By the end of theMiddle Ages, lapis lazuli began to be exported to Europe, where it was ground into powder and made into the pigmentultramarine. Ultramarine was used by some of the most important artists of theRenaissance andBaroque, includingMasaccio,Perugino,Titian andVermeer, and was often reserved for the clothing of the central figures of their paintings, especially theVirgin Mary. Ultramarine has also been found indental tartar ofmedievalnuns andscribes, perhaps as a result of licking their painting brushes while producing medieval texts andmanuscripts.[9]
Look uplapis lazuli in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Excavations fromTepe Gawra show that Lapis lazuli was introduced toMesopotamia approximately in the lateUbaid period, c. 4900–4000 BCE.[10] A traditional understanding was that the lapis was mined some fifteen hundred miles to the east – inBadakhshan. Indeed, thePersianلاژوردlāžavard/lāževard, also writtenلاجوردlājevard, is commonly interpreted as having an origin in a local place name.
From the Persian, theArabicلازوردlāzaward is the etymological source of both the English wordazure (via Old Frenchazur) andMedieval Latinlazulum, which came to mean 'heaven' or 'sky'. To disambiguate,lapis lazulī ("stone oflazulum") was used to refer to the stone itself, and is the term ultimately imported intoMiddle English.[11]Lazulum is etymologically related to the color blue, and used as a root for the word for blue in several languages, including Spanish and Portugueseazul.[11][12]
Mines in northeast Afghanistan continue to be a major source of lapis lazuli. Important amounts are also produced from mines west ofLake Baikal in Russia, and in theAndes mountains inChile which is the source that theInca used to carve artifacts and jewelry. Smaller quantities are mined in Pakistan, Italy, Mongolia, the United States, and Canada.[13]
Lapis lazuli seen through a microscope (x240 magnification)
The intense blue color is due to the presence of thetrisulfurradical anion (S•− 3) in the crystal.[16] The presence of disulfur (S•− 2) and tetrasulfur (S•− 4) radicals can shift the color towards yellow or red, respectively.[17] These radical anions substitute for the chloride anions within thesodalite structure.[18] TheS•− 3 radical anion exhibits a visible absorption band in the range 595–620 nm with high molar absorptivity, leading to its bright blue color.[19]
Lapis lazuli is found in limestone in theKokcha River valley ofBadakhshan province in north-eastern Afghanistan, where theSar-i Sang mine deposits have been worked for more than 6,000 years.[20] Afghanistan was the source of lapis for the ancient Persian, Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations, as well as the later Greeks and Romans. Ancient Egyptians obtained the material through trade with Mesopotamians, as part ofEgypt–Mesopotamia relations. During the height of theIndus Valley civilisation, approximately 2000 BC, the Harappan colony, now known asShortugai, was established near the lapis mines.[7]
In addition to the Afghan deposits, lapis is also extracted in theAndes (nearOvalle,Chile); and to the west ofLake Baikal in Siberia, Russia, at the Tultui lazurite deposit. It is mined in smaller amounts inAngola, Argentina,Burma, Pakistan, Canada, Italy, India, and in the United States inCalifornia andColorado.[13]
Lapis takes an excellent polish and can be made into jewellery, carvings, boxes,mosaics, ornaments, small statues, and vases. Interior items and finishing buildings can be also made with lapis. During theRenaissance, lapis was ground and processed to make thepigmentultramarine for use infrescoes andoil painting. Its usage as a pigment in oil paint largely ended during the early 19th century, when a chemically identical synthetic variety became available.
Crystals of lazurite (the main mineral in lapis lazuli) from the Sar-i Sang Mining District in Afghanistan
A polished block of lapis lazuli
Natural ultramarine pigment made from ground lapis lazuli. During theMiddle Ages andRenaissance it was the most expensive pigment available (gold being second) and was often reserved for depicting the robes ofAngels or theVirgin Mary
Ancient Egyptian cult image ofPtah; 945–600 BC; lapis lazuli; height of the figure: 5.2 cm (2.0 in), height of the dais: 0.4 cm (0.16 in);Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
Lapis lazuli has been mined in Afghanistan and exported to the Mediterranean world and South Asia since theNeolithic age,[23][24] along the ancient trade route between Afghanistan and theIndus Valley dating to the 7th millennium BC. Quantities of these beads have also been found at 4th millennium BC settlements in NorthernMesopotamia, and at theBronze Age site ofShahr-e Sukhteh in southeast Iran (3rd millennium BC). A dagger with a lapis handle, a bowl inlaid with lapis, amulets, beads, and inlays representing eyebrows and beards, were found in the Royal Tombs of the Sumerian city-state ofUr from the 3rd millennium BC.[23]
Lapis was also used in ancient Persia, Mesopotamia by theAkkadians,Assyrians, andBabylonians forseals and jewelry. It is mentioned several times in the Mesopotamian poem, theEpic of Gilgamesh (17th–18th century BC), one of the oldest known works of literature. TheStatue of Ebih-Il, a 3rd millennium BC statue found in the ancient city-state ofMari in modern-daySyria, now in theLouvre, uses lapis lazuli inlays for the irises of the eyes.[25]
In ancient Egypt, lapis lazuli was a favorite stone for amulets and ornaments such asscarabs. Lapis jewellery has been found at excavations of thePredynastic Egyptian siteNaqada (3300–3100 BC). AtKarnak, the relief carvings ofThutmose III (1479–1429 BC) show fragments and barrel-shaped pieces of lapis lazuli being delivered to him as tribute. Powdered lapis was used as eyeshadow byCleopatra.[7][26]
Jewelry made of lapis lazuli has also been found atMycenae attesting to relations between the Myceneans and the developed civilizations of Egypt and the East.[27]
Pliny the Elder wrote that lapis lazuli is "opaque and sprinkled with specks of gold".[citation needed] Because the stone combines the blue of the heavens and golden glitter of the sun, it was emblematic of success in the old Jewish tradition.[citation needed] In the early Christian tradition lapis lazuli was regarded as the stone ofVirgin Mary.[citation needed]
In late classical times and as late as the Middle Ages, lapis lazuli was often calledsapphire (sapphirus in Latin,sappir in Hebrew),[28] though it had little to do with the stone today known as the bluecorundum variety sapphire. In his book on stones, the Greek scientistTheophrastus described "the sapphirus, which is speckled with gold," a description which matches lapis lazuli.[29]
There are many references to "sapphire" in theOld Testament, but most scholars agree that, since sapphire was not known before the Roman Empire, they most likely are references to lapis lazuli. For instance, Exodus 24:10: "And they saw the God of Israel, and there was under his feet as it were a paved work of a sapphire stone..." (KJV). The words used in the Latin Vulgate Bible in this citation are "quasi opus lapidis sapphirini", the terms for lapis lazuli.[30] Modern translations of the Bible, such as the New Living Translation Second Edition,[31] refer to lapis lazuli in most instances instead of sapphire.
The poet,William Butler Yeats, describes a figurine of sculpted lapis lazuli in a poem entitled "Lapis Lazuli". The sculpture of three men from China, a bird, and a musical instrument serves in the poem as a reminder of "gaiety" in the face of tragedy.[34]
Sumerian necklace beads; 2600–2500 BC; gold and lapis lazuli; length: 54 cm (21 in);Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
Sumerian necklace; 2600–2500 BC; gold and lapis lazuli; length: 22.5 cm (8.9 in); from theRoyal Cemetery at Ur (Iraq); Metropolitan Museum of Art
Ancient Egyptian scarab finger ring; 1850–1750 BC; lapis lazuli scarab set in gold plate and on a gold wire ring lapis-lazuli; diameter: 2.5 cm (0.98 in), the scarab: 1.8 cm (0.71 in); Metropolitan Museum of Art
Neo-Babylonian conical seal; 7th–6th century BC; lapis lazuli; height: 2.7 cm (1.1 in), diameter: 2.1 cm (0.83 in); Metropolitan Museum of Art
Ancient Egyptian plaque with anEye of Horus; 664–332 BC; lapis lazuli; length: 1.8 cm (0.71 in), width: 1.6 cm (0.63 in); Metropolitan Museum of Art
Greek or Roman ring stone; lapis lazuli; 2.1 cm × 1.6 cm × 0.3 cm (0.83 in × 0.63 in × 0.12 in); Metropolitan Museum of Art
Roman bead ornament; gold and lapis lazuli; 3 cm × 1.8 cm × 0.5 cm (1.18 in × 0.71 in × 0.20 in); Metropolitan Museum of Art
20th century silver ring with polished lapis oval; 2 cm × 2.4 cm × 1 cm (0.79 in × 0.94 in × 0.39 in)
Elephant carved from lapis lazuli. Length 7 cm (2.8 in).
^DIKSHIT, K.N. (2012). "The Rise of Indian Civilization: Recent Archaeological Evidence from the Plains of 'Lost' River Saraswati and Radio-Metric Dates".Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute. 72/73:1–42.ISSN0045-9801.JSTOR43610686.
^Alcestis Papademetriou,Mycenae, John S. Latsis Public Benefit Foundation, 2015, p. 32.
^Schumann, Walter (2006) [2002]. "Sapphire".Gemstones of the World. trans. Annette Englander & Daniel Shea (Newly revised & expanded 3rd ed.). New York: Sterling. p. 102.In antiquity and as late as the Middle Ages, the name sapphire was understood to mean what is today described as lapis lazuli.
^Theophrastus,On Stones (De Lapidibus) – IV-23, translated by D.E. Eichholtz, Oxford University Press, 1965.
^Pearlie Braswell-Tripp (2013),Real Diamonds and Precious Stones of the BibleISBN978-1-4797-9644-1
Bakhtiar, Lailee McNair,Afghanistan's Blue Treasure Lapis Lazuli, Front Porch Publishing, 2011,ISBN978-0615573700
Bariand, Pierre, "Lapis Lazuli", Mineral Digest, Vol 4 Winter 1972.
Bowersox, Gary W.; Chamberlin, Bonita E. (1995).Gemstones of Afghanistan. Tucson, AZ: Geoscience Press.
Herrmann, Georgina, "Lapis Lazuli: The Early Phases of Its Trade", Oxford University Dissertation, 1966.
Korzhinskij, D. S., "Gisements bimetasomatiques de philogophite et de lazurite de l'Archen du pribajkale", Traduction par Mr. Jean Sagarzky-B.R.G.M., 1944.
Lapparent A. F., Bariand, P. et Blaise, J., "Une visite au gisement de lapis lazuli de Sar-e-Sang du Hindu Kouch, Afghanistan," C.R. Somm.S.G.P.p. 30, 1964.
Oldershaw, Cally (2003).Firefly Guide to Gems. Toronto: Firefly Books..
Wise, Richard W.,Secrets of the Gem Trade: The Connoisseur's Guide to Precious Gemstones, 2016ISBN9780972822329
Wyart J. Bariand P, Filippi J., "Le Lapis Lazuli de Sar-e-SAng", Revue de Geographie Physique et de Geologie Dynamique (2) Vol. XIV Pasc. 4 pp. 443–448, Paris, 1972.
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