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Latin literature includes the essays, histories, poems, plays, and other writings written in theLatin language. The beginning of formal Latin literature dates to 240 BC, when the first stage play in Latin was performed in Rome. Latin literature flourished for the next six centuries. The classical era of Latin literature can be roughly divided into several periods:early Latin literature, thegolden age, theimperial period andLate Antiquity.
Latin was the language of the ancient Romans as well as being thelingua franca of Western and Central Europe throughout theMiddle Ages. Latin literature features the work of Roman authors, such asCicero,Virgil,Ovid andHorace, but also includes the work of European writers after the fall of the Empire, from religious writers likeAquinas (1225–1274) to secular writers likeFrancis Bacon (1561–1626),Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677), andIsaac Newton (1642–1727).
Although literature in Latin followed a continual development over several centuries, the beginnings of formal Latin literature started with the regular performance of comedies and tragedies in Rome in 240 BC, one year after the conclusion of theFirst Punic War.[1] These initial comedies and tragedies were adapted fromGreek drama byLivius Andronicus, a Greek prisoner of war who had been brought to Rome as a slave in 272 BC. Andronicus translatedHomer'sOdyssey into Latin using a traditional Latin verse form calledSaturnian meter. In 235 BC,Gnaeus Naevius, a Roman citizen, continued this tradition of producing dramas that were reworkings of Greek originals, orfabula palliata, and he expanded on this by producing a new type of drama,fabula praetexta, or tragedies based on Roman myths and history, starting in 222 BC. Later in life, Naevius composed an epic poem in Saturnian meter on the first Punic War, in which he had fought.[2]
Other epic poets followed Naevius.Quintus Ennius wrote an historical epic, theAnnals (soon after 200 BC), describing Roman history from the founding of Rome to his own time.[3] He adopted the Greek dactylic hexameter, which became the standard verse form for Roman epics. He became well known for his tragic dramas. Successors in this field includeMarcus Pacuvius andLucius Accius. These three writers rarely used episodes fromRoman history, but they wrote Latin versions of tragic themes that the Greeks had already written about. Even when they copied the Greeks, their translations were not straightforward replicas of the original Greek works. Only fragments of their plays have survived.[4]
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Considerably more is known about early Latin comedy, as 26 Early Latin comedies are extant – 20 of which were written byPlautus; the remaining six were written byTerence.[5] These men modeled their comedies on Greek plays known asNew Comedy, but treated the plots and wording of the originals freely. Plautus scattered songs throughout his plays and added to the humor with puns and wisecracks, as well as comic actions by the actors. Terence's plays were more austere in tone, dealing with domestic situations. His works provided the chief inspiration for French and English comedies of the 17th century AD.[6]
The prose of the period is best known throughOn Agriculture (160 BC) byCato the Elder. Cato wrote the first Latin history of Rome and of other Italian cities.[7] He was the first Roman statesman to put his political speeches in writing as a means of influencing public opinion.[8]
Early Latin literature ended withGaius Lucilius, who created a new kind of poetry in his 30 books ofSatires (2nd century BC). He wrote in an easy, conversational tone about books, food, friends, and current events.[4]
Traditionally, the height of Latin literature has been assigned to the period from 81 BC to AD 17, although recent scholarship has questioned the assumptions that privileged the works of this period over both earlier and later works.[9] This period is usually said to have begun with the first known speech ofCicero and ended with the death ofOvid.
Cicero has traditionally been considered the master of Latin prose.[10][11] The writing he produced from about 80 BC until his death in 43 BC exceeds that of any Latin author whose work survives in terms of quantity and variety of genre and subject matter, as well as possessing unsurpassed stylistic excellence. Cicero's many works can be divided into four groups: (1) letters, (2) rhetorical treatises, (3) philosophical works, and (4) orations. His letters provide detailed information about an important period in Roman history and offer a vivid picture of the public and private life among the Roman governing class. Cicero's works on oratory are our most valuable Latin sources for ancient theories on education and rhetoric. His philosophical works were the basis of moral philosophy during the Middle Ages. His speeches inspired many European political leaders and the founders of the United States.
Julius Caesar andSallust were significant historical writers of Cicero's time. Caesar wrote commentaries on the Gallic and civil wars in a straightforward style to justify his actions as a general. He wrote descriptions of people and their motives.
The birth of lyric poetry in Latin occurred during the same period. The lyrics ofCatullus, whom the writerAulus Gellius[12] called "the most elegant of poets", are noted for their emotional intensity. Contemporary with Catullus,Lucretius expounded the Epicurean philosophy in a long poem,De rerum natura.
One of the most prolific writers of the period wasMarcus Terentius Varro. Referred to as "the most learned of the Romans" byQuintillian,[13] he wrote about a remarkable variety of subjects, from religion to poetry, but only his writings on agriculture and the Latin language are extant in their complete form.
The emperorAugustus took a personal interest in the literary works produced during his years of power from 27 BC to AD 14. This period is sometimes called the Augustan Age of Latin Literature.Virgil published his pastoralEclogues, theGeorgics, and theAeneid, an epic poem describing the events that led to the creation of Rome. Virgil told how the Trojan hero Aeneas became the ancestor of the Roman people. Virgil provided divine justification for Roman rule over the world. Although Virgil died before he could put the finishing touches on his poem, it was soon regarded as the greatest work of Latin literature.[14][15]
Virgil's friendHorace wroteEpodes,Odes,Satires, andEpistles. The perfection of theOdes in content, form, and style has charmed readers for hundreds of years. TheSatires andEpistles discuss ethical and literary problems in an urbane, witty manner. Horace'sArt of Poetry, probably published as a separate work, greatly influenced later poetic theories. It stated the basic rules of classical writing as the Romans understood and used them. After Virgil died, Horace was Rome's leading poet.[16]
The Latin elegy reached its highest development in the works ofTibullus,Propertius, andOvid. Most of this poetry is concerned with love. Ovid wrote theFasti, which describes Roman festivals and their legendary origins. Ovid's greatest work, theMetamorphoses, weaves various myths into a fast-paced, fascinating story. Ovid was a witty writer who excelled in creating lively and passionate characters. TheMetamorphoses was the best-known source of Greek and Roman mythology throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. It inspired many poets, painters, and composers.
One of the few female poets of ancient Rome whose work has survived isSulpicia.[17]
In prose,Livy produced a history of the Roman people in 142 books. Only 35 survived, but they are a major source of information on Rome.[18]
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From the death of Augustus in AD 14 until about 200, Roman authors emphasized style and tried new and startling ways of expression. During the reign ofNero from 54 to 68, the Stoic philosopherSeneca wrote a number of dialogues and letters on such moral themes as mercy and generosity. In hisNatural Questions, Seneca analyzed earthquakes, floods, and storms. Seneca's tragedies greatly influenced the growth of tragic drama in Europe. His nephewLucan wrote thePharsalia (about 60), an epic poem describing the civil war between Caesar andPompey. TheSatyricon (about 60) byPetronius was the firstpicaresque Latin novel.[19] Only fragments of the complete work survive. It describes the adventures of various low-class characters in absurd, extravagant, and dangerous situations, often in the world of petty crime.
Epic poems included theArgonautica ofGaius Valerius Flaccus, following the story of Jason and the Argonauts in their quest for the Golden Fleece, theThebaid ofStatius, following the conflict of Oedipus's sons and the Seven Against Thebes, and thePunica ofSilius Italicus, following the Second Punic War and the invasions of Hannibal into Italy. At the hands ofMartial, the epigram achieved the stinging quality still associated with it.Juvenal satirized vice.
The historianTacitus painted an unforgettably dark picture of the early empire in hisHistories andAnnals, both written in the early 2nd century. His contemporarySuetonius wrote biographies of the 12 Roman rulers fromJulius Caesar throughDomitian. The letters ofPliny the Younger described Roman life of the period.Quintilian composed the most complete work on ancient education that we possess. Important works from the 2nd century include theAttic Nights ofAulus Gellius, a collection of anecdotes and reports of literary discussions among his friends; and the letters of the oratorMarcus Cornelius Fronto toMarcus Aurelius. The most famous work of the period wasMetamorphoses, also calledThe Golden Ass, byApuleius. This novel concerns a young man who is accidentally changed into a donkey. The story is filled with tales of love and witchcraft.
Pagan Latin literature showed a final burst of vitality from the late 3rd century till the 5th centuries –Ammianus Marcellinus in history,Quintus Aurelius Symmachus in oratory, andAusonius andRutilius Claudius Namatianus in poetry. TheMosella by Ausonius demonstrated a modernism of feeling that indicates the end of classical literature as such.
Writers who laid the foundations ofChristian Latin literature during the 4th century and 5th century included the church fathersAugustine of Hippo,Jerome, andAmbrose, and the first great Christian poet,Prudentius. Some Latin writing by Christian women also survives: the prison diary of the martyrPerpetua of Carthage,[20] and an account of aChristian pilgrimage by the pilgrimEgeria.[21]
During theEarly Middle Ages, there was a noted literary activity in theCarolingian Empire, mostly in modern-dayFrance, characterized as theCarolingian Renaissance, and some 80 Latin-language writers from this period have been covered in theClavis Scriptorum Latinorum Medii Aevi published byBrepols. TheHigh Middle Ages would be characterized by a renewal of Latin literature through the translation of theToledo School of works fromIslamic Spain, both original and translations from previous Greek texts, and withScholasticism Latin would find a new philosophical expression.
During the Renaissance there was a return to the Latin of classical times, called for this reasonNeo-Latin. This purified language continued to be used as thelingua franca among the learned throughout Europe, with the great works ofDescartes,Francis Bacon, andBaruch Spinoza all being composed in Latin. Among the last important books written primarily in Latin prose were the works ofSwedenborg (d. 1772),Linnaeus (d. 1778),Euler (d. 1783),Gauss (d. 1855), andIsaac Newton (d. 1727), and Latin remains a necessary skill for modern readers of great early modern works of linguistics, literature, and philosophy.
TheHandlist of the Latin Writers of Great Britain and Ireland before 1540, published byBrepols, contains the names of some 2,000 Latin-language writers originating from modern-dayEngland,Ireland,Scotland andWales, covering a period from the 5th century to the 16th.[22]
Several of the leading pre-modern English poets wrote in Latin as well as English.Milton's 1645 Poems are one example, but there were alsoThomas Campion,George Herbert and Milton's colleagueAndrew Marvell. Some indeed wrote chiefly in Latin and were valued for the elegance and Classicism of their style. Examples of these wereAnthony Alsop andVincent Bourne, who were noted for the ingenious way that they adapted their verse to describing details of life in the 18th century while never departing from the purity of Latin diction.[23] One of the last to be noted for the quality of his Latin verse well into the 19th century wasWalter Savage Landor.[24]
Much Latin writing reflects the Romans' interest in rhetoric, the art of speaking and persuading. Public speaking had great importance for educated Romans because most of them wanted successful political careers. When Rome was arepublic, effective speaking often determined who would be elected or what bills would pass. After Rome became anempire, the ability to impress and persuade people by the spoken word lost much of its importance. But training in rhetoric continued to flourish and to affect styles of writing. A large part of rhetoric consists of the ability to present a familiar idea in a striking new manner that attracts attention. Latin authors became masters of this art of variety.
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Latin is a highlyinflected language, with many grammatical forms for various words. As a result, it can be used with a pithiness and brevity unknown in English. It lends itself to elaboration, because its tight syntax holds even the longest and most complex sentence together as a logical unit. Latin can be used with conciseness, as in the works ofSallust andTacitus. Or it can have wide, sweeping phrases, as in the works ofLivy and the speeches ofCicero.
Latin lacks the poetic vocabulary of Greek. Some earlier Roman poets tried to make up for this deficiency by creating new compound words, as the Greeks had done; nevertheless, Roman writers seldom invented words. Except in epic poetry, they tended to use familiar vocabulary, giving it poetic value by combinations of words and by rich sound effects. Rome's leading poets had great technical skill in the choice and arrangement of language. They had an intimate knowledge of the Greek poets, whose themes appear in almost all Roman literature.
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