In thevisual arts,late modernism encompasses the overall production of most recent art made between theaftermath of World War II and the early years of the 21st century. The terminology often points to similarities between late modernism andpostmodernism, although there are differences. The predominant term for art produced since the 1950s iscontemporary art. Not all art labelled as contemporary art is modernist or post-modern, and the broader term encompasses both artists who continue to work in modern and late modernist traditions, as well as artists who reject modernism for post-modernism or other reasons.Arthur Danto argues explicitly inAfter the End of Art that contemporaneity was the broader term, and that postmodern objects represent a subsector of the contemporary movement which replaced modernity and modernism, while other notable critics:Hilton Kramer,[1]Robert C. Morgan,Kirk Varnedoe,[2]Jean-François Lyotard and others have argued that postmodern objects are at best relative to modernist works.
The jargon which encompasses the two termslate modernism andpostmodern art is used to denote what may be considered as the ultimate phase ofmodern art, as art at the end ofmodernism or as certain tendencies of contemporary art.
There are those who argue against a division into modern and postmodern periods. Not all critics agree that the stage called modernism is over or even near the end. There is no agreement that all art after modernism is post-modern. Contemporary art is the more-widely used term to denote work since roughly 1960, though it has many other uses as well. Nor is post-modern art universally separated from modernism, with many critics seeing it as merely another phase in modern art or as another form of late modernism.
As with all uses of the term post-modern there are critics of its application, however, at this point, these critics are in the minority.[1] This is not to say that the phase of art denoted by post-modernism is accepted, merely that the need for a term to describe movements in art after the peak ofabstract expressionism is well established.[3] However, although the concept of change has come to consensus, and whether it is a post-modernist change, or a late modernist period, is undetermined, the consensus is that a profound change in the perception of works of art has occurred and a new era has been emerging on the world stage since at least the 1960s.
In literature, the termlate modernism refers to works of literature produced after World War II.[4] However, several different definitions of late modernist literature exist. The most common refers to works published between 1930 and 1939, or 1945.[5] However, there are modernists, such asBasil Bunting (1900–1985) andT. S. Eliot (1888–1965), writing later than 1945, andSamuel Beckett, who died in 1989, has been described as a "later modernist".[6]African-American authorJames Baldwin has also been called a "late modernist" as were poets of theBeat Generation. Eliot published two plays in the 1950s and Bunting's long modernist poem "Briggflatts" was published in 1965. The poetsCharles Olson (1910–1970) andJ. H. Prynne (b. 1936) are, amongst other writing in the second half of the 20th century, who have been described as late modernists.[7] There is the further question as to whether late modernist literature differs in any important way from the modernist works produced before 1930. To confuse matters, more recently the term late modernism has been redefined by at least one critic and used to refer to works written after 1945, rather than 1930. With this usage goes the idea that the ideology of modernism was significantly re-shaped by the events of World War II, especially theHolocaust and the dropping of theatom bomb.[8]
Late modernism describes movements which both arise from, and react against, trends inmodernism and reject some aspect of modernism, while fully developing the conceptual potentiality of the modernist enterprise.[9] In some descriptions post-modernism as a period in art is completed, whereas in others it is a continuing movement incontemporary art. In art, the specific traits of modernism which are cited are generally formal purity,medium specificity,art for art's sake, the possibility ofauthenticity in art, the importance or even possibility of universal truth in art, and the importance of an avant-garde and originality. This last point is one of particular controversy in art, where many institutions argue that being visionary, forward looking, cutting edge and progressive are crucial to the mission of art in the present, and that postmodern therefore, represents a contradiction of the value of "art of our times".
One compact definition offered is that while post-modernism acts in rejection of modernism's grand narratives of artistic direction, and to eradicate the boundaries between high and low forms of art, to disrupt genre and its conventions with collision, collage and fragmentation. Post-modern art is seen as believing that all stances are unstable and insincere, and therefore irony, parody and humor are the only positions which cannot be overturned by critique or later events.
Many of these traits are present in modern movements in art, particularly the rejection of the separation between high and low forms of art. However, these traits are considered fundamental to post-modern art, as opposed to merely present in one degree or another. One of the most important points of difference, however, between post-modernism, and modernism, as movements in art, is modernism's ultimately progressive stance that new works be more "forward looking" and advanced, whereas post-modern movements generally reject the notion that there can be advancement or progress in art per se, and thus one of the projects of art must be the overturning of the "myth of theavant-garde". This relates to the negation of what post-structuralist philosophers call "metanarratives".
Rosalind Krauss was one of the important annunciators of the view that avant-gardism was over, and that the new artistic era existed in a post-liberal and post-progress normalcy.[10] An example of this viewpoint is explained byRobert Hughes inThe Shock of the New[11] in his chapter "The Future That Was":
Where did this new academy begin? At its origins theavant-garde myth had held the artist to be a precursor; the significant work is the one that prepares the future. The cult of the precursor ended by cluttering the landscape with absurd prophetic claims. The idea of a culturalavant-garde was unimaginable before 1800. It was fostered by the rise ofliberalism. Where the taste of religious or secular courts determined patronage, "subversive" innovation was not esteemed as a sign of artistic quality. Nor was the artist's autonomy, that would come with theRomantics.
— Robert Hughes,The Shock of the New[12]
As with all uses of the term postmodern there are critics of its application.Kirk Varnedoe, for instance, stated that there is no such thing as postmodernism, and that the possibilities of modernism have not yet been exhausted.[13] These critics are currently in the minority.[1]
Hilton Kramer describes postmodernism as "a creation of modernism at the end of its tether".[14]Jean-François Lyotard, inFrederic Jameson's analysis, does not hold that there is a postmodern stage radically different from the period ofhigh modernism; instead, postmodern discontent with this or that high modernist style is part of the experimentation of high modernism, giving birth to new modernisms.[15]
Radical movements in Modernism, Modern art, and radical trends regarded as influential and potentially as precursors to late modernism and postmodernism emerged around World War I and particularly in its aftermath. With the introduction of the use of industrial artifacts in art, movements such asCubism,Dada andSurrealism as well as techniques such ascollage and artforms such as cinema and the rise ofreproduction as a means of creating artworks. BothPablo Picasso theModernist andMarcel Duchamp the rebel created important and influential works fromfound objects.
In the early 20th century, followingHenri Matisse andAndré Derain's impact as Fauvist painters andPablo Picasso andGeorges Braque's monumental innovations and the worldwide success ofCubism and the emboldening of theavant-garde,Marcel Duchamp exhibited a urinal as a sculpture. Duchamp's intention was to have the audience understand the urinal as if it were a work of art, because he said it was. He generally referred to his works as "Readymades." TheFountain, was a urinal signed with the pseudonym R. Mutt, that shocked the art world in 1917. Duchamp's work is generally understood to be a part of theDada movement.
Dadaism can be viewed as part of the modernist propensity to challenge established styles and forms, along withSurrealism,futurism andabstract expressionism.[16] From a chronological point of view Dada is located solidly within modernism, however a number of critics have held that it anticipates postmodernism, while others, such asIhab Hassan andSteven Connor, consider it a possible changeover point between modernism and postmodernism.[17]
Fauvism andHenri Matisse in particular became an important influence on bothabstract expressionism andcolor field painting, important milestones of Late Modernism.The Dance is commonly recognized as "a key point of Matisse's career and in the development of modern painting".[18] With its large expanse of blue, simplicity of design and emphasis on pure feeling the painting was enormously influential to American artists who viewed it atMoMA in New York City.
The ignition point for the definition of modernism as a movement was the austere rejection of popular culture askitsch by important post-war artists and taste-makers, most notablyClement Greenberg with his essayAvant-Garde and Kitsch, first published inPartisan Review in 1939.[19] During the 1940s and 1950s Greenberg proved to be an articulate and powerful art critic. In particular his writing on American Abstract expressionism, and 20th-century European modernism persuasively made the case for High art and culture. In 1961Art and Culture, Beacon Press, a highly influential collection of essays byClement Greenberg was first published. Greenberg is primarily thought of as aformalistart critic and many of his most important essays are crucial to the understanding ofModern art history, and the history ofmodernism and Late Modernism.[20]
During the late 1940sPollock's radical approach to painting revolutionized the potential for allcontemporary art that followed him. To some extent Pollock realized that the journey toward making a work of art was as important as the work of art itself. LikePablo Picasso's innovative reinventions of painting and sculpture near the turn of the century viaCubism and constructed sculpture, Pollock redefined the way art gets made at the mid-century point. Pollock's move — away from easel painting and conventionality — was a liberating signal to his contemporaneous artists and to all that came after. Artists realized that Jackson Pollock's process — working on the floor, unstretched raw canvas, from all four sides, using artist materials, industrial materials, imagery, non-imagery, throwing linear skeins of paint, dripping, drawing, staining, brushing, essentially blasted artmaking beyond any prior boundary.Abstract expressionism in general expanded and developed the definitions and possibilities that artists had available for the creation of new works of art. In a sense the innovations of Jackson Pollock,Willem de Kooning,Franz Kline,Mark Rothko,Philip Guston,Hans Hofmann,Clyfford Still,Barnett Newman,Ad Reinhardt and others opened the floodgates to the diversity and scope of all the art that followed them.
Related toabstract expressionism was the emergence of combined manufactured items — with artist materials, moving away from previous conventions of painting and sculpture. This trend in art is exemplified by the work ofRobert Rauschenberg, whose "combines" in the 1950s were forerunners of Pop Art andInstallation art, and made use of the assemblage of large physical objects, including stuffed animals, birds andcommercial photography.
Leo Steinberg uses the term postmodernism in 1969 to describe Rauschenberg's "flatbed" picture plane, containing a range of cultural images and artifacts that had not been compatible with the pictorial field of premodernist and modernist painting.[21]Craig Owens goes further, identifying the significance of Rauschenberg's work not as a representation of, in Steinberg's view, "the shift from nature to culture", but as a demonstration of the impossibility of accepting their opposition.[22]
Steven Best andDouglas Kellner identify Rauschenberg andJasper Johns as part of the transitional phase, influenced byMarcel Duchamp, between modernism and postmodernism. Both used images of ordinary objects, or the objects themselves, in their work, while retaining the abstraction and painterly gestures of high modernism.[23]
In abstract painting and sculpture during the 1950s and 1960sGeometric abstraction emerged as an important direction in the works of many sculptors and painters. In paintingcolor field painting,minimalism,hard-edge painting andlyrical abstraction[24] constituted radical new directions.[25][26]
Helen Frankenthaler,Morris Louis,Frank Stella,Ellsworth Kelly,Richard Diebenkorn[27]David Smith,Sir Anthony Caro,Mark di Suvero,Gene Davis,Kenneth Noland,Jules Olitski,Isaac Witkin,Anne Truitt,Kenneth Snelson,Al Held,Ronald Davis,[28]Howard Hodgkin,Larry Poons,Brice Marden,Robert Mangold,Walter Darby Bannard,Dan Christensen,Larry Zox,Ronnie Landfield,Charles Hinman,Sam Gilliam,Peter Reginato, were some of the artists whose works characterized abstract painting and sculpture in the 1960s.[29]Lyrical abstraction shares similarities withcolor field painting andabstract expressionism especially in the freewheeling usage of paint — texture and surface. Direct drawing, calligraphic use of line, the effects of brushed, splattered, stained, squeegeed, poured, and splashed paint superficially resemble the effects seen inabstract expressionism andcolor field painting. However the styles are markedly different. Setting it apart fromabstract expressionism andaction painting of the 1940s and 1950s is the approach to composition and drama. As seen inaction painting there is an emphasis on brushstrokes, high compositional drama, dynamic compositional tension. While in lyrical abstraction there is a sense of compositional randomness, all over composition, low key and relaxed compositional drama and an emphasis on process, repetition, and an all over sensibility.During the 1960s and 1970s artists as powerful and influential asRobert Motherwell,Adolph Gottlieb,Phillip Guston,Lee Krasner,Cy Twombly,Robert Rauschenberg,Jasper Johns,Richard Diebenkorn,Josef Albers,Elmer Bischoff,Agnes Martin,Al Held,Sam Francis,Ellsworth Kelly,Morris Louis,Helen Frankenthaler,Gene Davis,Frank Stella,Kenneth Noland,Joan Mitchell,Friedel Dzubas, and younger artists likeBrice Marden,Robert Mangold,Sam Gilliam,John Hoyland,Sean Scully,Elizabeth Murray,Larry Poons,Walter Darby Bannard,Larry Zox,Ronnie Landfield,Ronald Davis,Dan Christensen,Joan Snyder,Ross Bleckner,Archie Rand,Susan Crile,Mino Argento[30] and dozens of others continued to produce vital and influential paintings.
By the early 1960sminimalism emerged as an abstract movement in art (with roots ingeometric abstraction viaMalevich, theBauhaus andMondrian). Important artists who emerged as pioneers ofminimalism includeFrank Stella,Larry Bell,Ad Reinhardt,Agnes Martin,Barnett Newman,Donald Judd,Tony Smith,Carl Andre,Robert Smithson,Sol LeWitt,Dan Flavin,Robert Mangold,Robert Morris, andRonald Bladen among others. These artists also frequently employedshaped canvases, as in the exampleRichard Tuttle.Minimal art rejected the idea of relational, and subjective painting, the complexity ofabstract expressionist surfaces, and the emotional zeitgeist and polemics present in the arena ofaction painting.Minimalism argued that extreme simplicity could capture all of the sublime representation needed in art. Associated with painters such asFrank Stella, minimalism in painting and sculpture, as opposed to other areas, is a late modernist movement and depending on the context can be construed as a precursor to the post modern movement.
Hal Foster, in his essayThe Crux of Minimalism, examines the extent to which Donald Judd and Robert Morris both acknowledge and exceed Greenbergian modernism in their published definitions of minimalism.[31] He argues that minimalism is not a "dead end" of modernism, but a "paradigm shift toward postmodern practices that continue to be elaborated today."[32]
In the late 1960s the termPost-minimalism was coined byRobert Pincus-Witten to describe minimalist derived art which had content and contextual overtones which minimalism rejected, and was applied to the work ofEva Hesse,Keith Sonnier,Richard Serra and new work by former minimalistsRobert Smithson,Robert Morris,Sol LeWitt, and Barry Le Va, and others.[33]
Rosalind Krauss argues that by 1968 artists such as Morris, LeWitt, Smithson and Serra had "entered a situation the logical conditions of which can no longer be described as modernist."[34] The expansion of the category of sculpture to includeland art andarchitecture, "brought about the shift into postmodernism."[35]
Minimalists likeDonald Judd,Dan Flavin,Carl Andre,Agnes Martin,John McCracken and others continued to produce their latemodernist paintings and sculpture for the remainder of their careers.
By the late 1960s however,process art emerged as a revolutionary concept and movement that encompassed painting and sculpture, vialyrical abstraction and thepostminimalist movement, and in earlyConceptual Art.Eva Hesse,Robert Smithson,Walter De Maria,Keith Sonnier,Richard Serra,Nancy Graves,Jannis Kounellis,Bruce Nauman,Richard Tuttle,Mel Bochner,Hannah Wilke,Lynda Benglis,Robert Morris,Sol LeWitt,Barry Le Va,Michael Heizer,Lawrence Weiner,Joseph Kosuth, andAlan Saret, were some of the process artists that emerged during the 1960s. Process art as inspired by Pollock enabled artists to experiment with and make use of a diverse encyclopedia of style, content, material, placement, sense of time, scale, size, and plastic and real space.[36]
The term "pop art" was used byLawrence Alloway to describe paintings that celebratedconsumerism of the post World War II era.[37] This movement rejectedabstract expressionism and its focus on the hermeneutic and psychological interior, in favor of art which depicted, and often celebrated material consumer culture, advertising, and iconography of the mass production age. The early works ofDavid Hockney and the works ofRichard Hamilton,John McHale, andEduardo Paolozzi were considered seminal examples in the movement. While later American examples include the bulk of the careers ofAndy Warhol andRoy Lichtenstein and his use ofBenday dots, a technique used in commercial reproduction. There is a clear connection between the radical works ofDuchamp, the rebelliousDadaist — with a sense of humor; andpop artists likeClaes Oldenburg,Andy Warhol,Roy Lichtenstein and the others.
In general pop art andminimalism began as modernist movements, a shift in the paradigm and a philosophical split betweenformalism and anti-formalism in the early 1970s caused those movements to be viewed by some as precursors, or transitioning to postmodern art. Other modern movements cited as influential to postmodern art areConceptual art,Dada andSurrealism and the use of techniques such asassemblage,montage,collage,bricolage and art forms which used recording or reproduction as the basis for artworks.
There are differing opinions as to whether pop art is a late modernist movement or isPostmodern.Thomas McEvilly, agreeing withDave Hickey, says that postmodernism in the visual arts began with the first exhibitions of pop art in 1962, "though it took about twenty years before postmodernism became a dominant attitude in the visual arts."[38]Frederic Jameson, too, considers pop art to be postmodern.[39]
One way that Pop art is postmodern is that it breaks down whatAndreas Huyssen calls the "Great Divide" between high art and popular culture.[40] Postmodernism emerges from a "generational refusal of the categorical certainties of high modernism."[41] Although to presuppose thatmodernism stands for "high art" only, and is in any way certain as to what constitutes "high" art is to profoundly and basically misunderstand modernism.
During the late 1950s and 1960s artists with a wide range of interests began to push the boundaries ofcontemporary art.Yves Klein in France, andCarolee Schneemann,Yayoi Kusama,Charlotte Moorman, andYoko Ono in New York City were pioneers of performance based works of art. Groups like TheLiving Theater withJulian Beck andJudith Malina collaborated with sculptors and painters creating environments; radically changing the relationship between audience and performer especially in their pieceParadise Now. TheJudson Dance Theater located at theJudson Memorial Church,New York City, and the Judson dancers, notablyYvonne Rainer,Trisha Brown,Elaine Summers, Sally Gross, Simonne Forti,Deborah Hay,Lucinda Childs,Steve Paxton and others collaborated with artistsRobert Morris,Robert Whitman,John Cage,Robert Rauschenberg, and engineers likeBilly Klüver. These performances were often designed to be the creation of a new art form, combining sculpture, dance, and music or sound, often with audience participation. The works were characterized by the reductive philosophies ofminimalism, and the spontaneous improvisation, and expressivity ofabstract expressionism.
During the same period — the late 1950s through the mid-1960s variousavant-garde artists createdHappenings. Happenings were mysterious and often spontaneous and unscripted gatherings of artists and their friends and relatives in varied specified locations. Often incorporating exercises in absurdity, physical exercise, costumes, spontaneousnudity, and various random and seemingly disconnected acts.Allan Kaprow,Claes Oldenburg,Jim Dine,Red Grooms, andRobert Whitman among others were notable creators of Happenings.
Fluxus was named and loosely organized in 1962 byGeorge Maciunas (1931–78), a Lithuanian-born American artist. Fluxus traces its beginnings toJohn Cage's 1957 to 1959 Experimental Composition classes at theNew School for Social Research in New York City. Many of his students were artists working in other media with little or no background in music. Cage's students included Fluxus founding membersJackson Mac Low,Al Hansen,George Brecht andDick Higgins.
Fluxus encouraged a do it yourself aesthetic, and valued simplicity over complexity. LikeDada before it, Fluxus included a strong current of anti-commercialism and ananti-art sensibility, disparaging the conventional market-driven art world in favor of an artist-centered creative practice. Fluxus artists preferred to work with whatever materials were at hand, and either created their own work or collaborated in the creation process with their colleagues.
Andreas Huyssen criticises attempts to claim Fluxus for postmodernism as, "either the master-code of postmodernism or the ultimately unrepresentable art movement – as it were, postmodernism's sublime."[43] Instead he sees Fluxus as a majorNeo-Dadaist phenomena within the avant-garde tradition. It did not represent a major advance in the development of artistic strategies, though it did express a rebellion against, "the administered culture of the 1950s, in which a moderate, domesticated modernism served as ideological prop to theCold War."[44]
As a kind of response toClement Greenberg'sAvant-Garde and Kitsch[45] in 1990Kirk Varnedoe andAdam Gopnik curatedHigh and Low: Modern Art and Popular Culture, at New York'sMuseum of Modern Art. The exhibition attempted to elucidate the extent that artists and high culture drew on and from popular culture. Although universally panned at the time as the only event that could bring Douglas Crimp and Hilton Kramer together in a chorus of scorn.[46] The exhibition is remembered today as a benchmark of the conflict between late modernism and postmodernism.
Conceptual art became an important development in contemporary art in the late 1960s, it delivered an influential critique on the status quo. Late modernism expanded and contracted during the late 1960s and for some, conceptual art made a complete break with modernism. Sometimes it is labelled as postmodern because it is expressly involved indeconstruction of what makes a work of art, "art". Conceptual art, because it is often designed to confront, offend or attack notions held by many of the people who view it, is regarded with particular controversy. Duchamp can be seen as a precursor to conceptual art. Thus, becauseFountain was exhibited, it was a sculpture.Marcel Duchamp famously gave up "art" in favor ofchess.[47] Avant-garde composerDavid Tudor created a piece,Reunion (1968), written jointly with Lowell Cross that features a chess game, where each move triggers a lighting effect or projection. At the premiere, the game was played betweenJohn Cage andMarcel Duchamp.[48] Some other famous examples beingJohn Cage's 4' 33" which is four minutes and thirty three seconds of silence and Rauschenberg'sErased De Kooning Drawing. Many conceptual works take the position that art is created by the viewer viewing an object or act as art, not from the intrinsic qualities of the work itself.
An important series of movements in art which have consistently been described as postmodern involvedinstallation art and creation of artifacts that are conceptual in nature. One example being the signs ofJenny Holtzer which use the devices of art to convey specific messages, such as "Protect Me From What I Want". Installation Art has been important in determining the spaces selected for museums of contemporary art in order to be able to hold the large works which are composed of vast collages of manufactured and found objects. These installations and collages are often electrified, with moving parts and lights.
They are often designed to create environmental effects, asChristo and Jeanne-Claude'sIron Curtain which was a row of barrels intended to create atraffic jam.
Another trend in art which has been associated with the term postmodern is the use of a number of different media together.Intermedia, a term coined byDick Higgins and meant to convey new artforms along the lines ofFluxus,Concrete Poetry,Found objects,Performance art, andComputer art. Higgins was the publisher of theSomething Else Press, aConcrete poet, married to artistAlison Knowles and an admirer ofMarcel Duchamp.Ihab Hassan includes, "Intermedia, the fusion of forms, the confusion of realms", in his list of the characteristics of postmodern art.[49] One of the most common forms of "multi-media art" is the use of video-tape and CRT monitors, termedVideo art. While the theory of combining multiple arts into one art is quite old, and has been revived periodically, the postmodern manifestation is often in combination withperformance art, where the dramatic subtext is removed, and what is left is the specific statements of the artist in question or the conceptual statement of their action.
In his 1980 essayThe Allegorical Impulse: Toward a Theory of Postmodernism,Craig Owens identifies the re-emergence of anallegorical impulse as characteristic of postmodern art. This impulse can be seen in theappropriation art of artists such asSherrie Levine andRobert Longo because, "Allegorical imagery is appropriated imagery."[50] Appropriation art debunks modernist notions of artistic genius and originality and is more ambivalent and contradictory than modern art, simultaneously installing and subverting ideologies, "being both critical and complicit."[51]
The return to the traditional art forms of sculpture and painting in the late 1970s and early 1980s seen in the work ofneo-expressionist artists such asGeorg Baselitz andJulian Schnabel has been described as a postmodern tendency,[52] and one of the first coherent movements to emerge in the postmodern era.[53] Its strong links with the commercial art market has raised questions, however, both about its status as a postmodern movement and the definition of postmodernism itself. Hal Foster states that neo-expressionism was complicit with the conservative cultural politics of the Reagan-Bush era in the U.S.[32]Félix Guattari disregards the "large promotional operations dubbed 'neo-expressionism' in Germany", (an example of a "fad that maintains itself by means of publicity") as a too easy way for him "to demonstrate that postmodernism is nothing but the last gasp of modernism." These critiques of neo-expressionism reveal that money and public relations really sustained contemporary art world credibility in America during the same period that conceptual and feminist art practices were systematically reevaluating modern art.[54]
Critiques on the institutions of art (principally museums and galleries) are made in the work ofMarcel Broodthaers,Daniel Buren andHans Haacke.
At the beginning of the 21st century contemporary painting, contemporary sculpture and contemporary art in general continues in several contiguous modes, characterized by the idea ofpluralism. The "crisis" in painting, sculpture and current art and currentart criticism today is brought about bypluralism. There is no consensus, nor need there be, as to a representative style of the age. There is ananything goes attitude that prevails; an "everything going on", and consequently "nothing going on" syndrome; this creates an aesthetic traffic jam with no firm and clear direction and with every lane on the artistic superhighway filled to capacity. Consequently, magnificent and important works of art continue to be made albeit in a wide variety of styles and aesthetic temperaments, the marketplace being left to judge merit. Frank Stella'sLa scienza della pigrizia (The Science of Laziness), from 1984, is an example of Stella's transition from two-dimensionality to three-dimensionality and an excellent example of Late Modernism.
Hard-edge painting,geometric abstraction,appropriation,hyperrealism,photorealism,expressionism,minimalism,lyrical abstraction,pop art,op art,abstract expressionism,color field painting,monochrome painting,neo-expressionism,collage,intermedia painting,assemblage painting,digital painting,postmodern painting,Neo-Dada painting,shaped canvas painting, environmentalmural painting, traditionalfigure painting,landscape painting,portrait painting, are a few continuing and current directions in painting at the beginning of the 21st century. The New European Painting of the 1990s and the beginning of the 21st century, with painters likeGerhard Richter,Bracha Ettinger andLuc Tuymans, has opened a complex and interesting dialogue with the legacy of American color field and lyrical abstraction on the one hand and figurality on the other hand.
| Movements | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Literary arts |
| ||||||||
| Visual arts |
| ||||||||
| Performing arts |
| ||||||||
| Related |
| ||||||||
