| Latin jazz | |
|---|---|
| Stylistic origins | Afro-Cuban jazz: Afro-Brazilian jazz:
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| Cultural origins | Cuba;New York City, United States; and Brazil |
| Regional scenes | |
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Latin jazz is a genre ofjazz withLatin American rhythms. The two main categories areAfro-Cuban jazz, rhythmically based on Cuban popular dance music, with a rhythm section employingostinato patterns or aclave, and Afro-Brazilian jazz, which includessamba andbossa nova.
African American music began incorporatingAfro-Cuban musical motifs in the 19th century, when thehabanera (Cubancontradanza) gained international popularity. The habanera was the first written music to be rhythmically based on an African motif. Thehabanera rhythm (also known ascongo,[1]tango-congo,[2] ortango[3]) can be thought of as a combination oftresillo and thebackbeat.Wynton Marsalis considerstresillo to be the New Orleans "clave," although technically, the pattern is only half aclave.[4]
"St. Louis Blues" (1914) byW. C. Handy has a habanera-tresillo bass line. Handy noted a reaction to the habanera rhythm included in Will H. Tyler's "Maori": "I observed that there was a sudden, proud and graceful reaction to the rhythm...White dancers, as I had observed them, took the number in stride. I began to suspect that there was something Negroid in that beat." After noting a similar reaction to the same rhythm in "La Paloma", Handy included this rhythm in his "St. Louis Blues", the instrumental copy of "Memphis Blues", the chorus of "Beale Street Blues", and other compositions.[6]Jelly Roll Morton considered the tresillo-habanera (which he called theSpanish tinge) to be an essential ingredient of jazz.[7] The habanera rhythm can be heard in his left hand on songs like "The Crave" (1910, recorded 1938).
Now in one of my earliest tunes, "New Orleans Blues," you can notice the Spanish tinge. In fact, if you can't manage to put tinges of Spanish in your tunes, you will never be able to get the right seasoning, I call it, for jazz—Morton (1938: Library of Congress Recording).[8]
Although the exact origins of jazz syncopation may never be known, there is evidence that the habanera-tresillo was there at its conception.Buddy Bolden, the firstknown jazz musician, is credited with creating thebig four, a habanera-based pattern. The big four (below) was the first syncopated bass drum pattern to deviate from the standard on-the-beat march.[9] As the example below shows, the second half of the big four pattern is the habanera rhythm.
It is probably safe to say that by and large the simpler African rhythmic patterns survived in jazz ... because they could be adapted more readily to European rhythmic conceptions. Some survived, others were discarded as the Europeanization progressed. It may also account for the fact that patterns such as [tresillo have] . . . remained one of the most useful and common syncopated patterns in jazz—Schuller (1968).[10]
The Cuban influence is evident in many pre-1940s jazz tunes, but rhythmically, they are all based on single-celled motifs such astresillo, and not do not contain an overt two-celled,clave-based structure. "Caravan", written byJuan Tizol and first performed in 1936, is an early proto-Latin jazz composition.Mongo Santamaría recorded ever green "Watermelon Man" in 1962.Hank Mobley,Kenny Dorham, andWillie Bobo released latin jazz albums.Willie Bobo fusedjazz, latin, and R&B music.[11]
The firstjazz piece to be overtly basedin-clave, and therefore, the first true Latin jazz piece, was "Tanga" (1943) composed byMario Bauza and recorded byMachito and his Afro-Cubans the same year, 1943. The tune was initially a descarga (Cuban jam) with jazz solos superimposed, spontaneously composed by Bauzá.
The right hand of the "Tanga" pianoguajeo is in the style known as ponchando, a type of non-arpeggiated guajeo using block chords. The sequence of attack-points is emphasized, rather than a sequence of different pitches. As a form of accompaniment it can be played in a strictly repetitive fashion or as a varied motif akin to jazz comping.[12] The following example is in the style of a 1949 recording by Machito. 2‐3 clave, piano by René Hernández.[13]
The first descarga that made the world take notice is traced to aMachito rehearsal on May 29, 1943, at the Park Palace Ballroom, at 110th Street and 5th Avenue. At this time, Machito was at Fort Dix (New Jersey) in his fourth week of basic training. The day before atLa Conga Club,Mario Bauza, Machito'strumpeter andmusic director, heard pianist Luis Varona and bassist Julio Andino play El Botellero composition and arrangements of the Cuban-born Gilberto Valdez which would serve as a permanent sign off (end the dance) tune.
On this Monday evening, Dr. Bauza leaned over the piano and instructed Varona to play the same piano vamp he did the night before. Varona's left hand began the introduction of Gilberto Valdes' El Botellero. Bauza then instructed Julio Andino what to play; then the saxes; then the trumpets. The broken chord sounds soon began to take shape into an Afro-Cuban jazzed up melody. Gene Johnson's alto sax then emitted oriental-like jazz phrases.Afro-Cuban jazz was invented when Bauza composed "Tanga" (African word for marijuana) that evening of 1943.
Thereafter, whenever "Tanga" was played, it sounded different, depending on a soloist's individuality. In August 1948, when trumpeter Howard McGhee soloed with Machito's orchestra at the Apollo Theatre, his ad-libs to "Tanga" resulted in "Cu-Bop City," a tune which was recorded by Roost Records months later. The jams which took place at the Royal Roots,Bop City and Birdland between 1948 and 1949, when Howard McGhee, tenor saxophonist Brew Moore, Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie sat in with the Machito orchestra, were unrehearsed, uninhibited, unheard-of-before jam sessions which at the time, master of ceremonies Symphony Sid calledAfro-Cuban jazz.
The Machito orchestra's ten- or fifteen-minute jams were the first in Latin music to break away from the traditional under-four-minute recordings. In February 1949, the Machito orchestra became the first to set a precedent in Latin music when it featured tenor saxophonist Flip Phillips in a five-minute recording of "Tanga." The twelve-inch 78 RPM, part ofThe Jazz Scene album, sold for $25—Salazar (1997).[14]
Mario Bauzá developed the 3-2 / 2-3clave concept and terminology. A chord progression can begin on either side of clave. When the progression begins on the three-side, the song or song section is said to be in 3–2 clave. When the chord progression begins on the two-side, it is in 2–3 clave. In North America, salsa and Latin jazz charts commonly represent clave in two measures ofcut-time (2/2); this is most likely the influence of jazz conventions.[15] When clave is written in two measures (above) changing from one clave sequence to the other is a matter of reversing the order of the measures.
Bobby Sanabria, who was Bauzá's drummer, cites several important innovations of Machito's band:
Bauzá introducedbebop innovatorDizzy Gillespie to the Cuban conga drummerChano Pozo. "Manteca" is the firstjazz standard to be rhythmically based onclave. "Manteca" was co-written byDizzy Gillespie andChano Pozo in 1947. According to Gillespie, Pozo created the layered,contrapuntalguajeos (Afro-Cubanostinatos) of the A section and the introduction, and Gillespie wrote the bridge. The rhythm of themelody of the A section is identical to a commonmambobell pattern.
On March 31, 1946, Stan Kenton recorded "Machito," written by his collaborator / arrangerPete Rugolo, which is considered by some to be the first Latin jazz recording by American jazz musicians. The Kenton band was augmented by Ivan Lopez on bongos and Eugenio Reyes on maracas. Later, on December 6 the same year, Stan Kenton recorded an arrangement of the Afro-Cuban tune "The Peanut Vendor" with members of Machito's rhythm section.
Kenny Dorham "Minor's Holiday", "Basheer's Dream",[18] Hank Mobley "Recado Bossa Nova" and Sabu Martinez jazz tune developed Afro-Cuban jazz from 50s to 60s.[19]
Cuban percussionistMongo Santamaria recorded album "Afro Blue" in 1959.[20]"Afro Blue" was the first jazz standard built upon a typical African three-against-two (3:2)cross-rhythm, orhemiola.[21] The song begins with the bass repeatedly playing 6 cross-beats per each measure of 12/8, or 6 cross-beats per 4 main beats—6:4 (two cells of 3:2). The following example shows the originalostinato "Afro Blue" bass line. The slashed noteheads indicate the mainbeats (not bass notes), where you would normally tap your foot to "keep time."
Bossa nova is a hybrid form based on the samba rhythm, but influenced by European and American music from Debussy to US jazz. Bossa nova originated in the 1950s, largely from the efforts of BraziliansAntonio Carlos Jobim andJoão Gilberto. Its most famous song is arguably "The Girl from Ipanema" sung by Gilberto and his wife,Astrud Gilberto. While the musical style evolved fromsamba, it is more complex harmonically and less percussive. Bossa nova emerged primarily from the upscale beachside neighborhoods of Rio de Janeiro as opposed to samba's origins in thefavelas of Rio. Certain similar elements were already evident, even influencing Western classical music like Gershwin'sCuban Overture which has the characteristic 'Latin'clave rhythm. The influence on bossa nova ofjazz styles such ascool jazz is often debated by historians and fans, but a similar "cool sensibility" is apparent.
Bossa nova was developed in Brazil in the mid-1950s, with its creation being credited to artists includingJohnny Alf,Antonio Carlos Jobim andJoão Gilberto. One of the first songs was "Bim-Bom"(Gilberto). Bossa nova was made popular byDorival Caymmi's "Saudade da Bahia" andElizete Cardoso's recording of "Chega de Saudade" on theCanção do Amor DemaisLP, composed byVinícius de Moraes (lyrics) and Antonio Carlos Jobim (music). The song was soon after released by Gilberto.
The initial releases by Gilberto and the internationally popular 1959 filmOrfeu Negro ("Black Orpheus", with score byLuiz Bonfá) brought significant popularity of this musical style in Brazil and elsewhere in Latin America, which spread to North America via visiting American jazz musicians. The resulting recordings byCharlie Byrd andStan Getz cemented its popularity and led to a worldwide boom with 1964'sGetz/Gilberto, numerous recordings by famous jazz performers such asElla Fitzgerald (Ella Abraça Jobim) andFrank Sinatra (Francis Albert Sinatra & Antônio Carlos Jobim). Since that time, the bossa nova style maintains a lasting influence in world music for several decades and even up to the present.
The first bossa nova single to achieve international popularity was perhaps the most successful of all time, the 1964 Getz/Gilberto recording "The Girl From Ipanema", edited to include only the singing ofAstrud Gilberto, Gilberto's then wife. The genre would withstand substantial "watering down" by popular artists throughout the next four decades.
An early influence on bossa nova was the song "Dans mon île" by French singerHenri Salvador, featured in the 1957 Italian movieEuropa di notte byAlessandro Blasetti; the song was distributed in Brazil and covered later by Brazilian artistsEumir Deodato (Los Danseros en Bolero – 1964) andCaetano Veloso (Outras Palavras – 1981). In 2005, Henri Salvador was awarded theBrazilian Order of Cultural Merit, which he received from singer and Minister of Culture,Gilberto Gil, in the presence of PresidentLula for his influence on Brazilian culture.
The so-called "bossa nova clave" (or "Brazilian clave") is played on the snare rim of thedrum kit in bossa nova. The pattern has a similar rhythm to that of the sonclave, but the second note on the two-side is delayed by one pulse (subdivision). The pattern is shown below in 2/4, as it is written in Brazil. In North American charts it is more likely to be written in cut-time.
According to drummerBobby Sanabria the Brazilian composerAntonio Carlos Jobim, who developed the pattern, considers it to be merely a rhythmic motif and not aclave (guide pattern). Jobim later regretted that Latino musicians misunderstood the role of this bossa nova pattern.[22]
Brazilian percussionistAirto Moreira became a professional musician at age 13. He won acclaim as a member of the samba jazz pioneersSambalanço Trio and for his landmark recordingQuarteto Novo withHermeto Pascoal in 1967. Shortly after, he followed his wifeFlora Purim to the United States. Once in the U.S., Airto introduced Afro-Brazilian folkloric instruments into a wide variety of jazz styles, in ways that had not been done before. However, the termsjazz samba orLatin jazz are too limiting a label for the types of music Airto participated in the U.S. during the 1970s. Airto played in the two most importantavant-garde electric jazz bands of the day—Miles Davis andWeather Report. He also performed on more mainstream albums, such as those ofCTI Records. Besides energetic rhythmic textures, Airto added percussion color, using bells, shakers, and whistles to create evocative textures of timbre. Airto paved the way for otheravant garde Brazilian musicians such asHermeto Pascoal, to enter the North American jazz scene.
Early 1970s, Deodato released big hit crossover jazz album "Prelude". Another innovative Brazilian percussionist isNaná Vasconcelos. Vasconcelos contributed to fourJon Hassell albums from 1976 to 1980 (includingPossible Musics byBrian Eno and Hassell), and later to severalPat Metheny Group works andJan Garbarek concerts from early 1980s to early 1990s. In 1976 joinedEgberto Gismonti to recordDança das cabeças inECM label. In 1984 he appeared on thePierre Favre albumSinging Drums along withPaul Motian. He also appears onArild Andersen's album "If You Look Far Enough" withRalph Towner. Vasconcelos formed a group namedCodona withDon Cherry andCollin Walcott, which released three albums in 1978, 1980 and 1982.[23][24][25] While Vasconcelos uses Afro-Brazilian rhythms and instruments, he like Airto, transcend the categories of Brazilian jazz and Latin jazz.
In comparison with straight-ahead jazz, Latin jazz employsstraight rhythm (or "even-eighths"), rather thanswung rhythm. Early Latin jazz rarely employed abackbeat, but contemporary forms fuse the backbeat with theclave. Theconga,timbale,güiro,bongos, andclaves arepercussion instruments often used in addition to, or in place of thedrum kit.
Latin jazz music, like most types of jazz music, can be played in small or large groups. Small groups, or combos, often use thebebop format made popular in the 1950s in America, where the musicians play a standard melody, many of the musicians play an improvised solo, and then everyone plays the melody again. Prominent Latin jazz big bands includeArturo O'Farrill's Afro-Latin Jazz Orchestra, Bobby Sanabria's Multiverse Big Band, Raices Jazz Orchestra, Mambo Legends Orchestra, Pacific Mambo Orchestra, as well as others. In Latin jazz bands, percussion is often featured in solos. Contemporary Latin jazz pieces by musicians such asHermeto Pascoal are mostly composed for these small groups, with percussion solos as well as many wind-instrumentals.[26]
Most jazz histories emphasize the narrative that jazz is exclusively an American music—a style created by African Americans in the early 20th century, fusing elements of African rhythm and improvisations with European instrumentation, harmonies, and formal structures. The influences of musics from the Caribbean and Latin America—saveJelly Roll Morton's often quoted comments on the "Spanish tinge" rhythms of early New Orleans jazz, and trumpeterDizzy Gillespie's famous Post-War collaborations with Afro-Cuban drummerChano Pozo—have received little or no mention in standard jazz textbooks used in most American universities.[27][28] Likewise, the influential 1973 compilation of recordings, theSmithsonian Collection of Classic Jazz, andKen Burns' popular documentary filmJazz, make little mention of Latin jazz.[29] More recent scholarship has challenged this paradigm, arguing that music from the Caribbean and Latin American were essential to the emergence of earlyNew Orleans jazz, to the music's Post-War development in New York City, and to the continued evolution of jazz in twenty-first century urban centers. Proponents of this view advocate for the inclusion of influential Caribbean band leaders including FrankMachito Grillo,Mario Bauzá,Chico O'Farrill,Tito Puente,Ray Barretto, and Jerry and Andy Gonzalez in the broader jazz cannon.[30][31] From this perspective, all jazz, including Latin Jazz, is not viewed as a uniquely American expression, but rather as "a global music" that is "transcultural in its stylistic scope."[32]
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