Anoil spill is the release of a liquidpetroleumhydrocarbon into the environment, especially themarine ecosystem, due to human activity, and is a form ofpollution. The term is usually given to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean orcoastal waters, but spills may also occur on land. Oil spills can result from the release ofcrude oil fromtankers,offshore platforms,drilling rigs, andwells. They may also involve spills ofrefined petroleum products, such asgasoline anddiesel fuel, as well as their by-products. Additionally, heavier fuels used by large ships, such asbunker fuel, or spills of any oily refuse orwaste oil, contribute to such incidents. These spills can have severe environmental and economic consequences.
Oil spills penetrate into the structure of theplumage of birds and thefur of mammals, reducing its insulating ability, and making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much lessbuoyant in the water. Cleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends upon many factors, including the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water (affecting evaporation and biodegradation), and the types of shorelines and beaches involved.[1] Spills may take weeks, months or even years to clean up.[2]
Oil spills can have disastrous consequences for society; economically, environmentally, and socially. As a result, oil spill accidents have initiated intense media attention and political uproar, bringing many together in a political struggle concerning government response to oil spills and what actions can best prevent them from happening.[3]
An oil spill represents an immediate negative effects on human health, including respiratory and reproductive problems as well as liver, and immune system damage. Oil spills causing future oil supply to decline also effects the everyday life of humans such as the potential closure of beaches, parks, fisheries and fire hazards. TheKuwaiti oil fires producedair pollution that caused respiratory distress.[4] TheDeepwater Horizon explosion killed eleven oil rig workers.[5] The fire resulting from theLac-Mégantic derailment killed 47 and destroyed half of the town's centre.[6]
Spilled oil can also contaminate drinking water supplies. For example, in 2013 two different oil spills contaminated water supplies for 300,000 inMiri,Malaysia;[7] 80,000 people inCoca, Ecuador.[8] In 2000, springs were contaminated by an oil spill inClark County, Kentucky.[9]
Contamination can have an economic impact on tourism andmarine resource extraction industries. For example, theDeepwater Horizon oil spill impacted beach tourism andfishing along theGulf Coast, and the responsible parties were required to compensate economic victims.
The threat posed to birds, fish, shellfish and crustaceans from spilled oil was known in England in the 1920s, largely through observations made inYorkshire.[10] The subject was also explored in a scientific paper produced by theNational Academy of Sciences in the US in 1974 which considered impacts to fish, crustaceans and molluscs. The paper was limited to 100 copies and was described as a draft document, not to be cited.[11]
In general, spilled oil can affect animals and plants in two ways: dirесt from the oil and from the response or cleanup process.[12][13][14][15] Oil penetrates into the structure of the plumage of birds and the fur of mammals, reducing their insulating ability, and making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less buoyant in the water.
Animals who rely on scent to find their babies or mothers cannot do so due to the strong scent of the oil. This causes a baby to be rejected and abandoned, leaving the babies to starve and eventually die. Oil can impair a bird's ability to fly, preventing it from foraging or escaping from predators. As theypreen, birds may ingest the oil coating their feathers, irritating thedigestive tract, alteringliver function, and causingkidney damage. Together with their diminished foraging capacity, this can rapidly result indehydration andmetabolic imbalance. Some birds exposed to petroleum also experience changes in their hormonal balance, including changes in theirluteinizing protein.[16] The majority of birds affected by oil spills die from complications without human intervention.[17][18] Some studies have suggested that less than one percent of oil-soaked birds survive, even after cleaning,[19] although the survival rate can also exceed ninety percent, as in the case of theMV Treasure oil spill.[20] Oil spills and oil dumping events have been impacting sea birds since at least the 1920s[21][22][23] and was understood to be a global problem in the 1930s.[24]
Heavily furredmarine mammals exposed to oil spills are affected in similar ways. Oil coats the fur ofsea otters andseals, reducing its insulating effect, and leading to fluctuations inbody temperature andhypothermia. Oil can also blind an animal, leaving it defenseless. The ingestion of oil causes dehydration and impairs the digestive process. Animals can be poisoned, and may die from oil entering the lungs or liver.
In addition, oil spills can also harm air quality.[25] The chemicals in crude oil are mostly hydrocarbons that contains toxic chemicals such asbenzenes,toluene,poly-aromatic hydrocarbons and oxygenatedpolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. These chemicals can introduce adverse health effects when being inhaled into human body. In addition, these chemicals can be oxidized by oxidants in the atmosphere to form fine particulate matter after they evaporate into the atmosphere.[26] These particulates can penetrate lungs and carry toxic chemicals into the human body.Burning surface oil can also be a source for pollution such as soot particles. During the cleanup and recovery process, it will also generate air pollutants such as nitric oxides and ozone from ships. Lastly, bubble bursting can also be a generation pathway for particulate matter during an oil spill.[27] During theDeepwater Horizon oil spill, significant air quality issues were found on the Gulf Coast, which is the downwind of DWH oil spill. Air quality monitoring data showed that criteria pollutants had exceeded the health-based standard in the coastal regions.[28]
The majority of oil from an oil spill remains in the environment, hence a spill from an operation in the ocean is different from an operation on tundra or wetland. Wetlands are considered one of the most sensitive habitats to oil spills and the most difficult to clean.[29]
Oil spills can be caused by human error, natural disasters, technical failures or deliberate releases.[30][31] It is estimated that 30–50% of all oil spills are directly or indirectly caused by human error, with approximately 20–40% of oil spills being attributed to equipment failure or malfunction.[32] Causes of oil spills are further distinguished between deliberate releases, such as operational discharges or acts of war and accidental releases. Accidental oil spills are in the focus of the literature, although some of the largest oil spills ever recorded, theGulf War Oil Spill (sea based) andKuwaiti Oil Fires (land based) were deliberate acts of war.[33] The academic study of sources and causes of oil spills identifies vulnerable points in oil transportation infrastructure and calculates the likelihood of oil spills happening. This can then guide prevention efforts and regulation policies[34]
Around 40–50% of all oil released into the oceans stems from natural seeps from seafloor rocks. This corresponds to approximately 600,000 tons annually on a global level. While natural seeps are the single largest source of oil spills, they are considered less problematic because ecosystems have adapted to such regular releases. For instance, on sites of natural oil seeps, ocean bacteria have evolved to digest oil molecules.[35][36][33]
Vessels can be the source of oil spills either through operational releases of oil or in the case ofoil tanker accidents. As of 2007, operational discharges from vessels were estimated to account for 21% of oil releases from vessels.[36] They occur as a consequence of failure to comply with regulations or arbitrary discharges of waste oil and water containing such oil residues.[37] Such operational discharges are regulated through theMARPOL convention.[38] Operational releases are frequent, but small in the amount of oil spilled per release, and are often not in the focus of attention regarding oil spills.[36] There has been a steady decrease of operational discharges of oil, with an additional decrease of around 50% since the 1990s.[33]
As of 2007,[update] accidental oil tank vessel spills accounted for approximately 8–13% of all oil spilled into the oceans.[36][39] The main causes of oil tank vessel spills were collision (29%), grounding (22%), mishandling (14%) and sinking (12%), among others.[36][40] Oil tanker spills are considered a major ecological threat due to the large amount of oil spilled per accident and the fact that major sea traffic routes are close toLarge Marine Ecosystems.[36] Around 90% of the world's oil transportation is through oil tankers, and the absolute amount of seaborne oil trade is steadily increasing.[39] However, there has been a reduction of the number of spills from oil tankers and of the amount of oil released per oil tanker spill.[39][33] In 1992,MARPOL was amended and made it mandatory for large tankers (5,000 dwt and more) to be fitted withdouble hulls.[41] This is considered to be a major reason for the reduction of oil tanker spills, alongside other innovations such asGPS, sectioning of vessels andsea lanes in narrow straits.[33][36]
In 2023, the International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation (ITOPF) documented a significant oil spill incident of over 700 tonnes and nine medium spills ranging between 7 and 700 tonnes. The major spill occurred in Asia involving heavy fuel oil, and the medium spills were scattered across Asia, Africa, Europe, and America, involving various oil types.[42]
The total volume of oil released from these spills in 2023 was approximately 2,000 tonnes. This contributes to a trend of decreased oil spill volumes and frequencies over the decades. Comparatively, the 1970s averaged 79 significant spills per year, which drastically reduced to an average of about 6.3 per year in the 2010s, and has maintained a similar level in the current decade.[42]
The reduction in oil spill volume has also been substantial over the years. For instance, the 1990s recorded 1,134,000 tonnes lost, mainly from 10 major spills. This figure decreased to 196,000 tonnes in the 2000s and 164,000 tonnes in the 2010s. In the early 2020s, approximately 28,000 tonnes have been lost, predominantly from major incidents.[42]
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Accidental spills fromoil platforms nowadays account for approximately 3% of oil spills in the oceans.[36] Prominent offshore oil platform spills typically occurred as a result of ablowout. They can go on for months until relief wells have been drilled, resulting in enormous amounts of oil leaked.[33] Notable examples of such oil spills areDeepwater Horizon andIxtoc I. While technologies for drilling in deep water have significantly improved in the past 30–40 years, oil companies move to drilling sites in more and more difficult places. This ambiguous development results in no clear trend regarding the frequency of offshore oil platform spills.[33]
As of 2010, overall, there has been a substantial increase of pipeline oil spills in the past four decades.[33] Prominent examples includeoil spills of pipelines in the Niger Delta. Pipeline oil spills can be caused by trawling of fishing boats, natural disasters, pipe corrosion, construction defects, sabotage, or an attack,[37] as with theCaño Limón-Coveñas pipeline in Colombia.
Pipelines as sources of oil spills are estimated to contribute 1% of oil pollution to the oceans.[36] Reasons for this are underreporting, and many oil pipeline leaks occur on land with only fractions of that oil reaching the oceans.
Recreational boats can spill oil into the ocean because of operational or human error and unpreparedness. The amounts are however small, and such oil spills are hard to track due to underreporting.[35]
Oil can reach the oceans as oil and fuel from land-based sources.[32] It is estimated that runoff oil and oil from rivers are responsible for 11% of oil pollution to the oceans.[36] Such pollution can also be oil on roads from land vehicles, which is then flushed into the oceans during rainstorms.[35] Purely land-based oil spills are different from maritime oil spills in that oil on land does not spread as quickly as in water, and effects thus remain local.[32]
Cleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends upon many factors, including the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water (affecting evaporation and biodegradation), and the types of shorelines and beaches involved.[1] Physical cleanups of oil spills are also very expensive. Until the 1960s, the best method for remediation consisted of puttingstraw on the spill and retrieving the oil-soaked straw manually.[43] Chemical remediation is the norm as of the early 21st century, using compounds that can herd and thicken oil for physical recovery, disperse oil in the water, or facilitate burning the oil off.[43] The future of oil cleanup technology is likely the use of microorganisms such asFusobacteriota (formerly Fusobacteria), species demonstrate potential for future oil spill cleanup because of their ability to colonize and degrade oil slicks on the sea surface.[43][44]
There are three kinds of oil-consuming bacteria.Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) and acid-producing bacteria areanaerobic, while general aerobic bacteria (GAB) areaerobic. These bacteria occur naturally and will act to remove oil from an ecosystem, and their biomass will tend to replace other populations in the food chain. The chemicals from the oil which dissolve in water, and hence are available to bacteria, are those in thewater associated fraction of the oil. Oil Spill Eater II is a higly used first response tool with over 89,000 clean ups permanently removing up to 99% of the oil from large spills over 120,000 gallons. OSE II was used on the Exxon Valdez spill, as well as the BP Macondo spill in the Gulf of Mexico. OSE II has been successfully used Globally, since 1989. OSE II does not have the limitations of other oil spill products and processes.
Methods for cleaning up include:[45]
Equipment used includes:[51]
Spill response procedures should include elements such as;
Environmental Sensitivity Indexes (ESI) are tools used to create Environmental Sensitivity Maps (ESM). ESM's are pre-planning tools used to identify sensitive areas and resources prior to an oil spill event in order to set priorities for protection and plan clean-up strategies.[68][69] It is to date the most commonly used mapping tool for sensitive area plotting.[70] The ESI has three components: A shoreline type ranking system, a biological resources section, and a human-use resource category.[71]
ESI is the most frequently used sensitivity mapping tool yet. It was first applied in 1979 in response to an oil-spill near Texas in the Gulf of Mexico.[70] To this time, ESI maps were prepared merely days in advance of one's arrival to an oil spill location. ESMs used to be atlases, maps consisting of thousands of pages that could solely work with spills in the oceans. In the past 3 decades, this product has been transformed into a versatile online tool. This conversion allows sensitivity indexing to become more adaptable and in 1995 by theUS National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) worked on the tool allowing ESI to extended maps to lakes, rivers, and estuary shoreline types.[71] ESI maps have since become integral to collecting, synthesizing, and producing data which have previously never been accessible in digital formats. Especially in the United States, the tool has made impressive advancements in developing tidal bay protection strategies, collecting seasonal information and generally in the modelling of sensitive areas.[70] Together withGeographic Information System Mapping (GIS), ESI integrates their techniques to successfully geographically reference the three different types of resources.[72]
The ESI depicts environmental stability, coastal resilience to maritime related catastrophes, and the configurations of a stress-response relationship between all things maritime.[73] Created for ecological-related decision making, ESMs can accurately identify sensitive areas and habitats, clean-up responses, response measures and monitoring strategies for oil-spills.[74] The maps allow experts from varying fields to come together and work efficiently during fast-paced response operations. The process of making an ESI atlas involves GIS technology. The steps involve, first zoning the area that is to be mapped, and secondly, a meeting with local and regional experts on the area and its resources.[75] Following, all the shoreline types, biological, and human use resources need to be identified and their locations pinpointed. Once all this information is gathered, it then becomes digitized. In its digital format, classifications are set in place, tables are produced and local experts refine the product before it gets released.
ESI's current most common use is within contingency planning. After the maps are calculated and produced, the most sensitive areas get picked out and authenticated. These areas then go through a scrutinization process throughout which methods of protection and resource assessments are obtained.[75] This in-depth research is then put back into the ESMs to develop their accuracy and allowing for tactical information to be stored in them as well. The finished maps are then used for drills and trainings for clean-up efficiency.[75] Trainings also often help to update the maps and tweak certain flaws that might have occurred in the previous steps.
Shoreline type is classified by rank depending on how easy the target site would be to clean up, how long the oil would persist, and how sensitive the shoreline is.[76] The ranking system works on a 10-point scale where the higher the rank, the more sensitive a habitat or shore is. The coding system usually works in colour, where warm colours are used for the increasingly sensitive types and cooler colours are used for robust shores.[75] For each navigable body of water, there is a feature classifying its sensitivity to oil. Shoreline type mapping codes a large range of ecological settings includingestuarine,lacustrine, andriverine environments.[70] Floating oil slicks put the shoreline at particular risk when they eventually come ashore, covering thesubstrate with oil. The differing substrates between shoreline types vary in their response to oiling, and influence the type of cleanup that will be required to effectively decontaminate the shoreline. Hence ESI shoreline ranking helps committees identify which clean-up techniques are approved or detrimental the natural environment. The exposure the shoreline has to wave energy and tides, substrate type, and slope of the shoreline are also taken into account—in addition to biological productivity and sensitivity.[77]Mangroves and marshes tend to have higher ESI rankings due to the potentially long-lasting and damaging effects of both oil contamination and cleanup actions. Impermeable and exposed surfaces with high wave action are ranked lower due to the reflecting waves keeping oil from coming onshore, and the speed at which natural processes will remove the oil.
Within the biological resources, the ESI maps protected areas as well as those with bio-diverse importance. These are usually identified through theUNEP-WCMC Integrated Biodiversity Assessment Tool. There are varying types of coastal habitats and ecosystems and thus also many endangered species that need to be considered when looking at affected areas post oil spills. The habitats of plants and animals that may be at risk from oil spills are referred to as "elements" and are divided by functional group. Further classification divides each element into species groups with similar life histories and behaviors relative to their vulnerability to oil spills. There are eight element groups: birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, invertebrates, habitats and plants, wetlands, and marine mammals and terrestrial mammals. Element groups are further divided into sub-groups, for example, the ‘marine mammals’ element group is divided intodolphins, manatees,pinnipeds (seals, sea lions & walruses),polar bears,sea otters andwhales.[71][77] Necessary when ranking and selecting species is their vulnerability to the oil spills themselves. This not only includes their reactions to such events but also their fragility, the scale of large clusters of animals, whether special life stages occur ashore, and whether any present species is threatened, endangered or rare.[78] The way in which the biological resources are mapped is through symbols representing the species, and polygons and lines to map out the special extent of the species.[79] The symbols also have the ability to identify the most vulnerable of a species life stages, such as themolting, nesting, hatching or migration patterns. This allows for more accurate response plans during those given periods. There is also a division for sub-tidal habitats which are equally important to coastal biodiversity including kelp, coral reefs and sea beds which are not commonly mapped within the shoreline ESI type.[79]
Human-use resources are also often referred to as socio-economic features, which map inanimate resources that have the potential to be directly impacted by oil pollution. Human-use resources that are mapped within the ESI will have socio-economic repercussions to an oil spill. These resources are divided into four major classifications:archaeological importance or cultural resource site, high-use recreational areas or shoreline access points, important protected management areas, and resource origins.[71][78] Some examples include airports, diving sites, popular beach sites, marinas, hotels, factories, natural reserves or marine sanctuaries. When mapped, the human-use resources the need protecting must be certified by a local or regional policy maker.[75] These resources are often extremely vulnerable to seasonal changes due to ex. fishing and tourism. For this category there are also a set of symbols available to demonstrate their importance on ESMs.
By observing the thickness of the film of oil and its appearance on the surface of the water, it is possible to estimate the quantity of oil spilled. If the surface area of the spill is also known, the total volume of the oil can be calculated.[80]
| Film thickness | Quantity spread | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Appearance | inches | mm | nm | gal/sq mi | L/ha |
| Barely visible | 0.0000015 | 0.0000380 | 38 | 25 | 0.370 |
| Silvery sheen | 0.0000030 | 0.0000760 | 76 | 50 | 0.730 |
| First trace of color | 0.0000060 | 0.0001500 | 150 | 100 | 1.500 |
| Bright bands of color | 0.0000120 | 0.0003000 | 300 | 200 | 2.900 |
| Colors begin to dull | 0.0000400 | 0.0010000 | 1000 | 666 | 9.700 |
| Colors are much darker | 0.0000800 | 0.0020000 | 2000 | 1332 | 19.500 |
Oil spill model systems are used by industry and government to assist in planning and emergency decision making. Of critical importance for the skill of the oil spill model prediction is the adequate description of the wind and current fields. There is a worldwide oil spill modelling (WOSM) program.[81] Tracking the scope of an oil spill may also involve verifying that hydrocarbons collected during an ongoing spill are derived from the active spill or some other source. This can involve sophisticated analytical chemistry focused on finger printing an oil source based on the complex mixture of substances present. Largely, these will be various hydrocarbons, among the most useful beingpolyaromatic hydrocarbons. In addition, both oxygen and nitrogen heterocyclic hydrocarbons, such as parent and alkyl homologues ofcarbazole,quinoline, andpyridine, are present in many crude oils. As a result, these compounds have great potential to supplement the existing suite of hydrocarbons targets to fine-tune source tracking of petroleum spills. Such analysis can also be used to follow weathering and degradation of crude spills.[82]
Crude oil and refined fuel spills from tanker ship accidents have damaged vulnerableecosystems inAlaska, theGulf of Mexico, theGalapagos Islands,France, theSundarbans and many other places. The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few hundred tons to several hundred thousand tons (e.g.,Deepwater Horizon oil spill,Atlantic Empress,Amoco Cadiz),[83] but volume is a limited measure of damage or impact. Smaller spills have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as theExxon Valdez oil spill because of the remoteness of the site or the difficulty of an emergency environmental response.[84]
Oil spills in the Niger Delta are among the worst on the planet and is often used as an example ofecocide.[85][86][87][88][89] Between 1970 and 2000, there were over 7,000 spills. Between 1956 and 2006, up to 1.5 million tons of oil were spilled in theNiger Delta.[89]
Oil spills at sea are generally much more damaging than those on land, since they can spread for hundreds of nautical miles in a thinoil slick which can cover beaches with a thin coating of oil.[citation needed] These can kill seabirds, mammals, shellfish and other organisms they coat. Oil spills on land are more readily containable if a makeshift earth dam can be rapidlybulldozed around the spill site before most of the oil escapes, and land animals can avoid the oil more easily.[citation needed]
| Spill / Tanker | Location | Date | Tonnes of crude oil (thousands)[a] | Barrels (thousands) | US Gallons (thousands) | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kuwaiti Oil Fires[b] | Kuwait | January 16, 1991 –November 6, 1991 | 136,000 | 1,000,000 | 42,000,000 | [90][91] |
| Kuwaiti Oil Lakes[c] | Kuwait | January 1991 –November 1991 | 3,409–6,818 | 25,000–50,000 | 1,050,000–2,100,000 | [92][93][94] |
| Lakeview Gusher | Kern County, California, USA | March 14, 1910 –September 1911 | 1,200 | 9,000 | 378,000 | [95] |
| Gulf War oil spill[d] | Kuwait,Iraq, and thePersian Gulf | January 19, 1991 –January 28, 1991 | 818–1,091 | 6,000–8,000 | 252,000–336,000 | [93][97][98] |
| Deepwater Horizon | United States,Gulf of Mexico | April 20, 2010 –July 15, 2010 | 560–585 | 4,100–4,900 | 189,000–231,000 | [99][100][101][102][103] |
| Ixtoc I | Mexico,Gulf of Mexico | June 3, 1979 –March 23, 1980 | 454–480 | 3,329–3,520 | 139,818–147,840 | [104][105][106] |
| Atlantic Empress /Aegean Captain | Trinidad and Tobago | July 19, 1979 | 287 | 2,105 | 88,396 | [107][108][109] |
| Fergana Valley | Uzbekistan | March 2, 1992 | 285 | 2,090 | 87,780 | [110] |
| Nowruz Field Platform | Iran,Persian Gulf | February 4, 1983 | 260 | 1,900 | 80,000 | [111] |
| ABT Summer | Angola, 700 nmi (1,300 km; 810 mi) offshore | May 28, 1991 | 260 | 1,907 | 80,080 | [107] |
| Castillo de Bellver | South Africa,Saldanha Bay | August 6, 1983 | 252 | 1,848 | 77,616 | [107] |
| Amoco Cadiz | France,Brittany | March 16, 1978 | 223 | 1,635 | 68,684 | [107][110][112][113] |
| Taylor Energy | United States,Gulf of Mexico | September 23, 2004 – Present | 210–490 | 1,500–3,500 | 63,000–147,000 | [114] |
| Odyssey | off the coast ofNova Scotia,Canada | November 10, 1988 | 132 | 968 | 40,704 | [115] |
| Torrey Canyon | England,Cornwall | March 18, 1967 | 119 | 872 | 36,635 | [116] |
Oil spills can have devastating environmental impacts; however, they often have equally detrimental economic consequences.[117] These disasters do not only pose immediate threats to marine ecosystems, but also leave lasting impacts on local and regional economies. This section will explore the multifaceted economic repercussions of oil spills, specifically considering: the decline in tourism, the reduction in fishing, and the impact on port activity.
In the short term, an oil spill will prevent tourists from partaking in usual recreational activities such as swimming, boating, diving, and angling.[118] As such, the area will witness a decline in tourism. This will negatively impact several industries. Firstly, the hotels, restaurants, and bars in the immediate vicinity will have significantly fewer customers. Local car park owners and shopkeepers will be affected too. Then, this decline in tourists will cause further damage to travel agencies, tour guides, and transport companies.[119] The beaches will likely stay shut for several days whilst clean-up operations take place, and there may be disruption caused by an increase in clean-up vehicles.[118] Overall, several businesses will be negatively impacted by the spill in the short term, which can lead to further long-term damage should companies be forced to reduce staff or shut down entirely.
Similarly, tourism in Ibiza was severely impacted in 2007. Just 20 tonnes of oil were spilled from the Don Pedro in July 2007, a relatively limited volume compared with other spills. Whilst this caused just a small amount of environmental damage, the economic damage was disproportionately large. Most beaches were reopened within a week, just a dozen seabirds were affected, and there were no reports of injured sea mammals. Nonetheless, 27 percent of hotels in Ibiza were negatively affected, with two thirds of these being seafront hotels. Thus, 32 claims were made by tourist firms, equating to approximately 1.5 million euros of compensation.[120] This provides a clear example of an oil spill resulting in massive economic disaster. Furthermore, following the world's largest oil spill, the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill in 2010,[121] the U.S. Travel Association estimated 23 billion dollars’ worth of associated costs for affected tourist infrastructure.[122]
After the Deepwater Horizon crisis,[121] the Gulf of Mexico suffered an estimated 1.9-billion-dollar loss in revenue from fishing. This is because fishing closures were imposed due to fears of the safety of seafood,[123] there was also a decline in demand, as seafood restaurants and markets suffered such severe losses that many were forced to shut.[118] Usually, the Gulf sees an average of 106,703 fishing trips per day,[124] equating to 1 million metric tonnes of annual fishery landings.[125] Therefore, the necessary fishing ban following the disaster was highly damaging. Similarly, following the sinking of the Prestige oil tanker near Galicia, Spain, in November 2002, 77,000 tonnes of crude oil were spilled into the ocean. This disaster has had severe economic consequences, alongside the environmental damage. Large zones were cordoned in which fishing was banned, with these bans lasting for more than eight months. This affected several groups, including fishermen, ship owners, and the companies who bought and sold the fish. Several compensatory actions were introduced, including tax benefits and aid. This resulted in expenses of approximately 113 million euros in an attempt to compensate for the halt in fishing activity.[126] The examples of the Deepwater Horizon and the Prestige clearly illustrate the severe economic consequences when oil spills prevent commercial fishing.
Water pollution due to oil spills can be severe, often resulting in the death or injury of many sea creatures, including birds, sea mammals, fish, algae, and coral.[127] The impact on fish caught in the spill has both immediate and longer-term impacts. Immediately, the fish are tainted with oil, and they cannot be used commercially due to safety reasons. Then, the oil can spread and sink below the water's surface. If fish swallow the oil, they are also inconsumable due to the health risk posed to humans.[127] Therefore, massive economic damage is caused to the fishing industry following an oil spill, as the stock is vastly reduced. Furthermore, the oil can cause damage to the equipment and boats of fishermen. Clean-up operations can also interrupt usual fishing routes, and sometimes fishing bans are imposed.[119] This further illustrates the damaging economic effects of oil spills on commercial fishing, which is particularly detrimental for regions whose economy relies heavily on fishing.
Ports are major hubs for economic activity; thus, an oil spill in or near a port can have significant consequences.[128] During and following a spill, all boats entering or leaving the port must be closely managed in order to prevent further spread. Furthermore, specialist cleaning contractors must be hired to effectively clean the various port structures.[118] Oil spills are relatively regular occurrences in ports, as small spills often happen due to the large volume of boats, and these are not as well documented in the media as larger events are.[129] However, these spills must still be dealt with, and they can still have damaging economic repercussions.[130] Both the incident and the response require expensive and time-consuming management which is disruptive to port activity.[130] Furthermore, special care must be taken during clean-up operations to ensure that the oil does not get stuck under the quayside, as this could act as a continual source of oil contamination.[130] This can also be seen with sea defenses; should the oil penetrate deep into the structures, they may become a source of secondary pollution.[118] Therefore, it is crucial for ports to manage and mitigate any oil spills, in order to limit the damage to ships and shipping operations. Otherwise, should large disruption occur, the economic damage can be extensive due to costly clean-up processes and delayed shipments.
The economic impact of oil spills on tourism, fishing, and ports is substantial and important to assess. Coordinated efforts are necessary to mitigate these impacts, including effective clean-up measures, public relations campaigns to restore the image of affected areas, and support for businesses and communities that must bear the economic downturn.
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