Althoughmeteoric iron has been used for millennia in many regions, the beginning of the Iron Age is defined locally around the world by archaeological convention when the production of smeltediron (especiallysteel tools and weapons) replaces theirbronze equivalents in common use.
TheIron Age in India is stated as beginning with the ironworkingPainted Grey Ware culture, dating from the c. 1200 BC, through to the reign ofAshoka in the3rd century BC. The term "Iron Age" in the archaeology of South, East, and Southeast Asia is more recent and less common than for Western Eurasia. Africa did not have a universal "Bronze Age", and many areas transitioned directly from stone to iron. Some archaeologists believe that iron metallurgy was developed in sub-Saharan Africa independently from Eurasia and neighbouring parts of Northeast Africa as early as2000 BC.[3][4][5]
The three-age method of Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages was first used for the archaeology of Europe during the first half of the 19th century, and by the latter half of the 19th century, it had been extended to the archaeology of the ancient Near East. Its name harks back to the mythological "Ages of Man" ofHesiod. As an archaeological era, it was first introduced to Scandinavia byChristian Jürgensen Thomsen during the 1830s. By the 1860s, it was embraced as a useful division of the "earliest history of mankind" in general[6] and began to be applied inAssyriology. The development of the now-conventionalperiodization in the archaeology of the ancient Near East was developed during the 1920s and 1930s.[7]
Meteoric iron, a naturaliron–nickel alloy, was used by various ancient peoples thousands of years before the Iron Age. The earliest-known meteoric iron artifacts are nine small beads dated to3200 BC, which were found in burialsat Gerzeh in Lower Egypt, having been shaped by careful hammering.[8][9][10]
The characteristic of an Iron Age culture is the mass production of tools and weapons made not just of found iron, but fromsmelted steel alloys with an addedcarbon content.[citation needed] Only with the capability of the production of carbon steel doesferrous metallurgy result in tools or weapons that are harder and lighter thanbronze.[citation needed]
Smelted iron appears sporadically in the archeological record from the middleBronze Age. Whilst terrestrial iron is abundant naturally, temperatures above 1,250 °C (2,280 °F) are required to smelt it, impractical to achieve with the technology available commonly until the end of the second millennium BC. In contrast, the components of bronze—tin with a melting point of 231.9 °C (449.4 °F) and copper with a relatively moderate melting point of 1,085 °C (1,985 °F)—were within the capabilities of Neolithickilns, which date back to 6000 BC and were able to produce temperatures greater than 900 °C (1,650 °F).[11]
In addition to specially designed furnaces, ancient iron production required the development of complex procedures for the removal of impurities, the regulation of the admixture of carbon, and the invention of hot-working to achieve a useful balance of hardness and strength in steel. The use of steel has also been regulated by the economics of the metallurgical advancements.
The earliest tentative evidence for iron-making is a small number of iron fragments with the appropriate amounts of carbon admixture found in the Proto-Hittite layers atKaman-Kalehöyük in modern-day Turkey, dated to 2200–2000 BC. Akanuma (2008) concludes that "The combination of carbon dating, archaeological context, andarchaeometallurgical examination indicates that it is likely that the use of ironware made of steel had already begun in the third millennium BC in Central Anatolia".[12] Souckova-Siegolová (2001) shows that iron implements were made in Central Anatolia in very limited quantities about 1800 BC and were in general use by elites, though not by commoners, during the New Hittite Empire (≈1400–1200 BC).[13]
Similarly, recent archaeological remains of iron-working in theGanges Valley in India have been dated tentatively to 1800 BC. Tewari (2003) concludes that "knowledge of iron smelting and manufacturing of iron artifacts was well known in the Eastern Vindhyas and iron had been in use in the Central Ganga Plain, at least from the early second millennium BC".[14] By theMiddle Bronze Age increasing numbers of smelted iron objects (distinguishable from meteoric iron by the lack ofnickel in the product) appeared in theMiddle East,Southeast Asia andSouth Asia.
African sites are revealing dates as early as 2000–1200 BC.[15][16][17][5] However, some recent studies date the inception of iron metallurgy in Africa between 3000 and 2500 BC, with evidence existing for early iron metallurgy in parts of Nigeria, Cameroon, and Central Africa, from as early as around 2,000 BC. The Nok culture of Nigeria may have practiced iron smelting from as early as 1000 BC, while the nearby Djenné-Djenno culture of the Niger Valley in Mali shows evidence of iron production from c. 250 BC. Iron technology across much of sub-Saharan Africa has an African origin dating to before 2000 BC. These findings confirm the independent invention of iron smelting in sub-Saharan Africa.[citation needed]
Althoughmeteoric iron has been used for millennia in many regions, the beginning of the Iron Age is defined locally around the world by archaeological convention when the production of smeltediron (especiallysteel tools and weapons) replaces theirbronze equivalents in common use.[18]
Modern archaeological evidence identifies the start of large-scale global iron production about 1200 BC, marking the end of theBronze Age. The Iron Age in Europe is often considered as a part of theBronze Age collapse in theancient Near East.
Anthony Snodgrass suggests that a shortage of tin and trade disruptions in the Mediterranean about 1300 BC forcedmetalworkers to seek an alternative to bronze.[19][20] Many bronze implements were recycled into weapons during that time, and more widespread use of iron resulted in improved steel-making technology and lower costs. When tin became readily available again, iron was cheaper, stronger and lighter, and forged iron implements superseded cast bronze tools permanently.[21]
The Early Iron Age in the Caucasus area is divided conventionally into two periods, Early Iron I, dated to about 1100 BC, and the Early Iron II phase from the tenth to ninth centuries BC. Many of the material culture traditions of the Late Bronze Age continued into the Early Iron Age. Thus, there is a sociocultural continuity during this transitional period.[22]
In Iran, the earliest actual iron artifacts were unknown until the 9th century BC.[23] For Iran, the best studied archaeological site during this time period isTeppe Hasanlu.
In theMesopotamian states ofSumer,Akkad andAssyria, the initial use of iron reaches far back, to perhaps 3000 BC.[24] One of the earliest smelted iron artifacts known is a dagger with an iron blade found in aHattic tomb inAnatolia, dating from 2500 BC.[25] The widespread use of iron weapons which replaced bronze weapons rapidly disseminated throughout theNear East (North Africa, southwestAsia) by the beginning of the 1st millennium BC.
The development of iron smelting was once attributed to theHittites of Anatolia during the Late Bronze Age. As part of the Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age, theBronze Age collapse saw the slow, comparatively continuous spread of iron-working technology in the region. It was long believed that the success of the Hittite Empire during the Late Bronze Age had been based on the advantages entailed by the "monopoly" on ironworking at the time.[26] Accordingly, the invadingSea Peoples would have been responsible for spreading the knowledge through that region. The idea of such a "Hittite monopoly" has been examined more thoroughly and no longer represents a scholarly consensus.[26] While there are some iron objects from Bronze Age Anatolia, the number is comparable to iron objects found in Egypt and other places of the same time period; and only a small number of these objects are weapons.[27]
Iron metal is singularly scarce in collections of Egyptian antiquities. Bronze remained the primary material there until the conquest by theNeo-Assyrian Empire in 671 BC. The explanation of this would seem to be that the relics are in most cases the paraphernalia of tombs, the funeral vessels and vases, and iron being considered an impure metal by the ancient Egyptians it was never used in their manufacture of these or for any religious purposes. It was attributed to Seth, the spirit of evil who according to Egyptian tradition governed the central deserts of Africa.[24] In theBlack Pyramid of Abusir, dating before 2000 BC,Gaston Maspero found some pieces of iron. In the funeral text ofPepi I, the metal is mentioned.[24] A sword bearing the name of pharaohMerneptah as well as a battle axe with an iron blade and gold-decorated bronze shaft were both found in the excavation of Ugarit.[25] Adagger with an iron blade found in Tutankhamun's tomb, 13th century BC, was examined recently and found to be of meteoric origin.[30][31][32]
In Europe, the Iron Age is the last stage ofprehistoric Europe and the first of theprotohistoric periods, which initially means descriptions of a particular area by Greek and Roman writers. For much of Europe, the period came to an abrupt local end after conquest by the Romans, though ironworking remained the dominant technology until recent times. Elsewhere it may last until the early centuries AD, and either Christianization or a new conquest during theMigration Period.
Iron working was introduced to Europe during the late 11th century BC,[33] probably from theCaucasus, and slowly spread northwards and westwards over the succeeding 500 years. The Iron Age did not start when iron first appeared in Europe but it began to replace bronze in the preparation of tools and weapons.[34] It did not happen at the same time throughout Europe; local cultural developments played a role in the transition to the Iron Age. For example, the Iron Age ofPrehistoric Ireland begins about 500 BC (when the Greek Iron Age had already ended) and finishes about 400 AD. The widespread use of the technology of iron was implemented in Europe simultaneously with Asia.[35] The prehistoric Iron Age in Central Europe is divided into two periods based on theHallstatt culture (early Iron Age) andLa Tène (late Iron Age) cultures.[36] Material cultures of Hallstatt and La Tène consist of 4 phases (A, B, C, D).[37][38][39]
Culture
Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
Phase D
Hallstatt
1200–700 BC Flat graves
1200–700 BC Pottery made of polychrome
700–600 BC Heavy iron and bronze swords
600–475 BC Dagger swords, brooches, and ring ornaments, girdle mounts
La Tène
450–390 BC S-shaped, spiral and round designs
390–300 BC Iron swords, heavy knives, lanceheads
300–100 BC Iron chains, iron swords, belts, heavy spearheads
100–15 BC Iron reaping-hooks, saws, scythes and hammers
A sword of the Iron Age Cogotas II culture in Spain.
The Iron Age in Europe is characterized by an elaboration of designs of weapons, implements, and utensils.[24] These are no longer cast but hammered into shape, and decoration is elaborate and curvilinear rather than simple rectilinear; the forms and character of the ornamentation of the northern European weapons resemble in some respects Roman arms, while in other respects they are peculiar and evidently representative of northern art.[40]
Citânia de Briteiros, located inGuimarães, Portugal, is one of the examples of archaeological sites of the Iron Age. This settlement (fortified villages) covered an area of 3.8 hectares (9.4 acres), and served as a Celtiberian stronghold against Roman invasions. İt dates more than 2500 years back. The site was researched by Francisco Martins Sarmento starting from 1874. A number ofamphoras (containers usually for wine or olive oil), coins, fragments of pottery, weapons, pieces of jewelry, as well as ruins of a bath and itspedra formosa (lit.'handsome stone') revealed here.[41][42]
The Iron Age inCentral Asia began when iron objects appear among theIndo-EuropeanSaka in present-dayXinjiang (China) between the 10th century BC and the 7th century BC, such as those found at the cemetery site of Chawuhukou.[43]
Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details.
Prehistoric (or Proto-historic) Iron Age Historic Iron Age
In China,Chinese bronze inscriptions are found around 1200 BC, preceding the development of iron metallurgy, which was known by the 9th century BC.[44][45] Thelarge seal script is identified with a group of characters from a book entitledShǐ Zhòu Piān (c. 800 BC). Therefore, in Chinaprehistory had given way to history periodized by ruling dynasties by the start of iron use, so "Iron Age" is not used typically to describe a period of Chinese history. Iron metallurgy reached theYangtse Valley toward the end of the 6th century BC.[46] The few objects were found atChangsha andNanjing. The mortuary evidence suggests that the initial use of iron inLingnan belongs to the mid-to-lateWarring States period (from about 350 BC). Important non-precious husi style metal finds include iron tools found at the tomb at Guwei-cun of the 4th century BC.[47]
The techniques used in Lingnan are a combination of bivalve moulds of distinct southern tradition and the incorporation of piece mould technology from theZhongyuan. The products of the combination of these two periods are bells, vessels, weapons and ornaments, and the sophisticated cast.
An Iron Age culture of theTibetan Plateau has been associated tentatively with theZhang Zhung culture described by early Tibetan writings.
Distinguishing characteristics of the Yayoi period include the appearance of new pottery styles and the start of intensive rice agriculture in paddy fields. Yayoi culture flourished in a geographic area from southernKyūshū to northernHonshū. The Kofun and the subsequentAsuka periods are sometimes referred to collectively as theYamato period; The wordkofun is Japanese for the type ofburial mounds dating from that era.
Iron objects were introduced to theKorean peninsula through trade with chiefdoms and state-level societies in theYellow Sea area during the 4th century BC, just at the end of theWarring States Period but prior to the beginning of theWestern Han dynasty.[49][50] Yoon proposes that iron was first introduced to chiefdoms located along North Korean river valleys that flow into the Yellow Sea such as the Cheongcheon and Taedong Rivers.[51] Iron production quickly followed during the 2nd century BC, and iron implements came to be used by farmers by the 1st century in southern Korea.[49] The earliest known cast-iron axes in southern Korea are found in theGeum Riverbasin. The time that iron production begins is the same time that complex chiefdoms ofProto-historic Korea emerged. The complex chiefdoms were the precursors of early states such asSilla,Baekje,Goguryeo, andGaya[50][52] Iron ingots were an important mortuary item and indicated the wealth or prestige of the deceased during this period.[53]
Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details.
Prehistoric (or Proto-historic) Iron Age Historic Iron Age
The earliest evidence ofiron smelting predates the emergence of the Iron Age proper by several centuries.[54] Iron was being used inMundigak to manufacture some items in the 3rd millennium BC such as a small copper/bronze bell with an iron clapper, a copper/bronze rod with two iron decorative buttons, and a copper/bronze mirror handle with a decorative iron button.[55] Artefacts including small knives and blades have been discovered in the Indian state ofTelangana which have been dated between 2400 BC and 1800 BC.[56][57] Thehistory of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent began prior to the 3rd millennium BC. Archaeological sites in India, such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila, Lahuradewa,Kosambi andJhusi,Allahabad in present-dayUttar Pradesh show iron implements in the period 1800–1200 BC.[14] As the evidence from the sites Raja Nala ka tila, Malhar suggest the use of Iron in c. 1800/1700 BC. The extensive use of iron smelting is fromMalhar and its surrounding area. This site is assumed as the center for smelted bloomer iron to this area due to its location in the Karamnasa River and Ganga River. This site shows agricultural technology as iron implements sickles, nails, clamps, spearheads, etc., by at least c. 1500 BC.[58] Archaeological excavations in Hyderabad show an Iron Age burial site.[59]
The beginning of the 1st millennium BC saw extensive developments in iron metallurgy in India. Technological advancement and mastery of iron metallurgy were achieved during this period of peaceful settlements. One ironworking centre inEast India has been dated to the first millennium BC.[60] InSouthern India (present-dayMysore) iron appeared as early as 12th to 11th centuries BC; these developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country.[60] The IndianUpanishads mention metallurgy.[61] and the IndianMauryan period saw advances in metallurgy.[62] As early as 300 BC, certainly by 200 AD, high-quality steel was produced in southern India, by what would later be called thecrucible technique. In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon.[63]
The protohistoric Early Iron Age in Sri Lanka lasted from 1000 BC to 600 BC. Radiocarbon evidence has been collected fromAnuradhapura and Aligala shelter inSigiriya.[64][65][66][67] The Anuradhapura settlement is recorded to extend 10 ha (25 acres) by 800 BC and grew to 50 ha (120 acres) by 700–600 BC to become a town.[68] The skeletal remains of an Early Iron Age chief were excavated in Anaikoddai,Jaffna. The name "Ko Veta" is engraved inBrahmi script on aseal buried with the skeleton and is assigned by the excavators to the 3rd century BC. Ko, meaning "King" in Tamil, is comparable to such names as Ko Atan and Ko Putivira occurring in contemporaryBrahmi inscriptions in south India.[69] It is also speculated that Early Iron Age sites may exist inKandarodai, Matota,Pilapitiya andTissamaharama.[65]
Archaeology in Thailand at sites Ban Don Ta Phet and Khao Sam Kaeo yielding metallic, stone, and glass artifacts stylistically associated with the Indian subcontinent suggest Indianization of Southeast Asia beginning in the 4th to 2nd centuries BC during the late Iron Age.[71]
InPhilippines andVietnam, theSa Huynh culture showed evidence of an extensive trade network. Sa Huynh beads were made from glass, carnelian, agate, olivine, zircon, gold and garnet; most of these materials were not local to the region and were most likely imported. Han-dynasty-style bronze mirrors were also found in Sa Huynh sites. Conversely, Sa Huynh produced ear ornaments have been found in archaeological sites in Central Thailand, as well as theOrchid Island.[72]: 211–217
Early evidence for iron technology in Sub-Saharan Africa can be found at sites such asKM2 and KM3 in northwestTanzania and parts of Nigeria and the Central African Republic.Nubia was one of the relatively few places in Africa to have a sustained Bronze Age along withEgypt and much of the rest ofNorth Africa.
Archaeometallurgicalscientific knowledge and technological development originated in numerous centers of Africa; the centers of origin were located inWest Africa,Central Africa, andEast Africa; consequently, as these origin centers are located within inner Africa, these archaeometallurgical developments are thus native African technologies.[73] Iron metallurgical development occurred 2631–2458 BC at Lejja, in Nigeria, 2136–1921 BC at Obui, in Central Africa Republic, 1895–1370 BC at Tchire Ouma 147, in Niger, and 1297–1051 BC at Dekpassanware, in Togo.[73]
Very early copper and bronze working sites inNiger may date to as early as 1500 BC. There is also evidence of iron metallurgy in Termit,Niger from around this period.[15][74]Nubia was a major manufacturer and exporter of iron after the expulsion of theNubian dynasty from Egypt by theAssyrians in the 7th century BC.[75]
Though there is some uncertainty, some archaeologists believe that iron metallurgy was developed independently in sub-Saharan West Africa, separately from Eurasia and neighboring parts of North and Northeast Africa.[3][4]
Archaeological sites containing iron smelting furnaces and slag have also been excavated at sites in theNsukka region of southeastNigeria in what is nowIgboland: dating to 2000 BC at the site ofLejja (Eze-Uzomaka 2009)[5][4] and to 750 BC and at the site ofOpi (Holl 2009).[4] The site of Gbabiri (in the Central African Republic) has yielded evidence of iron metallurgy, from a reduction furnace and blacksmith workshop; with earliest dates of 896–773 BC and 907–796 BC, respectively.[76] Similarly, smelting in bloomery-type furnaces appear in theNok culture of central Nigeria by about 550 BC and possibly a few centuries earlier.[77][78][3][76]
Iron and copper working inSub-Saharan Africa spread south and east from Central Africa in conjunction with theBantu expansion, from the Cameroon region to theAfrican Great Lakes in the 3rd century BC, reaching theCape around 400 AD.[15]However, iron working may have been practiced in central Africa as early as the 3rd millennium BC.[79] Instances ofcarbon steel based on complex preheating principles were found to be in production around the 1st century AD in northwestTanzania.[80]
Typical bloomery iron production operational sequence starting with acquiring raw materials through smelting and smithing
Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details
Prehistoric (or Proto-historic) Iron Age Historic Iron Age
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