol vehicle. It is used by Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Mumbai,Lucknow and Andhra Pradesh police. | |
| Honda Civic | Japan, India | Used by judges, ministers, andIncome Tax Appellate Tribunal members. |  |
| Toyota Corolla | Japan, India | Used by judges, ministers, andTelecom Regulatory Authority of India advisors, Tamil Nadu police |  |
| Tata Sumo | India | It was once the face of Indian police forces and was known and used for its tough terrain capabilities and is spacious. |  |
| Tata Indigo CS | India | Squad car, senior bureaucrats such as the commissioners of Income Tax, Police, Customs and Central Excise |  |
| Chevrolet Captiva | India, US | Used by ministers and MPs. |  |
| Hindustan Ambassador | India | Used by senior bureaucrats, police, income-tax, central excise and customs officers and ministers, most of Indian police |  |
| Ford Endeavor | India, US | Used by ministers and some Police forces Like Lucknow police, Mumbai police, Para-military, etc., for heavy-duty usage. |  |
| Mitsubishi Pajero | Japan, India | Used for VIP Security duties, etc. |  |
| Maruti Gypsy | Japan, India | Used by Delhi Police, Tamil Nadu Police, Uttar Pradesh Police and the Indian Army as squad cars and responding units. | .JPG) |
| Mahindra Bolero | India | Squad car and common police vehicle of Kerala, Telangana, Gujarat state polices, central excise-and-customs and state excise department officers |  |
| Hyundai Accent | Korea, India | Squad car, additional commissioners of income tax, and police. Used by Police Departments Like Tamil Nadu, Kerala and the state of AP |  |
| Toyota Hilux | Japan, India | Used by Punjab Police SSF | |
| Tata 407 | India | Variants of this model used in riot control, armored personnel carrier, prison van, police personnel carrier | %2527s_Bullet_Proof_407.jpg) |
| Tata bus | India | Prison van and for transporting Police personnel, most of Indian police |  |
| Renault Sherpa | France | Used by CISF and NSG |  |
| Motor patrol boats | India | Used by Marine Police |  |
| Suzuki Jimni | India | Used byKerala Police for patrolling in the hilly areas.[39] | |
| Mahindra Thar | India | Used by Kerala Police for patrolling in rural areas.[40] |
Unlike other countries, Indian state police forces rely onSUVs. The Mahindra Commander Jeep was the most used car by the police in India until some time ago. This jeep was practical for patrolling rural areas and had a large seating capacity. Now with the arrival of new generationSUVs they are being phased out. SUVs are known for their ability to handle a variety of terrain. Instead of the old Mahindra Jeep, the police are relying on theMahindra Bolero. Most state police departments in India now usesport utility vehicles like theMahindra Bolero,Tata Sumo,Maruti Gypsy,Tata Safari,Mahindra Scorpio,Mahindra Thar, etc. In cities, compact utility vehicles (compact SUVs) such as theMahindra TUV300 andFord EcoSport, etc. multi-purpose vehicles (MPVs) such as theToyota Innova andMaruti Suzuki Ertiga, and sedans such as the Toyota Etios and Maruti Suzuki Swift Dzire are used. In some states, like Kerala, vehicles such as theForce Gurkha, theIsuzu DMax, theMitsubishi Pajero, etc. are used for special purposes.[41][42][43][44][45]
Minivans are used by police in cities such as Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore and Lucknow where the Chevrolet Tavera (Delhi,Kochi,Kozhikode andThiruvananthapuram), Toyota Qualis (Mumbai,Delhi andChennai) and Maruti Suzuki Ertiga (Bangalore,Lucknow and Pune) are extensively used. Although most cities use SUVs and minivans, Chennai has adoptedsedans such as theHyundai Accent;Kolkata has adopted theTata Indigo. InKerala cities such asThiruvananthapuram,Kochi andKozhikode, the Pink Police Patrol (to protect women) uses theToyota Etios,Maruti Suzuki Swift DZire,Volkswagen Vento and Police Control Room Units usesMahindra TUV and new genMahindra Thar as first responding vehicle.Mumbai Police andLucknow Police useMahindra TUV for Pink Police.
Depending upon the state, police vehicles may have revolving lights, strobes, orlight bars and public announcement systems, surveillance cameras. A modernization drive has ensured that vehicles are equipped withtwo-way radios in communication with a central control room. Highway police vehicles generally haveradar equipment,breath analyzers, and emergencyfirst aid kits. For traffic regulation and city patrol,motorcycles are also used; most was the Indian version of theRoyal Enfield Bullet, but theBajaj Pulsar andTVS Apache are also used.
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Weapons and equipment vary from state to state and agency to agency. Standard equipment for aconstable on thebeat is thelathi, or long baton—generally made ofbamboo, but currently also made ofpolymer. Riot police have other equipment, includingtear gas andtasers.
Although police constables do not generally carry firearms on regular duty, they are available at police stations. Officers at and above the rank ofsub-inspector or head constable are authorized to carry aside arm, generally aPistol Auto 9mm 1A or aGlock 17. Officers always carry side arms. Traffic police officers have fine books and other equipment.
Firearms previously stocked at police stations included.303 Lee–Enfield rifles (now replaced),7.62 1A self-loading rifles andSAF Carbine 2A1s, which have been replaced byAK-47 andINSAS rifles. TheOrdnance Factory Board is a supplier of arms, ammunition, uniforms, bullet-proof vehicles, and mine-protected vehicles to the police. Only a station officer can allow the use of reserve guns in emergencies. During public unrest, protests or possible terrorist attacks, police are equipped by the state (or central) government.
Special units at the state and federal level have automatic weapons, such as the AK-47,AKM and INSASassault rifles andBren guns. Special-forces andSWAT units useHeckler & Koch MP5s,Brügger & Thomet MP9s,AK-103s,M4A1 Carbines and others. Bulletproof jackets are generally not worn by state police, although special units carry tactical vests, gear, and weapons according to function.
| Name | Weapon | Type | Caliber | Origin | Note |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Handguns | |||||
| Beretta 92 |  | Semi-automatic pistol | 9×19mm Parabellum | Italy | Standard issue firearm |
| Pistol Auto 9mm 1A |  | Semi-automatic pistol | 9×19mm Parabellum | India | Standard issue firearm |
| Glock 17 |  | Semi-automatic pistol | 9×19mm Parabellum | Austria | Standard Issue Firearm |
| IOF .32 revolver |  | Revolver | 7.65mm x 23mm | India | Standard issue firearm |
| CornerShot |  | weapon accessory | Israel and India | Used by SWAT Team. | |
| Shotgun | |||||
| OFB pump action Shotgun |  | Pump action | 12-gauge shotgun | India | Used mostly by prison service and Forest Departments |
| Sub-Machine Gun | |||||
| SAF Carbine 2A1 |  | Submachine gun | 9×19mm Parabellum | India | Phasing out and being replaced byMSMC |
| Heckler & Koch MP5 |  | Submachine gun | 9×19mm Parabellum | Germany | Used mainly by Police SWAT and CAPFs |
| Brügger & Thomet MP9 | Submachine gun | 9×19mm Parabellum | Switzerland | Used mainly by Police SWAT | |
| Sten Sub Machine | _noBG.png) | Submachine gun | 9×19mm Parabellum | UK | Being phased out and replaced byMSMC |
| Modern Sub Machine Carbine |  | Submachine gun | 9×19mm Parabellum | India | Replacing allSten Sub Machine andSAF Carbine 2A1 |
| Assault Rifle/ Battle Rifles | |||||
| Ishapore 2A1 rifle |  | bolt-action | 7.62 NATO | India | Being phased out, mainly retain for ceremonial purpose, still employed by Forest Departments |
| 315" Sporting Rifle |  | bolt-action | 8 mm (.315") | India | Mainly employed by Forest Departments |
| 12 Bore Double barrel shotgun |  | Double barrel shotgun | 12-gauge | India | Mainly employed by Forest Departments |
| SG 552 | Assault rifle | 5.56×45mm NATO | Switzerland | Being used by Mumbai police's Force One Commando andPunjab Police SWAT Team | |
| L1A1 Self-Loading Rifle |  | Semi-automatic rifle | 7.62×51mm NATO | UK | Being phased out |
| AKM |  | Assault Rifle | 7.62×39mm | Russia | |
| 1B1 INSAS |  | Assault Rifle | 5.56×45mm NATO | India | Mainstay of police force |
| Amogh carbine |  | Assault Rifle | 5.56×45mm NATO | India | Used by Manipur police and Uttar Pradesh police. |
| Excalibur rifle |  | Assault Rifle | 5.56×45mm NATO | India | Used by Manipur police,Karnataka police,Assam police and West Bengal police. |
| AK-103 |  | Assault rifle | 7.62×39mm | Russia | Used by Mizoram Police and Mumbai Police. |
| Colt M4 |  | Assault rifle | 5.56 NATO | USA | Used by Mizoram Police and Mumbai Police. |
| Light Machine Gun | |||||
| GUN MACHINE 7.62MM IA |  | Light machine Gun | 7.62 x 51 mm NATO | India | Being phased out |
| INSAS LMG |  | Light machine Gun | 5.56×45mm NATO | India | Being replaced |
| Sniper Rifles | |||||
| M107 |  | Sniper Rifle | 416 Barrett | USA | Used by Mumbai Police's Force One Commandos |
| PSG1 |  | Sniper Rifle | 7.62×51mm NATO | Germany | Used byOCTOPUS andGreyhounds |
Informers (mukhbir) provide information for financial compensation. Police agencies budget for theirmukhbirs because they are "the eyes and ears of police", and help resolve cases. In 2012, theDelhi Police budgeted₹ 40 lakh (₹ 4 million) to pay theirmukhbir (₹ 2,000 perinspector).[46]
Police accountability in India is ensured through courts, human rights commissions, police complaint authorities, legislative oversight, and internal mechanisms—but implementation gaps, political interference, and weak independent oversight remain major hurdles.
Courts can order inquiries into custodial deaths, fake encounters, or abuse of power. Courts can order inquiries into custodial deaths, fake encounters, or abuse of power. The Supreme Court’s directives in Prakash Singh v. Union of India constitute a landmark judgment by the apex court on police oversight.
Executive and legislative control: Exercised through State Home Departments, the Ministry of Home Affairs, and questions raised in State Legislative Assemblies and Parliament.
The over-centralization of leadership through theIndian Police Service (IPS) poses a significant structural challenge within India's policing system. Unlike many Western countries where police forces have more linear, rank-based career progression, India follows a three-tier entry system: at theconstable level (constabulary), thesub-inspector level, and theDeputy Superintendent of Police (DySP) level throughState Public Service Commissions. While state officers can reach middle management levels, their promotion to top leadership positions is rare due to the dominance ofIndian Police Service (IPS) officers at the top. This creates a dual structure that often leads to morale issues, lack of motivation among state cadre officers, and disconnect between leadership and the working ranks.
The police hierarchy in India is broadly divided into four levels: senior leadership (IPS officers), middle-level leadership (State Police Service officers such as Additional Superintendents of Police and Deputy Superintendents of Police), officer level (Inspectors, Sub-Inspectors, and Assistant Sub-Inspectors), and the constabulary (Head Constables and Constables). While day-to-day field operations are primarily managed by the lower two tiers, top leadership roles are predominantly held by IPS officers—career civil servants selected through the national-levelUPSC examination.
A key concern in India's policing structure is the limited grassroots experience of Indian Police Service (IPS) officers. Their initial field postings, such asAssistant Superintendents of Police incharge of police subdivisions and police stations, are generally short-term, lasting only a few months to a few years. This restricts their engagement with local law enforcement challenges and operational realities.
State Police Service officers, such as Addl.SPs and DSPs, have limited access to senior leadership positions unless conferred IPS status—a process that is rare and delayed by bureaucratic procedures. Meanwhile, operational policing at the grassroots level is carried out by Inspectors, Sub-Inspectors, and constables. Constabulary personnel typically have minimal upward mobility, with most retiring below or at the rank of Sub-Inspector. Many lower-ranked constable-level police personnel possess substantial educational qualifications and field expertise; however, their opportunities for promotion remain limited.[47][48]
India's police-to-population ratio is approximately 152 personnel per 100,000 people, which is significantly below the United Nations recommended standard of 222 per 100,000 (UNODC, 2010).[49][50] According to data from theBureau of Police Research and Development (BPRD, 2023), this figure reflects not only a quantitative shortfall but is also exacerbated by high vacancy rates in sanctioned posts—often exceeding 20% in several states. These shortages contribute to an overburdened police force, affecting response time, investigation quality, and overall public service delivery. As a core issue in policing, the shortage of personnel was previously noted in the aftermath of the 2008 terrorist attacks inJaipur,Bangalore, andAhmedabad.
A key drawback of policing in India is the overemphasis on maintaining law and order through authoritative methods, which has been a backdrop of colonial era policing, rather than adopting a community policing approach. The traditional model remains largely colonial in nature, prioritizing control, surveillance, and reactive measures over proactive, citizen-centric engagement. This approach often leads to a disconnect between the police and the public, where the force is viewed more as an instrument of authority than as a service-oriented institution.
As a key issue, which has persisted for long, police corruption has been a major reason that has been a drawback of the current system. While bribery is rampant, police corruption has also be linked to favors, false reports, threats to public for personal gains, freebies, extortion to run businesses, enforcement of arbitrary and draconian laws, fabricating evidence to protect the rich and political elite, as well as internal payoffs for preferred postings and promotions.[51] Unlike western nations, where police are accountable to the public, thePolice Act of 1861, a colonial era police law that is still in use across several states, mandates the accountability of law enforcement to the political leadership in power, which is often misused to quell protests or suppress evidences if linked to political figures.[52][53] The law also compels personnel, mostly subordinates, to work for long hours at a stretch with no sufficient rest, which affects investigations, conduct towards public, and there have been instances where such officials have engaged in victim blaming, especially in crimes against women.[54] In addition, many instances of police officers refusing to file reports and investigate have taken place, or delayed actions, which have led to citizens taking law into their hands and lynching culprits to death, mostly in sensitive cases like crimes against women.[55]
One reason for police corruption is the poor pay and benefits, along with no overtime and hazard pay for dangerous police work or operations. The7th Pay Commission mandated a pay of Rs. 21,700 per month for constables, while the top ranked Director-General of Police having a pay of Rs. 225,000 per month. The pay for constables and inspector-ranked officers varies from state to state.[56] Across metro areas, the lowest of the subordinates i.e the constabulary does not get decent housing or any allowances for reasonable accommodation.[57] In addition, while service rules mandate promotion based on merit and time in service, it is not duly followed, due to which officials have resorted to pay bribes for promotions and choice of postings.
Following the 2006Supreme Court orders, all states were directed to implement police reforms to combat corruption, improve working conditions, ensure modernization, and formPolice Complaints Authority to investigate misconduct by law enforcement personnel.[58] However, most states have had zero or partial compliance to the orders, as many of the Governments feared a loss of political control over their police forces.[59] Furthermore the Police Complaints Authority have been criticized for being lame-duck institutions that lack real power to take down errant police personnel accused of misconduct, as well as delaying justice by covering up their actions.[60][61]
In general, police in India lack public trust and are not viewed aslegitimate authorities.[62] People generally do not go to the police for help if given the choice, and often specifically take pains to avoid them.[62] Oftentimes, when people do go to the police, it is "only for instrumental purposes, such as obtaining aFirst Information Report (FIR) as documentary evidence to be used to achieve some end".[62] People expect the police be unhelpful at best, andcorrupt or brutal "little tyrants" at worst.[62] FormerUnion Home MinisterP. Chidambaram characterised the police constable as "the most reviled public servant in India."[62] Even police officers themselves often lack faith in the institution, as illustrated by anapocryphal story popular among officers where "a self-styled 'honest cop'" asks a group of fellow officers if they would trust their coworkers to take care of a family member in trouble — to which none of them said yes.[62]
Scholars usually tend to attribute the police's poor reputation in India to two main factors.[62] First, the police as an institution in India was first developed by the British as an instrument of control.[62] ThePolice Act, 1861, which remains "the institutional bedrock across the country", configured the police to focus less on public service and crime investigation, and more on "coercive order keeping and crowd pacification".[62] Second, the police in postcolonial India are affected by the same corruption and abuse of power that has plagued the government in general.[62] Police have historically been known to applyexcessive force,extortion, and arbitrary and often discriminatory use of authority.[62]
Due to the colonialPolice Act of 1861 being in use, the colonial era mindset and training has effectively caused negative impact on police recruits after being assigned postings. This has led to instances of refusal to file reports in certain cases, especially against political elites or politically connected criminals, harassment of civilians for personal, political or financial gains, or victim blaming, which often happens with rape survivors or women who face sexual harassment.[63] In such instances, errant officials either face suspensions or transfer instead of dismissal from service as well as punishment from the judicial system, which translates the lack of accountability towards the general public, as the Police Act mostly holds officials accountable to the political elite, whether in power or opposition.[64] As policing is a state responsibility based on theConstitution of India, most states across have adopted the 1861 Act without change, while others have passed laws heavily based on the 1861 Act.[65] Since majority provisions of the 1861 Act are not relevant in current times with the advancement in technology, several police commissions, led by retired police officials likeJulio Francis Ribeiro andPrakash Singh have recommended and demanded that the 1861 law be replaced with a Modern Police Act.[66] However, despite demands from the citizens and the retired officers, political leaders in power have refused to replace and overhaul the colonial era Police Act, as it often allows leadership to influence investigations, especially on cases against them, along with targeting opposing leaders and citizens who criticize or protest against them.[67] In certain instances, absurd rules made by Police departments have been heavily censured, especially when they are implemented without proper research and non-consultation with the general public, and despite court warnings and orders to drop these rules, many of these arbitrary rules continue to be enforced - theKolkatabicycle ban enforced by traffic cops is a classic example, where the ban on certain roads and throughfares was enforced to improve traffic flow without conducting proper research, and only after a PIL was filed in the High Court, the department was ordered and forced to reduce the restrictions from 174 to 62 throughfares.[68][69]
The mindset from the colonial Police Act of 1861 has also caused an increase in instances ofmoral policing by law enforcement officials. Across such occasions, several police personnel have been slammed for moral policing for cases of public display of affection by couples, or women's clothing or lifestyle choices.[70][71] As a result of increase in incidents of moral policing by police personnel, the Supreme Court of India passed a ruling in December 2022 stating that police officers cannot indulge in any kind of moral policing.[72] Senior most Police officers have also passed orders to subordinate and junior personnel to not engage in moral policing in the aftermath of such incidents.[73] Furthermore, after certain incidents have been filed in courts, the departments have been ordered to pay compensations to those targeted by moral policing.[74][75]
Several police officials, mostly inspector and constable ranked personnel, have often contemplated about quitting due to over-working and being underpaid when compared to the corporate or private sector jobs, as subordinate personnel have been forced to work 24 hours or more without break and no over-time pay, as thePolice Act of 1861 has a statutory requirement of being on call for 24 hours or more.[76][77] With poor pay, along with pathetic living conditions or accommodations provided, several junior ranked personnel have been forced to demand bribes or engage in extortion, while the overtime working of subordinates affects morale and hampers investigations, besides displaying a bad attitude towards public, which degrades public trust towards police.[78] As means to solve several crimes quickly due to this, many officers have admitted to use of torture and violence against potential culprits to force confessions, and the lack of conviction of errant officers degrades trust towards police personnel. As a result of this, the Supreme Court enforced a mandate that confessions in custody will not be used as evidence.[79] Several public opinions have stated that filling vacancies and overcoming shortage of personnel by high recruitment can solve this problem partially, while also help tackle unemployment.[80]
In addition to overworking, a disunity in the force exists due to 4 levels of entry - constables, sub-inspectors, state service DSPs, and IPS, with constables being treated as slaves or personal servants for senior officers. This type of police system has been severely criticized by several current and retired senior police officials, demanding a single entry into the force from constable that is standard across several western nations, which has met resistance from other officials and political establishment.[81] Apart from the disunity and shortage of personnel, a lot of operational issues plague with the police departments, such as lack of quality patrolling vehicles, outdated technology, and using antiquated and obsolete weaponry.[82][83] These issues were highlighted in the second episode ofsecond season ofSatyamev Jayate, hosted by actorAamir Khan, who discussed about them with several serving and retired police officers, with one of guests stating that the starting rank for anyone joining the force should start with constable, rather than having different levels of entry. As per the Human Rights Watch report of 2009, constables constitute nearly 85% of the total force, inspector rank officers constitute 14%, while senior ranks, which range from SP to DGP, are at 1%.[84]
Although improvements have taken place after media exposures and judicial rulings for police reforms and better working conditions, many states have refused to comply due to political reasons, and do not provide sufficient budget for development of police forces or a contingency fund, as well as critical resources.[85][86] Additionally, the constabulary have been treated as slaves and forced to do menial tasks instead of actual police work, which questions the intents and motives of senior officials, with many unwilling to listen or bring changes.[87] Following increase in complaints and media exposes, home ministers across various states ordered police departments to have constables only perform official police duties rather than have them work as personal servants.[88]
While the Police Service norms mandate both merit-based and time-in-service promotion for all ranks, including constable and inspector rank officers, it is not duly followed or implemented.[89] This has caused constables to remain at the same rank, or maximum of one to 2 promotions of head constable or ASI (Assistant Sub-Inspector) till retirement. Despite the norms, as well as the Supreme Court orders on police reforms, bureaucratic inefficiencies, nepotism and the policies laid in the Police Act of 1861 prevent low-ranking officers from getting promotions, even if they get a pay raise to the next rank.[90] As a result of not being promoted despite good standing, several personnel have filed lawsuits against departments and complained about mental agony because of denied promotions.[91]
Despite the negative reception of police personnel among the general public, several officers have been received praise for several community based policing initiatives, as well as off-duty community services.[92] Certain police officers have also received praise during critical situations like terrorist attacks, including tributes paid to officers killed in action.[93]
The Police in India, primarily governed by the colonial-eraPolice Act, 1861, has long been criticized for its subservience to the executive and lack of accountability. While some states have enacted their own police acts post-independence, such as the Bombay Police Act of 1951, the Kerala Police Act of 1963, and the Delhi Police Act of 1978, the core issues of police accountability and public trust remain largely unaddressed.The landmark judgment inPrakash Singh v.Union of India marked a significant step towards police reforms in India. TheSupreme Court issued several directives to theCentral andState Governments to improve the efficiency and accountability of the police force. Following are the key directives of the SC;[94]
Establishment of a State Security Commission to ensure the independence of the police and prevent undue political interference.
The Commission should be modeled after recommendations from the National Human Rights Commission, Reberio Committee, or Sorabjee Committee.
India's police continue to be governed by acolonial police law passed in 1861.[95] TheIndian Constitution makes policing astate subject and therefore the state governments have the responsibility to provide their communities with a police service. However, after independence, most have adopted the 1861 Act without change, while others have passed laws heavily based on the 1861 Act.[96]
Repeated major incidents, like the2012 Delhi gang rape and murder,2020 Hathras gang rape and murder, as well as terrorist attacks such as the2008 Mumbai attacks revealed the failure of the police to uphold therule of law.[97][98]
The need for police reform in India has long been recognised. There have been almost 30 years of debate and discussion by government-created committees and commissions on the way forward for police reform, but India remains saddled with an outdated and old-fashioned law,[99] while report after report gathers dust on government bookshelves without implementation. Many committees on police reform have recommended major reforms in the police system coupled with systematicaccountability.[100][101]
The National Police Commission was the first committee set up by theGovernment of India to report on policing. The National Police Commission began sitting in 1979, in the context of a post-Emergency India, and produced eight reports, including a Model Police Act, between 1979 and 1981.[102]
In 1996, two former senior police officers filed aPublic interest litigation (PIL) in theSupreme Court, asking for the Court to direct governments to implement the recommendations of the National Police Commission. The Supreme Court directed the government to set up a committee to review the commission's recommendations, and thus the Ribeiro Committee was formed. The committee, under the leadership ofJulio Ribeiro, a former chief of police, sat over 1998 and 1999, and produced two reports.[102][103]
In 2000, the government set up a third committee on police reform, this time under the stewardship of a former union home secretary,K. Padmanabhaiah. This Committee released its report in the same year.[102][104]
The Malimath Committee Report submitted in March 2003 has very articulately laid down the foundation of a restructured and reoriented police system. The committee in its report observed that the success of the whole process of Criminal Justice Administration depended completely on the proper functioning of the police organisation especially in the investigation stage. Apart from the investigation of offences, the police also have the duty of maintaining law and order.
In 2005, the government put together a group to draft a new police act for India. It was headed bySoli Sorabjee (formerattorney general). The committee submitted a Model Police Act to the union government in late 2006.[102]
In 1996,Prakash Singh (a former chief ofAssam Police andUttar Pradesh Police and subsequently Director General of theBorder Security Force) initiated aPublic Interest Litigation (PIL) in theSupreme Court of India, asking the court to investigate measures to reform the police forces across India to ensure the proper rule of law and improve security across India. The Supreme Court studied various reports on police reforms. Finally, in 2006, a bench of JusticeYogesh Kumar Sabharwal, JusticeC. K. Thakker and Justice P.K. Balasubramanyan[58] ordered the state governments to implement several reforms in police force.[105]
Several measures were identified as necessary to professionalise the police in India:
In 2006, due to a lack of action by all the state governments,[107] theSupreme Court ordered the state governments to report to it why the reform measures outlined were not implemented.[108] After being questioned in front of the judges of theSupreme Court, the state governments finally started to reform the police forces and give them the operational independence they need for fearless and proper law enforcement.Tamil Nadu Police has been in the forefront of application of the new referendum.[109]
Again, in October 2012, a Supreme Court bench ofChief JusticeAltamas Kabir and justicesS. S. Nijjar andJasti Chelameswar asked all state governments andUnion territories to inform about compliance of its September 2006 judgement. The order was passed when Prakash Singh through his lawyerPrashant Bhushan said that many of the reforms (ordered by the Supreme Court) have yet not been implemented by many state governments.[110]
Some IPS officers have been accused of public corruption, money laundering, drug trafficking, and unjust use of power.[111][112][113][114][115][116][117] There have been various instances of abuse of the public by officers.[118] High-ranking officers often enjoy many luxuries for no cost.[119] There is also opportunity to receive extra payment for doing specific tasks on the job.[119]
IPS officers have complained of high levels of stress due to long work hours and unrealistic demands of political bosses. Retired Director General of Police in Uttar PradeshVikram Singh believes job discontent is a combination of "no holidays, lack of sleep, the sinking feeling of failure, public treatment of policemen with contempt, the indifference of political bosses and almost no connect with superiors". Professional stress ruins personal lives and leads to marital discord. The inability to balance professional and personal lives has led some IPS officers to commit suicide.[120]
As of March 2023, India has a police-to-population of 153 personnel per 100,000 citizens, which is less than the sanctioned strength of 196 personnel, as well as way below the United Nations minimum requirement of 222 personnel per 100,000 citizens.[121] The training has also fallen short of world standards, with the shortage of personnel causing investigations to suffer.[122] These issues were previously noted in the aftermath of the 2008 terrorist attacks inJaipur,Bangalore, andAhmedabad.
The Indian Police Service has often faced the issues of being overworked, as well as underpaid. The7th Pay Commission mandated a pay of Rs. 21,700 per month for constables, with the Director-General of Police having a pay of Rs. 225,000 per month. The pay for constables and inspector-ranked officers varies from state to state.[123]
Due to a lack of shift system, many officers, especially the constable ranks were forced to work for more than 24 hours at a stretch, with no overtime pay. This affects the quality of the investigation as well as the morale of the officials on duty.[124][125] Furthermore, the constabulary also does not get decent housing or any allowances for reasonable accommodation.[126]
In May 2022, theMumbai Police implemented an 8-hour shift system for the constable rank officers and assistant sub-inspectors, and 16 hours of rest.[127] Following a lawsuit by a constable of theDelhi Police for demanding fixed working hours, proper housing, and reasonable pay in 2015, theDelhi High Court ordered senior officers of implementing better working conditions for constables in May 2023.[128]
Some IPS officers have been implicated in cases of domestic violence, assaulting women, and sexual misconduct.[129][130][131][132][133]
In 1972,Kiran Bedi became the first woman Indian Police Service officer and was the only woman in a batch of 80 IPS officers, she joined the AGMUT Cadre.[134] She was followed byJija Madhavan Harisingh in 1975, who became the first woman Indian Police Service officer from South-India (Karnataka cadre) and she remained in service for 36 years before retirement in 2011 asDirector General of Police (DGP), andKanchan Chaudhary Bhattacharya, the second woman IPS officer belonging to the 1973 Batch, becoming the first womandirector general of police of a state in India when she was appointed DGP ofUttarakhand Police.
In 1992,Asha Sinha, a 1982 Batch IPS officer, became the first woman commandant in the paramilitary forces of India when she was posted as commandant,Central Industrial Security Force inMazagon Dock Shipbuilders and she remained in service for 34 years before retirement in 2016 as thedirector general of police (DGP). In 2018, an IPS officerArchana Ramasundaram of 1980 Batch became the first woman to become the director general of police of aCentral Armed Police Force as DG,Sashastra Seema Bal.[135]
In 2021, Kalpana Saxena replacedYogesh Singh as the commandant of 47 battalion of PAC, Ghaziabad.[136]
In 2023,Nina Singh became the director general of theCentral Industrial Security Force.[137][138]
This article incorporates text from this source, which is available under theCC BY 4.0 license.
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In general, police in India lack public trust and are not viewed aslegitimate authorities.[1] People generally do not go to the police for help if given the choice, and often specifically take pains to avoid them.[1] Oftentimes, when people do go to the police, it is "only for instrumental purposes, such as obtaining aFirst Information Report (FIR) as documentary evidence to be used to achieve some end".[1] People expect the police be unhelpful at best, andcorrupt or brutal "little tyrants" at worst.[1] FormerUnion Home MinisterP. Chidambaram characterised the police constable as "the most reviled public servant in India."[1] Even police officers themselves often lack faith in the institution, as illustrated by anapocryphal story popular among officers where "a self-styled 'honest cop'" asks a group of fellow officers if they would trust their coworkers to take care of a family member in trouble — to which none of them said yes.[1]
Scholars usually tend to attribute the police's poor reputation in India to two main factors.[1] First, the police as an institution in India was first developed by the British as an instrument of control.[1] ThePolice Act, 1861, which remains "the institutional bedrock across the country", configured the police to focus less on public service and crime investigation, and more on "coercive order keeping and crowd pacification".[1] Second, the police in postcolonial India are affected by the same corruption and abuse of power that has plagued the government in general.[1] Police have historically been known to applyexcessive force,extortion, and arbitrary and often discriminatory use of authority.[1]
Due to the colonialPolice Act of 1861 being in use, the colonial era mindset and training has effectively caused negative impact on police recruits after being assigned postings. This has led to instances of refusal to file reports in certain cases, especially against political elites or politically connected criminals, harassment of civilians for personal, political or financial gains, or victim blaming, which often happens with rape survivors or women who face sexual harassment.[2] In such instances, errant officials either face suspensions or transfer instead of dismissal from service as well as punishment from the judicial system, which translates the lack of accountability towards the general public, as the Police Act mostly holds officials accountable to the political elite, whether in power or opposition.[3] As policing is a state responsibility based on theConstitution of India, most states across have adopted the 1861 Act without change, while others have passed laws heavily based on the 1861 Act.[4] Since majority provisions of the 1861 Act are not relevant in current times with the advancement in technology, several police commissions, led by retired police officials likeJulio Francis Ribeiro andPrakash Singh have recommended and demanded that the 1861 law be replaced with a Modern Police Act.[5] However, despite demands from the citizens and the retired officers, political leaders in power have refused to replace and overhaul the colonial era Police Act, as it often allows leadership to influence investigations, especially on cases against them, along with targeting opposing leaders and citizens who criticize or protest against them.[6] In certain instances, absurd rules made by Police departments have been heavily censured, especially when they are implemented without proper research and non-consultation with the general public, and despite court warnings and orders to drop these rules, many of these arbitrary rules continue to be enforced - theKolkatabicycle ban enforced by traffic cops is a classic example, where the ban on certain roads and throughfares was enforced to improve traffic flow without conducting proper research, and only after a PIL was filed in the High Court, the department was ordered and forced to reduce the restrictions from 174 to 62 throughfares.[7][8]
The mindset from the colonial Police Act of 1861 has also caused an increase in instances ofmoral policing by law enforcement officials. Across such occasions, several police personnel have been slammed for moral policing for cases of public display of affection by couples, or women's clothing or lifestyle choices.[9][10] As a result of increase in incidents of moral policing by police personnel, the Supreme Court of India passed a ruling in December 2022 stating that police officers cannot indulge in any kind of moral policing.[11] Senior most Police officers have also passed orders to subordinate and junior personnel to not engage in moral policing in the aftermath of such incidents.[12] Furthermore, after certain incidents have been filed in courts, the departments have been ordered to pay compensations to those targeted by moral policing.[13][14]
Several police officials, mostly inspector and constable ranked personnel, have often contemplated about quitting due to over-working and being underpaid when compared to the corporate or private sector jobs, as subordinate personnel have been forced to work 24 hours or more without break and no over-time pay, as thePolice Act of 1861 has a statutory requirement of being on call for 24 hours or more.[15][16] With poor pay, along with pathetic living conditions or accommodations provided, several junior ranked personnel have been forced to demand bribes or engage in extortion, while the overtime working of subordinates affects morale and hampers investigations, besides displaying a bad attitude towards public, which degrades public trust towards police.[17] As means to solve several crimes quickly due to this, many officers have admitted to use of torture and violence against potential culprits to force confessions, and the lack of conviction of errant officers degrades trust towards police personnel. As a result of this, the Supreme Court enforced a mandate that confessions in custody will not be used as evidence.[18] Several public opinions have stated that filling vacancies and overcoming shortage of personnel by high recruitment can solve this problem partially, while also help tackle unemployment.[19]
In addition to overworking, a disunity in the force exists due to 4 levels of entry - constables, sub-inspectors, state service DSPs, and IPS, with constables being treated as slaves or personal servants for senior officers. This type of police system has been severely criticized by several current and retired senior police officials, demanding a single entry into the force from constable that is standard across several western nations, which has met resistance from other officials and political establishment.[20] Apart from the disunity and shortage of personnel, a lot of operational issues plague with the police departments, such as lack of quality patrolling vehicles, outdated technology, and using antiquated and obsolete weaponry.[21][22] These issues were highlighted in the second episode ofsecond season ofSatyamev Jayate, hosted by actorAamir Khan, who discussed about them with several serving and retired police officers, with one of guests stating that the starting rank for anyone joining the force should start with constable, rather than having different levels of entry. As per the Human Rights Watch report of 2009, constables constitute nearly 85% of the total force, inspector rank officers constitute 14%, while senior ranks, which range from SP to DGP, are at 1%.[23]
Although improvements have taken place after media exposures and judicial rulings for police reforms and better working conditions, many states have refused to comply due to political reasons, and do not provide sufficient budget for development of police forces or a contingency fund, as well as critical resources.[24][25] Additionally, the constabulary have been treated as slaves and forced to do menial tasks instead of actual police work, which questions the intents and motives of senior officials, with many unwilling to listen or bring changes.[26] Following increase in complaints and media exposes, home ministers across various states ordered police departments to have constables only perform official police duties rather than have them work as personal servants.[27]
While the Police Service norms mandate both merit-based and time-in-service promotion for all ranks, including constable and inspector rank officers, it is not duly followed or implemented.[28] This has caused constables to remain at the same rank, or maximum of one to 2 promotions of head constable or ASI (Assistant Sub-Inspector) till retirement. Despite the norms, as well as the Supreme Court orders on police reforms, bureaucratic inefficiencies, nepotism and the policies laid in the Police Act of 1861 prevent low-ranking officers from getting promotions, even if they get a pay raise to the next rank.[29] As a result of not being promoted despite good standing, several personnel have filed lawsuits against departments and complained about mental agony because of denied promotions.[30]
Despite the negative reception of police personnel among the general public, several officers have been received praise for several community based policing initiatives, as well as off-duty community services.[31] Certain police officers have also received praise during critical situations like terrorist attacks, including tributes paid to officers killed in action.[32]
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