TheLast Supper ofJesus and theTwelve Apostles has been a popular subject inChristian art,[2] often as part of a cycle showing theLife of Christ. Depictions of theLast Supper in Christian art date back toearly Christianity and can be seen in theCatacombs of Rome.[3][4]
The Last Supper was depicted both in theEastern andWestern Churches.[3] By theRenaissance, it was a favorite subject in Italian art.[3] It was also one of the few subjects to be continued inLutheranaltarpieces for a few decades after theProtestant Reformation.[5]
There are two major scenes shown in depictions of the Last Supper: the dramatic announcement of thebetrayal of Jesus, and the institution of theEucharist. After the meal the further scenes of Jesuswashing the feet of his apostles and theFarewell Discourse (farewell of Jesus to his disciples) are also sometimes depicted.[2][6]
The earliest known written reference to the Last Supper is in Paul'sFirst Epistle to the Corinthians (11:23–26), which dates to the middle of the first century, between AD 54–55.[7][8] The Last Supper was likely a retelling of the events of the last meal of Jesus among theearly Christian community, and became a ritual which referred to that meal.[9] The earliest depictions of such meals occur in thefrescoes of the Catacomb of Rome, where figures are depicted reclining around semi-circular tables.[3] In spite of near unanimous assent on the historicity of the evidence, one scholar comments that "The motif of the Last supper appears neither among the paintings of the catacombs nor the sculptures on sarcophagi ... The few frescos in the catacombs representing a meal in which Christ and some of the disciples participate show not the Last supper but refer to the future meal promised by the exalted Christ in his heavenly kingdom", seeing the subject’s depiction as beginning in the 6th century.[10]
A clearer case is the mosaic in theBasilica of Sant' Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna, Italy, where a similar meal scene is part of a cycle depicting the life of Jesus and involves clear representation of him and his disciples.Byzantine artists sometimes used semi-circular tables in their depictions, but they focused on the Communion of the Apostles more frequently than on the reclining figures having a meal.[3] TheLast Supper was also one of the few subjects to be continued inLutheranaltarpieces for a few decades after theProtestant Reformation, sometimes showing portraits of leading Protestant theologians as the apostles.[5]
By theRenaissance, the Last Supper was a popular subject in Italian art, especially in therefectories of monasteries. These depictions typically portrayed the reactions of the disciples to the announcement of the betrayal of Jesus.[3] Most of the Italian depictions use an oblong table, rather than a semi-circular one, and Judas is sometimes shown by himself, clutching his money bag.[3]
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With an oblong table, the artist had to decide whether to show the apostles on both sides, with some seen from behind, or all on one side of the table facing the viewer. Sometimes only Judas is on the side nearest the viewer, allowing the bag to be seen. The placement on both sides was further complicated whenhalos were obligatory: was the halo to be placed as though in front of the rear-facing apostles’ faces or as though fixed to the back of their heads, obscuring the view?Duccio, daringly for the time, omits the halos of the apostles nearest the viewer. As artists became increasingly interested in realism and the depiction of space, a three-sided interior setting became more clearly shown and elaborate, sometimes with a landscape view behind, as in the wall-paintings byLeonardo da Vinci andPerugino.[11] Artists who showed the scene on a ceiling or in arelief sculpture had further difficulties in devising a composition.
Typically, the only apostles easily identifiable are Judas Iscariot, often with his bag containingthirty pieces of silver visible,John the Evangelist, normally placed on Jesus's right side, usually "reclining in Jesus' bosom" as his Gospel says (see below), or even asleep, andSaint Peter on Jesus's left. The food on the table often includes apaschal lamb; in Late Antique and Byzantine versions fish was the main dish. In later works the bread may become more like acommunion host, and more food, eating, and figures of servers appear.[12]
There are two major episodes or moments depicted in Last Supper scenes, each with specific variants.[2] There are also other, less frequently depicted scenes, such as the washing of the feet of the disciples.[13]
The first episode, much the most common in WesternMedieval art,[14] is the dramatic and dynamic moment of Jesus'announcement of his betrayal. In this the various reactions produced by the Apostles and the depictions of their emotions provide a rich subject for artistic exploration,[2] following the text of Chapter 13 of theGospel of John (21–29, a "sop" is a piece of bread dipped in sauce or wine):
21 When Jesus had thus said, he was troubled in the spirit, and testified, and said, Verily, verily, I say unto you, that one of you shall betray me.
22 The disciples looked one on another, doubting of whom he spake.
23 There was at the table reclining in Jesus' bosom one of his disciples, whom Jesus loved.
24 Simon Peter therefore beckoneth to him, and saith unto him, Tell [us] who it is of whom he speaketh.
25 He leaning back, as he was, on Jesus' breast saith unto him, Lord, who is it?
26 Jesus therefore answereth, He it is, for whom I shall dip the sop, and give it him. So when he had dipped the sop, he taketh and giveth it to Judas, [the son] of Simon Iscariot.
27 And after the sop, then entered Satan into him. Jesus therefore saith unto him, What thou doest, do quickly.
28 Now no man at the table knew for what intent he spake this unto him.
29 For some thought, because Judas had the bag, that Jesus said unto him, Buy what things we have need of for the feast; or, that he should give something to the poor.
30 He then having received the sop went out straightway: and it was night.
Especially in Eastern depictions, Judas may only be identifiable because he is stretching out his hand for the food, as the other apostles sit with hands out of sight, or because he lacks a halo. In the West he often has red hair. Sometimes Judas takes the sop in his mouth directly from Jesus' hand, and when he is shown eating it a small devil may be shown next to or on it.[15] The betrayal scene may also be combined with the other episodes of the meal, sometimes with a second figure of Christ washing Peter's feet.[16]
The second scene shows the institution of theEucharist, which may be shown as either the moment of theconsecration of the bread and wine, with all still seated, or their distribution in the firstHoly Communion, technically known in art history as theCommunion of the Apostles (though in depictions set at the table the distinction is often not made), which is common in very early depictions and throughoutByzantine art, and in the West reappears from the 14th century onwards.[17] The depictions of both scenes are generally solemn and mystical; in the latter Jesus may be standing and delivers the communion bread and wine to each apostle, like a priest giving thesacrament of Holy Communion. In early andEastern Orthodox depictions the apostles may queue up to receive it, as though in a church, with Jesus standing under or next to aciborium, the small open structure over the altar, which was much more common in Early Medieval churches. An example of this type is inmosaic in theapse of theSaint Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, under a very large standing Virgin.[18]
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Thewashing of feet was an element of hospitality normally performed by servants or slaves, and a mark of great respect if performed by the host. It is recorded in John13:1–15, as preceding the meal, and subsequently became a feature of theliturgy of theHoly Week and year-round monastic hospitality at various times and places, being regularly performed by theByzantine emperors onMaundy Thursday for example, and at times being part of EnglishRoyal Maundy ceremonies performed by the monarch. For a while it formed part of theBaptism ceremony in some places.[19] It mostly appears in cycles of thePassion of Jesus, often next to the Last Supper meal and given equal prominence, as in the 6th centurySt Augustine Gospels and 12th centuryIngeborg Psalter, and also may appear in cycles of theLife of Saint Peter. Where space is limited only Jesus and Peter may be shown, and many scenes show the amazement ofPeter, following John.[13][20] A number of scenes appear on 4th centurysarcophagi, in one case placed to correspond with a scene ofPontius Pilate washing his hands. Some types show Jesus standing as he is confronted by Peter; in others he is bending or kneeling to perform the washing. The subject had various theological interpretations which affected the composition, but gradually became less common in the West by the Late Middle Ages, though there are at least two large examples byTintoretto, one originally paired with aLast Supper.[21]
The last episode, far less commonly shown, is theFarewell Discourse, the farewell of Jesus to his disciples. By this point Judas Iscariot is no longer present, having left the supper; it is mostly found in Italiantrecento painting. The depictions here are generally melancholy, as Jesus prepares his disciples for his departure.[2]
Pietro Perugino's depiction (c. 1490) inFlorence shows Judas sitting separately, and is considered one of Perugino's best pieces.[22] It is located in the convent that housed noble Florentine girls.[23] Upon its rediscovery, it was initially attributed toRaphael.
Leonardo da Vinci's depiction (late 1490s) is considered the first work ofHigh Renaissance art due to its high level of harmony.[24] Leonardo balanced the varying emotions of the individual apostles when Jesus stated that one of them would betray him, and portrayed the various attributes of anger, surprise and shock.[24] It is likely that Leonardo da Vinci was already familiar withGhirlandaio'sLast Supper, as well as that ofCastagno, and painted his ownLast Supper in a more dramatic form to contrast with the stillness of these works, so that more emotion would be displayed.[25]
Tintoretto's depiction (1590–1592) at theBasilica di San Giorgio Maggiore in Venice, also depicts the announcement of the betrayal, and includes secondary characters carrying or taking the dishes from the table.[26]
There are far more numerous secondary figures in the huge painting now calledThe Feast in the House of Levi byVeronese. This was delivered in 1573 as aLast Supper to theDominicans ofSanti Giovanni e Paolo, Venice for their refectory, but Veronese was called before theInquisition to explain why it contained "buffoons, drunken Germans, dwarfs and other such scurrilities" as well as extravagant costumes and settings, in what is indeed a fantasy version of a Venetian patrician feast.[27] Veronese was told that he must change his painting within a three-month period - in fact he simply changed the title to the present one, still an episode from the Gospels, but a less doctrinally central one, and no more was said.[28]
TheWittenberg Altarpiece of the main church inMartin Luther's home ofWittenberg is byLucas Cranach the Elder (with his son and workshop), with a traditional representation of theLast Supper in the main panel, except that the apostle having a drink poured is a portrait of Luther, and the server may be one of Cranach. By the time the painting was installed in 1547, Luther was dead. Other panels show the Protestant theologiansPhilipp Melanchthon andJohannes Bugenhagen, pastor of the church, though not in biblical scenes. Other figures in the panels are probably portraits of figures from the town, now unidentifiable.[29] Another work, theAltarpiece of the Reformers inDessau, byLucas Cranach the Younger (1565, see gallery) shows all the apostles except Judas as Protestant churchmen or nobility, and it is now the younger Cranach shown as the cupbearer. However such works are rare, and Protestant paintings soon reverted to more traditional depictions.[30]
InRubens'Last Supper, a dog with a bone can be seen in the scene. While probably a simple pet, it may represent faith (dogs are traditionally symbols of faith).[31] According to J. Richard Judson, since the dog is near Judas, it may represent greed or evil as the companion of Judas, as inJohn 13:27.[32]
The Sacrament of the Last Supper,Salvador Dalí's depiction, combines the typical Christian themes with modern approaches ofSurrealism and also includes geometric elements of symmetry andpolygonal proportion.[33]
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