The most commonly usedlanguage in theUnited States isEnglish (specificallyAmerican English), which is thenational language. While theU.S. Congress has never passed a law to make English the country'sofficial language, a March 2025executive order declared it to be.[1][2] In addition, 32U.S. states out of 50 and all fiveU.S. territories have laws that recognize English as an official language, with three states and most territories having adopted English plus one or more other official languages. Overall, 430 languages are spoken orsigned by the population, of which 177 areindigenous to the U.S. or its territories,[7] and accommodations for non-English-language speakers are sometimes made under various federal, state, and local laws.
The majority of theU.S. population (77%) speaks only English at home as of 2024, according to theAmerican Community Survey (ACS) of theU.S. Census Bureau.[8] The second most common language by far isSpanish, spoken by 13.9% of the population,[8] followed byChinese, spoken by around 1% of the population. Other languages spoken by over a million residents are Tagalog, Vietnamese, Arabic, French, Korean, and Russian.[6] Only 8.4% of U.S. residents report that they speak English less than "very well".[9]
Many residents of theU.S. unincorporated territories speak their own native languages or a local language, such as Spanish in Puerto Rico and English in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Over the course of U.S. history, many languages have been brought into what became the United States fromEurope,Africa,Asia, other parts of theAmericas, andOceania. Some of these languages have developed intodialects and dialect families (examples includeAfrican-American English,Pennsylvania Dutch, andGullah),creole languages (such asLouisiana Creole), andpidgin languages.American Sign Language (ASL) andInterlingua, aninternational auxiliary language, were created in the United States.
Based on annual data from the American Community Survey (ACS), the U.S. Census Bureau regularly publishes information on the most commonlanguages spoken at home. It also reports on the English-speaking ability of people who speak a language other than English at home.[6] In 2023, Spanish speakers made up about three-fifths of all speakers of languages other than English in the United States. In 2017, the U.S. Census Bureau published information on the number of speakers of some 350 languages as surveyed by the ACS from 2009 to 2013,[10][11] but it does not regularly tabulate and report data for that many languages.
The most spoken languages at home in the United States in 2020:[6]
The ACS is not a full census but an annual sample-based survey conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau. The language statistics are based on responses to a three-part question asked about all members of a target U.S. household who are at least five years old. The first part asks if they "speak a language other than English at home." If so, the head of the household or main respondent is asked to report which language each member speaks in the home, and how well each individual speaks English. It does not ask how well individuals speak any other language of the household. Thus, some respondents might have only limited speaking ability in those languages.[12] In addition, it is difficult to make historical comparisons of the numbers of speakers because language questions used by the U.S. Census changed numerous times before 1980.[13]
The ACS does not tabulate the number of people who report the use ofAmerican Sign Language at home, so such data must come from other sources. While modern estimates indicate that American Sign Language was signed by as many as 500,000 Americans in 1972 (the last official survey of sign language), estimates as recently as 2011 were closer to 100,000. Various cultural factors, such as the passage of theAmericans with Disabilities Act, have resulted in far greater educational opportunities forhearing-impaired children, which could double or triple the number of current users of American Sign Language.
English is the most common language spoken in U.S. homes, with approximately 247 million speakers as well as numerous bilingual speakers. Spanish is spoken by approximately 42 million people.[3] The United States has the world's fourth largest Spanish-speaking population, outnumbered only byMexico,Colombia, andArgentina; other estimates[which?] put the United States at over 50 million, second only to Mexico. Throughout theSouthwestern United States andPuerto Rico, long-established Spanish-speaking communities coexist with large numbers of more recentHispanophone immigrants. Although many new Latin American immigrants are less than fluent in English, nearly all second-generationHispanic and Latino Americans speak English fluently, while only about half still speak Spanish.[14]
According to the2000 U.S. census, people ofGerman ancestry made up the largest single ethnic group in the United States, butGerman language was the fourth most-spoken language in the country.[15][16]Italian,Polish, andFrench are still widely spoken among populations descending from immigrants from those countries in the early 20th century, but the use of these languages is dwindling as the older generations die.Russian is also spoken by immigrant populations.
Tagalog andVietnamese have over one million speakers each in the United States, almost entirely within recent immigrant populations. Both languages, along with thevarieties of Chinese (mostlyCantonese,Taishanese, andStandard Mandarin),Japanese, andKorean, are now used in elections inAlaska,California,Hawaii,Illinois,New York,Texas, andWashington.[17]
Native American languages are spoken in smaller pockets of the country, but these populations are decreasing, and the languages are seldom widely used outside of reservations. Besides English, Spanish, French, German,Navajo and other Native American languages, all other languages are usually learned from immigrant ancestors that came after the time of independence or learned through some form ofeducation.
American Sign Language is the most commonsign language in the United States, although there are unrelated sign languages that have also been developed in the States and territories—mostly in the Pacific. No concrete numbers exist for signers but something upwards of 250,000 is common.Themost widely taught foreign languages in the United States, in terms of enrollment numbers from kindergarten through universityundergraduate education, are Spanish, French, andGerman. Other commonly taught languages includeLatin,Japanese,American Sign Language,Italian, andChinese.[18][19]
English is typically used by thefederal government and is considered thenational language. In 2025,Donald Trump issuedExecutive Order 14224, declaring English the official language of the United States, andfederal agencies recognize English as official under the order.[1][20] However, the U.S. has never had an official languagede jure, asCongress has never passed legislation to designate one at the federal level.[21][22][b]
Outside of Puerto Rico, English is the primary language used for legislation, regulations, executive orders, treaties, federal court rulings, and all other official pronouncements. Nonetheless, laws require some documents, such asballots, to be printed in both English and one or more other languages if there are large numbers of non-English speakers in an area. Proceedings of theUnited States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico are required by federal law to be in English,[23] despite the predominantly Spanish-speaking population and the status of Spanish as an official language of the territorial government.
Thirty-two of the 50 states have adopted legislation granting official or co-official status to English, in some cases as part of what has been called theEnglish-only movement.[24][25] Typically only "English" is specified, not a particular variety like American English. (From 1923 to 1969, the state of Illinois recognized its official language as "American".)[26][27] English is typically used in states that do not have an official language.
Hawaiian and English are the official languages ofHawaii, reflecting theHawaiian Kingdom's history of trade and diplomacy with Britain in the decades prior to itsannexation by the United States in 1898. Alaska has made some20 native languages official, along with English;[28][29] for example, Alaska provides voting information inIñupiaq,Central Yup'ik,Gwich'in,Siberian Yupik, andKoyukon among others.[30] On July 1, 2019, a law went into effect makingLakota,Dakota, andNakota the official indigenous languages ofSouth Dakota.[31]
French is ade facto, but unofficial, language inMaine andLouisiana, and since 1848New Mexico law has granted Spanish speakers in the state the right to receive many services in Spanish. The government of Louisiana offers services and most documents in both English and French, and New Mexico does so in English and Spanish.
English is at least one of the official languages in all five permanently inhabitedU.S. territories. InPuerto Rico, both English and Spanish are official, although Spanish has been declared the principal official language. The school system and the government operate almost entirely in Spanish, but federal law requires theUnited States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico to use English,[32] like the rest of the federal court system.
Guam recognizes English andChamorro. In theU.S. Virgin Islands, English is the only official language. InAmerican Samoa, both English andSamoan are officially recognized; English is common but Samoan is also seen in some official communications. In theNorthern Mariana Islands, English,Chamorro, andCarolinian are official.[33]
InNew Mexico, although the state constitution does not specify an official language, laws are published in English and Spanish, and government materials and services are legally required (by Act) to be made accessible to speakers of both languages as well asNavajo and variousPueblo languages. New Mexico also hasits own dialect of Spanish, which differs from Spanish spoken inLatin America.
Algonquian,Cherokee, andSioux are among many otherNative American languages which are official or co-official on many U.S.Indian reservations andpueblos. InOklahoma before statehood in 1907, territory officials debated whether or not to haveCherokee,Choctaw, andMuscogee languages as co-official, but the idea never gained ground.Cherokee is officially recognized by theCherokee Nation within the Cherokee tribal jurisdiction area in eastern Oklahoma.[34]
AfterNew Amsterdam (formerly aDutch colony) was transferred to English administration (becoming theProvince of New York) in the late 17th century, English supplantedDutch as the official language. However, "Dutch remained the primary language for many civil and ecclesiastical functions and most private affairs for the next century."[35] TheJersey Dutch dialect is now extinct.
California has agreed to allow the publication of state documents in other languages to represent minority groups and immigrant communities. Languages such asSpanish,Chinese,Korean,Tagalog,Persian,Russian,Vietnamese, andThai appear in official state documents, and the Department of Motor Vehicles publishes in nine languages.[36]
The issue ofmultilingualism also applies in the states ofArizona andTexas. While the constitution of Texas has no official language policy, Arizona passed a propositionin 2006 declaring English as the official language.[37] Nonetheless, Arizona law requires the distribution of voting ballots in Spanish, as well as indigenous languages such asNavajo,O'odham andHopi, in counties where they are spoken.[38]
A popularurban legend called theMuhlenberg legend claims that German was almost made an official language of the United States but lost by one vote. In reality, it was a request by a group of German immigrants to have an official translation of laws into German. House speakerFrederick Muhlenberg has since become associated with the legend.[39][40][41]
| Place | English official | Other official language(s) | Note |
|---|---|---|---|
| Alabama | Yes | None | since 1990[42] |
| Alaska | Yes | Inupiaq, Siberian Yupik, Central Alaskan Yup'ik, Alutiiq, Unangax, Dena'ina, Deg Xinag, Holikachuk, Koyukon, Upper Kuskokwim, Gwich'in, Lower Tanana, Middle Tanana, Upper Tanana, Tanacross, Hän, Ahtna, Eyak, Tlingit, Haida, Cup’ig, Wetal, Tsimshian[43] | since 2015[43] |
| Arizona | Yes | None | since 2006, 1988 law ruled unconstitutional[44] |
| Arkansas | Yes | None | since 1987[42] |
| California | Yes | None | since 1986 withProposition 63.[42] Proposition 63 is unenforceable due to the lack of appropriate legislation,[45] and the Bilingual Services Act provides for the use of other languages in public outreach.[46] |
| Colorado | Yes | None | since 1988;[42] from 1876–1990 theColorado Constitution required laws to be published in English, Spanish, and German[47] |
| Connecticut | No | None[42] | |
| Delaware | No | None[42] | |
| Florida | Yes | None | since 1988[42] |
| Georgia | Yes | None | since 1996[42] |
| Hawaii | Yes | Hawaiian | since 1978[42] |
| Idaho | Yes | None | since 2007[42] |
| Illinois | Yes | None | since 1969; "American" was the official language 1923–1969.[42] |
| Indiana | Yes | None | since 1984[42] |
| Iowa | Yes | None | since 2002[42] |
| Kansas | Yes | None | since 2007[42] |
| Kentucky | Yes | None | since 1984[42] |
| Louisiana | No | None | French has had special status since 1968 founding ofCODOFIL.[42][48] |
| Maine | No | None[42] | |
| Maryland | No | None[42] | |
| Massachusetts | Yes | None[42] | A 1975 state supreme court case,Commonwealth v. Olivo, underscored official status of English;[49] in 2002, English was declared the "common public language."[50] |
| Michigan | No | None[42] | |
| Minnesota | No | None[42] | |
| Mississippi | Yes | None | since 1987[42] |
| Missouri | Yes | None[42] | since 1998; state constitution amended accordingly in 2008[51] |
| Montana | Yes | None | since 1995[42] |
| Nebraska | Yes | None | since 1920[52] |
| Nevada | No | None[42] | |
| New Hampshire | Yes | None | since 1995[42] |
| New Jersey | No | None[42] | |
| New Mexico | No | None | Spanish has had special recognition since 1912 passage of state constitution. Seearticle.English Plus since 1989[42] |
| New York | No | None[42] | |
| North Carolina | Yes | None | since 1987[42] |
| North Dakota | Yes | None | since 1987[42] |
| Ohio | No | None[42] | |
| Oklahoma | Yes | None | since 2010. TheChoctaw language is official within theChoctaw Nation; theCherokee language has been official among theCherokee and theUKB since 1991.[53][54][55][56] |
| Oregon | No | None | English Plus since 1989[42] |
| Pennsylvania | No | None[42] | |
| Rhode Island | No | None | English Plus since 1992[42] |
| South Carolina | Yes | None | since 1987[42] |
| South Dakota | Yes | Sioux | since 1995,[42] since 2019[57] |
| Tennessee | Yes | None | since 1984[42] |
| Texas | No | None[42] | |
| Utah | Yes | None | English only from 2000–2021;[42] since 2021, the Utah code has been amended to be English official but not English only.[58][59][60] |
| Vermont | No | None[42] | |
| Virginia | Yes | None | since 1996[42] |
| Washington | No | None | English Plus since 1989[42] |
| West Virginia | Yes | None[42] | since 2016[61] |
| Wisconsin | No | None[42] | |
| Wyoming | Yes | None | since 1996[42] |
| District of Columbia | No | None[62][63] | The Language Access Act of 2004 guarantees equal access and participation in public services, programs, and activities for residents of the District of Columbia who cannot (or have limited capacity to) speak, read, or write English. Speakers ofAmharic,French,Chinese,Spanish,Vietnamese andKorean receive additional accommodations.[64][65] |
| American Samoa | Yes | Samoan[66] | |
| Guam | Yes | Chamorro[67] | |
| Northern Mariana Islands | Yes | Chamorro,Carolinian[68] | |
| Puerto Rico | Yes | Spanish[69] | |
| U.S. Virgin Islands | Yes | None[70] |
Bilingual education in the United States, often a different concept fromlanguage immersion ordual-language school programs, is an area of political controversy. In standard bilingual classes, the non-English language (typically Spanish or Chinese) is utilized over a period of time when students' English-language proficiency is lacking. Otherwise themedium of instruction at almost all U.S. schools, at all levels, is English. The exceptions are in language classes such as French or German, or in general education in the territory ofPuerto Rico, where Spanish is standard. English is the language of instruction in the territory ofAmerican Samoa, despite most students speakingSamoan as their native language.[71]
There are also hundreds oflanguage immersion and dual-language schools across the United States that teach in a variety of languages, including Spanish,Hawaiian,Chamorro,French, andMandarin Chinese (for example, theMandarin Immersion Magnet School inHouston, Texas). However, English is a mandatory class in all these schools.
| Language | percent | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| English | 77.5% | |||
| Spanish | 13.7% | |||
| OtherIndo-European | 3.9% | |||
| Asian andPacific island | 3.6% | |||
| Other | 1.3% | |||
Some of the first European languages to be spoken in the U.S. were English,Dutch,French,Spanish, andSwedish.
From the mid-19th century, the nation had large numbers of immigrants who spoke little or no English. The laws, constitutions, and legislative proceedings of some states and territories appeared in the languages of politically important immigrant groups. There have been bilingual schools and local newspapers in such languages asGerman,Ukrainian,Hungarian,Irish,Italian,Norwegian,Greek,Polish,Swedish,Romanian,Czech,Japanese,Yiddish,Hebrew,Lithuanian,Welsh,Cantonese,Bulgarian,Dutch,Portuguese,Persian,Arabic and others. These flourished despite English-only laws in some jurisdictions prohibiting church services, telephone conversations, and even conversations in the street or on railway platforms in a language other than English, up until the first of these laws was ruled unconstitutional in 1923 (Meyer v. Nebraska).
Typically, immigrant languages tend to be lost through assimilation within two or three generations.[73]
Several states and territories have native populations who spoke their own language prior to joining the United States, and have maintained their original languages for centuries. The languages includeAlaskan Russian,Louisiana French,New Mexican Spanish,Pennsylvania Dutch, andPuerto Rican Spanish.
English was inherited fromBritish colonization, and it is spoken by the majority of the population. English has become increasingly common; when the United States was founded, just 40% of Americans spoke English.[74][better source needed]. In 2002, 87% of Americans spoke English as their first language.[75][76] It serves as thede facto national language, the language in which government business is carried out. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, 80% spoke only English at home and all but approximately 13,600,000 U.S. residents age 5 and over speak English "well" or "very well".[77]
American English is different fromBritish English in terms of spelling (one example being the dropped "u" in words such as color/colour), grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and slang usage. The differences are not usually a barrier to effective communication between anAmerican English and a British English speaker.
Some states, likeCalifornia, have amended their constitutions to make English the only official language, but in practice, this only means that official government documents mustat least be in English, anddoes not mean that they should be exclusively available only in English. For example, the standard California Class Cdriver's license examination is available in 32 different languages.[78]
Spanish was also inherited from colonization and is sanctioned as official in the commonwealth ofPuerto Rico, where it is the general language of instruction in schools and universities. In the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and all territories except Puerto Rico, Spanish is taught as a foreign orsecond language. It is spoken at home in areas with large Hispanic populations: theSouthwestern United States along the border with Mexico, as well as inFlorida, parts ofCalifornia, theDistrict of Columbia,Illinois,New Jersey, andNew York. In Hispanic communities across the country, bilingual signs in both Spanish and English may be quite common. Furthermore, numerous neighborhoods exist (such asWashington Heights inNew York City orLittle Havana inMiami) in which entire city blocks will have only Spanish-language signs and Spanish-speaking people.
| Year | Number of Spanish speakers | Percent of U.S. population |
|---|---|---|
| 1980 | 11 million | 5% |
| 1990 | 17.3 million | 7% |
| 2000 | 28.1 million | 10% |
| 2010 | 37 million | 13% |
| 2020 | 41.3 million | 13.7% |
| 2023 | 42.0 million | 13.4% |
| Sources:[16][79][80][81][3] | ||
Younger generations of non-Hispanics in the United States choose to study Spanish as a foreign or second language in far greater numbers than other second-language options. This might be due in part to the growing Hispanic population and the increasing popularity of Latin American movies and music performed in the Spanish language. A 2009 American Community Survey (ACS) conducted by theUnited States Census Bureau, showed that Spanish was spoken at home by over 35 million people aged 5 or older,[82] making the United States the world's fifth-largest Spanish-speaking community, outnumbered only byMexico,Colombia,Spain, andArgentina.[83][84] Since then, the number of persons reported on the ACS to speak Spanish at home has increased (see table).
Innorthern New Mexico and southernColorado, Spanish speakers have been isolated for centuries in the southernRockies, and developed a distinct dialect of Spanish spoken nowhere else:New Mexican Spanish. The dialect features a mix ofCastilian,Galician and, more recently,Mexican Spanish, as well asPueblo loan words. New Mexican Spanish also contains a large proportion of English loan words, particularly for technological words (e.g.bos,troca, andtelefón).
Speakers of New Mexican Spanish are mainly descendants of Spanish colonists who arrived in New Mexico in the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries. During this time, contact with the rest of Spanish America was limited, and New Mexican Spanish developed on its own course. In the meantime, Spanish colonists coexisted with and intermarried with Puebloan peoples and Navajos. After the Mexican–American War, New Mexico and all its inhabitants came under the governance of the English-speaking United States, and for the next hundred years, English-speakers increased in number.
Puerto Rican Spanish is the main language and dialect of the people ofPuerto Rico, as well as many people descended from Puerto Ricans elsewhere throughout the United States.
Spanglish is acode-switching variant of Spanish and English and is spoken in areas with large bilingual populations of Spanish and English speakers, such as along theMexico–United States border (California,Arizona,New Mexico, andTexas),Florida, andNew York City.
The population of Chinese speakers in the United States was increasing rapidly in the 20th century because the number of Chinese immigrants has increased at a rate of more than 50% since 1940.[85] Some 2.8 million Americans speak somevariety of Chinese, which combined are counted by the federal census as the third most-spoken language in the country. Until the late 20th century,Yue dialects, includingCantonese andTaishanese, were the most common dialects among immigrants and the descendants of immigrants, especially inCalifornia. Since the opening of thePeople's Republic of China,Mandarin, the official language in the PRC andRepublic of China (Taiwan), has become increasingly prevalent.[86] Many Americans of all ethnic backgrounds are also learning Mandarin and, to a far lesser extent, Cantonese.[86]
InNew York City in 2002, Mandarin was spoken as a native language among only 10% of Chinese speakers but was predicted to replace Cantonese as thelingua franca among Chinese speakers.[87]
Chinese-Americans in the California Gold Rush and their descendants spoke a variety of theCantonese language influenced by American English and American societal concepts foreign to Cantonese speakers in Modern China, either through direct English translations such as "Alpine" borrowed from (Alpine County, California), or neologisms such as "Yellow Eagle" (Gold dollar), "Emancipated Woman" (Feminist), and "Telephone". It also maintains olderQing Dynasty Cantonese vocabulary that has fallen out of use in Cantonese spoken in Modern China.[88]
French is the seventh most spoken language in the United States according to the 2020 ACS. It is the fourth most common ifHaitian Creole (a French-based dialect that is not mutually intelligible with standard French) is combined and counted as French. The ACS lists Haitian Creole separately from French, which encompasses standard French, Louisiana Creole, and Louisiana Cajun varieties. In the United States, French is spoken mainly by theLouisiana Creole, nativeFrench,Cajun, andFrench-Canadian populations, along with more recent immigrants from Haiti. It is widely spoken inMaine,New Hampshire,Vermont, and inLouisiana, with notable Francophone enclaves inSt. Clair County, Michigan, many rural areas of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and thenorthern San Francisco Bay area.[citation needed] Because of its legacy in Louisiana, that state is served by theCouncil for the Development of French in Louisiana (CODOFIL), the only state agency in the United States whose mission is to serve a linguistic population. In October 2018, Louisiana became the first U.S. state to join theOrganisation Internationale de la Francophonie.[89]
Three varieties of French developed within what is now the United States in colonial times includingLouisiana French,Missouri French, andNew England French (essentially a variant ofCanadian French).[90] French is the second-most-spoken language in the states ofLouisiana and Maine. The largest French-speaking communities in the United States reside inNortheast Maine;Hollywood andMiami,Florida;New York City;[citation needed] certain areas ofrural Louisiana; and small minorities in Vermont and New Hampshire. Many of the New England communities are connected to the dialect found across the border in Quebec or New Brunswick. More than 13 million Americans possess primary French heritage, but only 2 million speak French, or any regional creoles and variations language at home. The largest concentration of French speakers in the country is in Louisiana.
Louisiana French (Cajun French:français de la Louisiane;Louisiana Creole:françé la lwizyàn) is an umbrella term for the dialects andvarieties of the French language spoken traditionally in colonialLower Louisiana. As of today Louisiana French is primarily used in theU.S. state ofLouisiana, specifically in the southernparishes.
French is spoken across ethnic and racial lines byLouisiana French people who may identify asCajuns orCreoles as well asChitimacha,Houma,Biloxi,Tunica,Choctaw,Acadians, andFrench Indian among others.[91][92] For these reasons, as well as the relatively small influenceAcadian French has had on the region, the label Louisiana French or Louisiana Regional French (French:français régional louisianais) is generally regarded as more accurate and inclusive than "Cajun French" and is the preferred term bylinguists andanthropologists.[93][94][95][96] However, "Cajun French" is commonly used inlay discourse by speakers of the language and other inhabitants of Louisiana.[97]
German was the 13th most common language spoken at home, according to the 2020 ACS survey. If German-related dialects such as Yiddish and varieties such as Pennsylvania German (Amish) are included, German ranks among the top ten languages spoken in U.S. homes. (The ACS lists both Yiddish and Pennsylvania German separately from German.) By the 18th century, German was a widely spoken language in some American colonies, especially Pennsylvania, where a number of German-speakingProtestants and other religious minorities settled to escape persecution in Europe. Another wave of settlement occurred when Germans fleeing the failure of 19th-century German revolutions immigrated to the United States. Throughout the century, a large number of these immigrants settled in urban areas, where entire neighborhoods were German-speaking and numerous local German-language newspapers and periodicals were established. Germans also took up farming around the country, including theTexas Hill Country, at this time. The language was widely spoken until the United States enteredWorld War I.
In the early 20th century, German was the most widely studied foreign language in the United States, and prior toWorld War I, more than 6%[citation needed] of American schoolchildren received their primary education exclusively in German, though some of these Germans came from areas outside Germany. Currently, more than 49 million Americans claimGerman ancestry, the largest self-described ethnic group in the U.S., but less than 4% of them speak a language other than English at home, according to recentAmerican Community Surveys.[98] TheAmish, concentrated in the State ofPennsylvania, speak a dialect of German known asPennsylvania Dutch; it is widely spoken in Amish communities today.
Waves of colonial Palatines from the Rhenish Palatinate, one of the Holy Roman states, settled in theProvince of New York and theProvince of Pennsylvania. The first Palatines arrived in the late 1600s but the majority came throughout the 1700s; they were known collectively as thePalatine Dutch. ThePennsylvania Dutch settled other states, including Indiana and Ohio.[99][100] For many years, the term "Palatine" meantGerman American.[101]
There is a myth (known as theMuhlenberg legend) that German was to be the official language of the U.S., but this is inaccurate and based on a failed early attempt to have government documents translated into German.[102] The myth also extends to German being the second official language of Pennsylvania; however, Pennsylvania has no official language. Although more than 41 million Americans claim to have German ancestors,[103] only 857,000 Americans spoke German at home in 2020.[104]
Pennsylvania Dutch or Pennsylvania German is a dialect ofPalatine German that is traditionally spoken by thePennsylvania Dutch, and has settled the Midwest, in places such as Ohio, Indiana, Iowa and other states, where many of the speakers live today. It evolved from theGerman dialect of thePalatinate brought over to America byPalatines from theHoly Roman Empire in the 1600s.[105] They settled on land sold to them byWilliam Penn. Germantown included not only Mennonites, but also Quakers.[106] The Pennsylvania Dutch speak Pennsylvania Dutch, and adhere to different Christian denominations:Lutherans,German Reformed,Mennonites,Amish,German Baptist Brethren,Roman Catholics; today Pennsylvania Dutch is mainly spoken byOld Order Amish andOld Order Mennonites.
Texas German is a group of High German dialects spoken by Texas Germans, descendants of German immigrants who settled in Texas in the mid-19th century.
Yiddish, aWest Germanic language historically spoken byAshkenazi Jews in Central and eastern Europe, has a much longer history in the United States than Hebrew.[107] It has been present since at least the late 19th century and continues to have roughly 148,000 speakers as of the 2009 American Community Survey. Though they came from varying geographic backgrounds and nuanced approaches to worship, immigrant Jews of Central Europe, Germany and Russia were often united under a common understanding of the Yiddish language once they settled in America. By the early 20th century, dozens of publications in the language were available in most East Coast cities. Though the use of Yiddish has declined by quite a bit since the end of World War II, it has by no means disappeared. Many Israeli immigrants and expatriates have at least some understanding of the language in addition to Hebrew, and many of the descendants of the great migration ofAshkenazi Jews of the past century pepper their English vocabulary withYiddish loan words. Yiddish remains the lingua franca among AmericanHaredi Jews (particularlyHasidic Jewry), whose communities are concentrated in Los Angeles, Miami,New York City, and the suburbs of New York.[108] A significant diffusion of Yiddish loan words into the non-Jewish population continues to be a distinguishing feature of New York City English. Some of these words includeglitch, chutzpah, mensch, kvetch, klutz, etc.
In the United States, theRussian language is spoken mostly in urban areas of the states ofNew York,California,Washington,New Jersey,Illinois,Massachusetts, andPennsylvania. It is also spoken in isolated areas ofAlaska originally settled in the 18th and 19th centuries by Russianpromyshlenniki; these were largelySiberian fur hunters, river merchants, and mercenaries who later worked assailors,carpenters,artisans, and craftsmen. In the 21st century, Russian is especially spoken in immigrant neighborhoods of larger U.S. cities:New York City,Boston,Los Angeles,San Francisco,Philadelphia,Chicago,Seattle,Sacramento,Spokane,Miami,Portland, Oregon, and two Portland suburbs,Vancouver, Washington andWoodburn, Oregon.
From 1799 until 1867, theRussian-American Company owned most all of what becameAlaska Territory. This changed with the formalsale of Alaska to the United States on March 30, 1867, after the final resolution of theCrimean War. The presence of Russian speakers in the United States has always been limited in numbers, and even more so after the assassination of theRomanov dynasty oftsars. However, beginning in the late 1970s and continuing until the mid-1990s, manyRussian-speaking Jews from the Soviet Union (and later from its independent constituent republics ofRussia,Moldova,Ukraine,Belarus, andUzbekistan) have immigrated to the United States, increasing the use of Russian in the country.
The largest Russian-speaking neighborhoods in the United States are found inNew York City (specifically theBrighton Beach area of Brooklyn,Forest Hills andRego Park in Queens, and parts ofStaten Island),Los Angeles (especiallyWest Los Angeles andWest Hollywood), neighborhoods ofPhiladelphia (notably theFar Northeast), and parts ofMiami (Sunny Isles Beach).
The Russian-language media groupSlavic Voice of America, based inDallas, Texas, serves Russian-speaking Americans.
Alaskan Russian, known locally as Old Russian, is a dialect ofRussian influenced by theAlutiiq language spoken byAlaskan Creoles. Most of its speakers live onKodiak Island and in theNinilchik (Kenai Peninsula). It has been isolated from other varieties of Russian for over a century.[109]
Kodiak Russian was natively spoken along the Afognak Strait until theGreat Alaskan earthquake and tsunami of 1964. It has become moribund, spoken by only a handful of elderly people, and is virtually undocumented.[110]
Ninilchik Russian has been better studied and is more vibrant. It developed from theRussian colonial settlement of the village of Ninilchik in 1847.[111][112]
Ninilchik Russian vocabulary is clearlyRussian, with a few borrowings fromEnglish andAlaskan native languages.
InNikolaevsk, Alaska, 66.57% of the population still spoke Russian at home as late as 2017.[113]
In a 1990 demographic consensus, 3% of surveyed citizens claimed to be of Dutch descent. Modern estimates place theDutch American population (with total or partial Dutch heritage) at 3.1 million, or 0.93%,[114] lagging just a bit behindNorwegian Americans andSwedish Americans,[114] while 885,000[115] Americans claimed total Dutch heritage.
An estimated 141,580 people, or 0.0486%,[116] in the United States still speak the Dutch language, including itsFlemish variant, at home as of 2013. This is in addition to the 23,010 and 510 speakers, respectively, of theAfrikaans andWest-Frisian languages, both closely related to Dutch.[116] Dutch speakers in the U.S. are concentrated mainly inCalifornia (23,500),Florida (10,900),Pennsylvania (9,900),Ohio (9,600), New York (8,700) andMichigan (6,600, residing almost entirely in the city ofHolland).[117] In 2021, 95.3% of the total Dutch-American population aged 5 years and over spoke only English at home.[118]
There has been a Dutch presence in North America since establishment of 17th-century colony ofNew Netherland (parts of New York, New Jersey and Delaware), where Dutch was spoken by theNew Netherlander, the original settlers, and their descendants. It was still spoken in the region at the time of the American Revolution and thereafter. For example,Alexander Hamilton's wife,Eliza Hamilton, attended a Dutch-language church during their marriage. African-American abolitionist and women's rights activistSojourner Truth (born "Isabella Baumfree") was a native speaker of Dutch.Martin Van Buren, the first president born in the United States following its independence from Great Britain, spoke Dutch as hisnative language. He is the only U.S. president whosefirst language was not English.
Vernacular dialects of Dutch were spoken in northeastern New Jersey (Bergen, Hudson, Passaic county) and the Capital District of New York until they gradually declined throughout the 20th century.
Native American languages predate European settlement of theNew World. In a few parts of the U.S. (mostly onIndian reservations), they continue to be spoken fluently. Most of these languages areendangered, although there are efforts to revive them. Normally the fewer the speakers of a language the greater thedegree of endangerment, but there are many small Native American language communities in the Southwest (Arizona andNew Mexico) which continue to thrive despite their small size.
In 1929, speaking of indigenous Native American languages, linguistEdward Sapir observed:[119]
Few people realize that within the confines of the United States there is spoken today a far greater variety of languages ... than in the whole of Europe. We may go further. We may say, quite literally and safely, that in the state of California alone there are greater and more numerous linguistic extremes than can be illustrated in all the length and breadth of Europe.
According to the 2000 census and other language surveys, the largest Native American language-speaking community by far is the Navajo.Navajo is anAthabaskan language of theNa-Dené family, with 178,000 speakers, primarily in the states ofArizona,New Mexico, andUtah. Altogether, Navajo speakers make up more than 50% of all Native American language speakers in the United States.Western Apache, with 12,500 speakers, also mostly in Arizona, is closely related to Navajo but not mutually intelligible with it. Navajo and other Athabaskan languages in the Southwest are relative outliers; most other Athabascan languages are spoken in thePacific Northwest andAlaska. Navajo has struggled to keep a healthy speaker base, although this problem has been alleviated to some extent by extensive education programs on theNavajo Nation, including a Navajo language immersion school inFort Defiance, Arizona.
Cherokee is theIroquoian language spoken by theCherokee people, and the official language of theCherokee Nation.[120] Significant numbers of Cherokee speakers of all ages[121] still populate theQualla Boundary inCherokee, North Carolina and several counties within the Cherokee Nation ofOklahoma, significantlyCherokee,Sequoyah,Mayes,Adair, andDelaware. Increasing numbers of Cherokee youth are renewing interest in the traditions, history, and language of their ancestors.[121] Cherokee-speaking communities stand at the forefront of language preservation, and at local schools, all lessons are taught in Cherokee and thus it serves as the medium of instruction from pre-school on up.[120] Also, church services and traditional ceremonialstomp dances are held in the language in Oklahoma and on the Qualla Boundary in North Carolina.[120]
Cherokee is one of the few, or perhaps the only, Native American language with an increasing population of speakers,[122] and along withNavajo it is the only indigenous American language with more than 50,000 speakers,[123] a figure most likely achieved through the tribe's 10-year long language preservation plan involving growing new speakers through immersion schools for children,[124][125] developing new words for modern phrases, teaching the language to non-Cherokees in schools and universities,[126] fostering the language among young adults so their children can use that language at home, developingiPhone andiPad apps for language education, the development of Cherokee language radio stations includingCherokee Voices, Cherokee Sounds,[127] and promoting the writing system through public signage, products like theAppleiPhone,internet use throughGoogle includingGmail, and others so the language remains relevant in the 21st century.
Dakota is aSiouan language with 18,000 speakers in the US alone (22,000 including speakers in Canada), not counting 6,000 speakers of the closely relatedLakota. Most speakers live in the states ofNorth Dakota andSouth Dakota. Other Siouan languages include the closely relatedWinnebago, and the more distantCrow, among others.
Central Alaskan Yup'ik is anEskimo–Aleut language with 16,000 speakers, most of whom live in Alaska. The term "Yupik" is applied to its relatives, which are not necessarily mutually intelligible with Central Alaskan, includingNaukan andCentral Siberian, among others.
TheO'odham language, spoken by thePima and theTohono O'odham, is aUto-Aztecan language with more than 12,000 speakers, most of whom live in central and southernArizona and northernSonora. Other Uto-Aztecan languages includeHopi,Shoshone, and thePai-Ute languages.
Choctaw has 11,000 speakers. Choctaw is part of theMuskogean family, likeSeminole andAlabama.
TheAlgonquian language family includes languages likeOjibwe (Chippewa),Cheyenne, andCree.
Keres has 11,000 speakers in New Mexico and is alanguage isolate. The Keres pueblo people are the largest of the Pueblo nations. The Keres pueblo ofAcoma is the oldest continually inhabited community in the United States.Zuni, another isolate, has around 10,000 speakers, most of whom reside within theZuni pueblo.
Because of immigration fromMexico, there are Mexican native American languages speakers in the US. There are thousands ofNahuatl,Mixtec,Zapotec andTrique speakers in communities established mainly in the southern states.
Although the languages of the Americas have a history stretching back about 17,000 to 12,000 years, current knowledge of them is limited. There are doubtlessly a number of undocumented languages that were once spoken in the United States that are missing from historical record.
Below is an estimate of Native American languages "spoken at home" in the United States (American Community Survey 2006–2008).[128] This is not an exhaustive list of Native American languages in the US. Because the distinction between dialect and language is not always clear, multiple dialects of varyingmutual intelligibility may be classified as a single language, while a group of effectively identical dialects may be classified separately for historical or cultural reasons. Languages included here may be classified as "extinct" (having no living native speakers), but many extinct or moribund Native American languages are the subjects of ongoinglanguage revitalization efforts; other extinct languages undergoing revitalization might not be listed here.
| Language | Endonym[c] | Family | Speakers (% of total) | Does not speak English "Very Well"[d] |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total | — | — | 444,124 (100) | 19.22% |
| Total (excl. Navajo) | — | — | 203,127 (54.32) | 15.82% |
| Navajo | Diné bizaad | Na-Dené | 170,822 (45.68) | 23.25% |
| Dakota | Dakȟótiyapi | Siouan | 18,804 (5.03) | 9.86% |
| Yupik | — | Eskimo–Aleut | 18,626 (4.98) | 37.02% |
| O'odham | — | Uto-Aztecan | 15,123 (3.59) | 8.03% |
| Apache | Ndee biyati' | Na-Dené | 14,012 (3.75) | 3.53% |
| Keres | — | Isolate | 13,073 (3.50) | 6.20% |
| Cherokee | Tsalagi Gawonihisdi (ᏣᎳᎩ ᎦᏬᏂᎯᏍᏗ) | Iroquoian | 12,320 (3.29) | 16.33% |
| Choctaw | Chahta' | Muskogean | 10,368 (2.77) | 23.44% |
| Zuni | Shiwi'ma | Isolate | 9432 (2.52) | 14.22% |
| American Indian (Other) | — | — | 8888 (2.38) | 16.73% |
| O'odham (Pima) | Oʼodham ñiʼokĭ | Uto-Aztecan | 8190 (2.19) | 14.70% |
| Ojibwe (Chippewa) | Anishinaabemowin | Algic | 6986 (1.87) | 11.28% |
| Hopi | Hopilàvayi | Uto-Aztecan | 6776 (1.81) | 18.80% |
| Inupiat (Inupik) | Iñupiatun | Eskimo–Aleut | 5580 (1.49) | 26.04% |
| Tewa | — | Tanoan | 5123 (1.37) | 13.80% |
| Muskogee (Creek) | Mvskoke | Muskogean | 5072 (1.36) | 19.62% |
| Crow | Apsáalooke | Siouan | 3962 (1.06) | 6.59% |
| Shoshoni | Sosoni' da̲i̲gwape | Uto-Aztecan | 2512 (0.67) | 7.25% |
| Cheyenne | Tsėhésenėstsestȯtse | Algic | 2399 (0.64) | 3.21% |
| Tiwa | — | Tanoan | 2269 (0.61) | 3.22% |
| Towa (Jemez) | — | Tanoan | 2192 (0.59) | 27.65% |
| Inuit (Eskimo) | — | Eskimo–Aleut | 2168 (0.58) | 25.46% |
| Blackfoot | Siksiká (ᓱᖽᐧᖿ),Niitsí'powahsin, (ᖹᒧᐧᑲᖷᐦᓱᐡ) orSiksikáí'powahsin (ᓱᖽᐧᖼᑲᖷᐦᓱᐡ) | Algic | 1970 (0.53) | 11.02% |
| Sahaptin | Ichishkíin sɨ́nwit | Plateau Penutian | 1654 (0.44) | 6.17% |
| Paiute | — | Uto-Aztecan | 1638 (0.44) | 11.78% |
| Athapascan | — | Na-Dené | 1627 (0.44) | 19.55% |
| Ute | Núu-'apaghapi | Uto-Aztecan | 1625 (0.43) | 5.23% |
| Southern Tiwa | — | Tanoan | 1600 (0.42) | |
| Mohawk | Kanien’kéha' | Iroquoian | 1423 (0.38) | 11.67% |
| Seneca | Onödowága | Iroquoian | 1353 (0.36) | 11.23% |
| Ho-Chunk (Winnebago) | Hocąk | Siouan | 1340 (0.36) | 6.27% |
| Kiowa | Cáuijògà | Tanoan | 1274 (0.34) | 9.58% |
| Aleut | Unangam tunuu | Eskimo–Aleut | 1236 (0.33) | 19.01% |
| Salish | — | Salishan | 1233 (0.33) | 22.87% |
| Gwich’in (Kuchin) | Gwich’in | Na-Dené | 1217 (0.33) | 25.82% |
| Kickapoo | Kiwikapawa | Algic | 1141 (0.31) | 41.72% |
| Arapaho | Hinónoʼeitíít | Algic | 1087 (0.29) | 1.20% |
| Tlingit | Lingít | Na-Dené | 1026 (0.27) | 8.19% |
| Siberian Yupik (SLI Yupik) | Sivuqaghmiistun | Eskimo–Aleut | 993 (0.27) | 39.48% |
| Passamaquoddy | Peskotomuhkat | Algic | 982 (0.26) | 6.11% |
| Comanche | Nʉmʉ tekwapʉ | Uto-Aztecan | 963 (0.26) | 10.59% |
| Cree | Nēhiyawēwin | Algic | 951 (0.25) | 8.73% |
| Menominee | Omāēqnomenew | Algic | 946 (0.25) | 39.64% |
| Nez Perce | Niimiipuutímt | Plateau Penutian | 942 (0.25) | 12.10% |
| Potawatomi | Bodéwadmi | Algic | 824 (0.22) | 9.95% |
| Hidatsa | Hidatsa | Siouan | 806 (0.22) | 4.47% |
| Kickapoo | — | Algic | 800 (0.22) | |
| Mesquakie (Fox) | Meshkwahkihaki | Algic | 727 (0.19) | 22.15% |
| Karok | Káruk | Isolate | 700 (0.19) | 5.43% |
| Pomo | — | Pomoan | 648 (0.17) | 14.81% |
| Oneida | Oneyota'aaka | Iroquoian | 527 (0.14) | 58.63% |
| Yurok | Puliklah | Algic | 491 (0.13) | 1.63% |
| Cocopah | Kwikapa | Yuman | 483 (0.13) | 22.77% |
| Hualapai | Hwalbáy | Yuman | 458 (0.12) | 4.80% |
| Omaha | Umoⁿhoⁿ | Siouan | 457 (0.12) | 1.97% |
| Chiricahua | Ndee bizaa | Na-Dené | 457 (0.12) | — |
| Jicarilla | Abáachi mizaa | Na-Dené | 455 (0.12) | 14.51% |
| Yaqui | Yoem noki | Uto-Aztecan | 425 (0.11) | 10.12% |
| Yokuts | — | Yokutsan | 407 (0.11) | 27.27% |
| Koasati | Coushatta | Muskoeaen | 370 (0.10) | — |
| Mono | Mono | Uto-Aztecan | 349 (0.09) | — |
| Mohave | Hamakhav | Yuman | 330 (0.09) | 6.36% |
| Luiseño | Cham'teela | Uto-Aztecan | 327 (0.09) | 4.28% |
| Shawnee | Sawanwa | Algic | 321 (0.09) | 6.23% |
| Maidu (NE Maidu) | Májdy | Maiduan | 319 (0.09) | 6.90% |
| Ottawa | Nishnaabemwin | Algic | 312 (0.08) | 10.90% |
| Algonquin | Anicinâbemowin | Algic | 288 (0.08) | 19.79% |
| Okanogan | Nsəlxcin | Salishan | 284 (0.08) | 10.92% |
| Osage | Wazhazhe ie | Siouan | 260 (0.07) | 20.38% |
| Wichita | Kirikirʔi:s | Caddoan | 242 (0.06) | 16.12% |
| Onondaga | Onǫda’gegá | Iroquoian | 239 (0.06) | 2.93% |
| Mi'kmaq (Micmac) | Míkmawísimk | Algic | 230 (0.06) | 10.87% |
| Digueño (Ipai-Kumiai-Tipai) | — | Yuman | 228 (0.06) | 60.96% |
| Washo | Wá:šiw ʔítlu | Isolate | 227 (0.06) | 9.69% |
| Miwok | Miwok | Utian | 216 (0.06) | — |
| Lushootseed (Puget Salish) | Xʷəlšucid | Salishan | 207 (0.06) | 47.83% |
| Kutenai | Ktunaxa | Isolate | 200 (0.05) | 32.50% |
| Miccosukee | Mikisúkî | Muskogean | 188 (0.05) | 22.87% |
| Tuscarora | Ska:rù:rę' | Iroquoian | 179 (0.05) | 10.06% |
| Makah | Qʷi·qʷi·diččaq | Wakashan | 176 (0.05) | 30.11% |
| Coeur d'Alene | Snchitsuʼumshtsn | Salishan | 174 (0.05) | — |
| Hupa | Na:tinixwe | Na-Dené | 174 (0.05) | — |
| Quechan (Yuma) | Kwtsaan | Yuman | 172 (0.05) | 31.98% |
| Miami | Myaamia | Algic | 168 (0.04) | 50.60% |
| Alabama | Albaamo innaaɬiilka | Muskogean | 165 (0.04) | 20.00% |
| Lenape (Delaware) | Lënape / Lunaapeew | Algic | 146 (0.04) | 25.34% |
| Clallam | Nəxʷsƛ̕ay̕əmúcən | Salishan | 146 (0.04) | 1.37% |
| Penobscot (E Abenaki) | Panawahpskek | Algic | 144 (0.04) | 5.56% |
| Yavapai | — | Yuman | 139 (0.04) | — |
| Cahuilla | Ivia | Uto-Aztecan | 139 (0.04) | — |
| Ponca | Paⁿka | Siouan | 131 (0.04) | 6.87% |
| Quinault | Kʷínaył | Salishan | 128 (0.03) | — |
| Deg Xinag (Ingalit) | Degexit’an | Na-Dené | 127 (0.03) | — |
| Pawnee | Paári | Caddoan | 122 (0.03) | 16.39% |
| Haida | X̱aat Kíl | Isolate | 118 (0.03) | 19.49% |
| Cowlitz | Stl'pulimuhkl | Salishan | 110 (0.03) | 82.73% |
| Mandan | Nų́ʔetaːre | Siouan | 104 (0.03) | 38.46% |
| Arikara | Sáhniš | Caddoan | 103 (0.03) | — |
| Klamath | Maqlaqs | Plateau Penutian | 95 (0.03) | 27.37% |
| Havasupai | Havasu’baaja | Yuman | 90 (0.02) | 52.22% |
| Chitimacha | Sitimaxa | Isolate | 89 (0.02) | 21.35% |
| Abenaki (W Abenaki) | Wôbanakiôdwawôgan | Algic | 86 (0.02) | — |
| Kwak'wala (Kwakiutl) | Kwak'wala | Wakashan | 85 (0.02) | 24.71% |
| Tututni (Rogue River) | Dotodəni | Na-Dené | 84 (0.02) | — |
| Iroquois | — | Iroquoian | 76 (0.02) | — |
| Tsimshian | Sm'algyax | Tsimshianic | 68 (0.02) | — |
| Achumawi | — | Palaihnihan | 68 (0.02) | — |
| Chiwere | Jíwere | Siouan | 60 (0.02) | — |
| Koasati | Kowassá:ti | Muskogean | 59 (0.02) | 6.78% |
| Koyukon | Denaakkʼe | Na-Dené | 58 (0.02) | 12.07% |
| Upper Chinook | Kiksht | Chinookan | 58 (0.02) | 10.34% |
| Caddo | Hasí:nay | Caddoan | 51 (0.01) | 23.53% |
| Kalapuya (Santiam) | — | Kalapuyan | 50 (0.01) | — |
| Gros Ventre (Atsina) | Ahahnelin | Algic | 45 (0.01) | — |
| Tachi | — | Yokutsan | 45 (0.01) | 57.78% |
| Maricopa | Piipaash chuukwer | Yuman | 44 (0.01) | 22.73% |
| Chumash | S.hamala | Chumashan | 39 (0.01) | 100.00% |
| Nomlaki | Nomlāqa | Wintuan | 38 (0.01) | — |
| Konkow (NW Maidu) | Koyoom k'awi | Maiduan | 32 | 100.00% |
| Tunica | Yuron | Isolate | 32 | — |
| Tonkawa | Tickanwa•tic | Isolate | 29 | — |
| Caddo | — | Caddoan | 25 | — |
| Wintu | Wintʰu:h | Wintuan | 24 | — |
| Spokane | Npoqínišcn | Salishan | 20 | 40.00% |
| Ahtna | Atnakenaege’ | Na-Dené | 18 | — |
| Columbia (Sinkiuse) | Nxaảmxcín | Salishan | 17 | — |
| Atsugewi | Atsugé | Palaihnihan | 15 | — |
| Chemehuevi | Nüwüvi | Uto-Aztecan | 15 | — |
| Abenaki | — | Algic | 14 | — |
| Northern Paiute | Numu | Uto-Aztecan | 12 | — |
| Dena'ina (Tanaina) | Dena’ina qenaga | Na-Dené | 11 | — |
| Cupeño | Kupangaxwicham | Uto-Aztecan | 11 | — |
| Nuu-chah-nulth (Nootka) | Nuučaan̓uł | Wakashan | 10 | — |
| Pawnee | Chatiks si chatiks | Caddoan | 10 | |
| Arikara | Sanish | Caddoan | 10 | |
| Alutiiq (Gulf Yupik) | Sugpiaq | Eskimo–Aleut | 8 | — |
| Kansa | Káⁿza | Siouan | 7 | — |
| Siuslaw | Šáayušła | Isolate | 6 | — |
| Cayuga | Gayogo̱hó:nǫ’ | Iroquoian | 6 | — |
| Serrano | Taaqtam | Uto-Aztecan | 5 | — |
| Tübatulabal | — | Uto-Aztecan | 5 | — |
| Yuchi | Tsoyaha | Isolate | 4 | — |
| Shasta | — | Shastan | 2 | 100.00% |
| Wukcumni | — | Yokutsan | 1 | 0.00% |
| Quapaw | — | Siouan | 1 | — |
A sign-languagetradepidgin, known asPlains Indian Sign Language, Plains Standard or Plains Sign Talk, arose among theNative Americans of the plains. Each signing nation had a separate signed version of their oral language, that was used by the hearing, and these were not mutually intelligible. Plains Standard was used to communicate between these nations. It seems to have started in Texas and then spread north, through theGreat Plains, as far asBritish Columbia. There are still a few users today, especially among theCrow,Cheyenne, andArapaho. Unlike other sign languages developed by hearing people, it shares the spatial grammar of deaf sign languages. Through intergenerational transmission, Plains Sign Talk became a working language still in use today in some Deaf First Nations or Native American communities.
As Plains Sign Talk was so widespread and was a spectrum of dialects and accents, it probably hosted several languages under its umbrella. One is potentially Navajo Sign Language which is in use by a sole Navajo clan.
Additionally,Plateau Sign Language existed alongside Plains Sign Talk as either a trade pidgin or another language around theColumbia Plateau and surrounding regions.
Hawaiian is an official state language ofHawaii, as prescribed in theConstitution of Hawaii. Hawaiian has an estimated 1,000 native speakers. Although it is critically endangered, the Hawaiian language is showing signs of revitalization, particularly following theHawaiian Renaissance. Growing public interest can also be attributed to language immersion programs available through theHawaii State Department of Education and theUniversity of Hawaii, as well as to efforts by theHawaii State Legislature,Kamehameha Schools, county governments, and community organizations to preserve local place-based knowledge. In 1993, about 8,000 could speak and understand Hawaiian; today, since the intervention of the state government and that of private groups promoting the language, estimates range up to 27,000.
Samoan is an official territorial language ofAmerican Samoa. Samoans make up 90% of the population, and most people are bilingual.
Chamorro is co-official in theMariana Islands, both in the territory ofGuam and in theCommonwealth of theNorthern Mariana Islands. In Guam, the indigenousChamorro people make up about 60% of the population.
Carolinian is also co-official in the Northern Marianas, where only 14% of people speak English at home.
Several distinctnatural languages andpidgins have developed on American soil, including full languages likecreole andsign languages.
Angloromani is an English creole or mixed language spoken byRomani Americans.[129]
Apidgin of 700–800 words of French, English, Cree and other Native origins is the old trade language of thePacific Northwest. It was used extensively among both European and Native peoples of theOregon Territory, even used instead of English at home by manypioneer families. It is estimated that around 100,000 people spoke it at its peak, between 1858 and 1900, and it was last widely used inSeattle just beforeWorld War II.[130]
An English creole language with African influence spoken on theSea Islands ofSouth Carolina andGeorgia retains strong influences of West African languages. The language is sometimes referred to as "Geechee".
Hawaiian Pidgin is an English-based creole language used widely among locals in Hawaii.[131]
AFrench Creole language spoken by theLouisiana Creole people of the state ofLouisiana, close toHaitian Creole,Colonial French, andCajun French (language of Acadians deported fromNew France after 1755 and theGrand Dérangement).French Creole languages are spoken by millions of people worldwide, mainly in theUnited States, Caribbean, andIndian Ocean areas.
Negerhollands ('Negro-Dutch') was a Dutch-based creole language that was spoken in the Danish West Indies, now known as the U.S. Virgin Islands. Dutch was its superstrate language with Danish, English, French, Spanish, and African elements incorporated. Notwithstanding its name, Negerhollands drew primarily from the Zeelandic rather than the Hollandic dialect of Dutch.[132]
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Alongside the numerous and varied oral languages, the United States also boasts several sign languages. Historically, the US was home to some six or more sign languages (that number rising with the probability that Plains Sign Talk is actually a language family with several languages under its umbrella) which has fallen with the death of several of these.
As with all sign languages around the world that developed organically, these are full languages distinct from any oral language. American Sign Language (unlikeSigned English) is not a derivation of English.[133] Some languages present here weretradepidgins which were used first as a system of communication across national and linguistic boundaries of the Native Americans, however, they have since developed into mature languages as children learned them as a first language.
American Sign Language (ASL) is the native language of a number ofdeaf and hearing people in America (roughly 100,000 to 500,000). While some sources have stated that ASL is the third most frequently used language in the United States, after English and Spanish,[134] recent scholarship has pointed out that most of these estimates are based on numbers conflating deafness with ASL use, and that the last actual study of this (in 1972) seems to indicate an upper bound of 500,000 ASL speakers at the time.[135]
Hawaiʻi Sign Language is moribund with only a handful of speakers onOʻahu,Lānaʻi,Kauaʻi and possiblyNiʻihau. Some of these speakers may actually be speaking a creolized version of HSL and ASL, however; research is slow-going. The language was once called Hawaiʻi Pidgin Sign Language, as many people thought it was a derivative of ASL, but it was discovered to be a separate language altogether.[137]
Once a trade pidgin and the most far-reaching sign language in North America,Plains Sign Talk orPlains Sign Language is now critically endangered with an unknown number of speakers.
Martha's Vineyard Sign Language is now extinct. Along withFrench Sign Language, it was one of several main contributors to American Sign Language.
Henniker Sign Language is now extinct but was once found around theHenniker region of New Hampshire and formed a basis for American Sign Language.
Sandy River Valley Sign Language is now extinct but once could be found around the Sandy River Valley in Maine. It was one of several main contributors to American Sign Language.
The Arabic language is spoken by immigrants from theMiddle East as well as manyMuslim Americans. The highest concentrations of native Arabic speakers reside in heavily urban areas likeChicago,New York City, andLos Angeles.Detroit and the surrounding areas of Michigan boast a significant Arabic-speaking population including manyArab Christians ofLebanese,Syrian,Iraqi,Egyptian andPalestinian descent.
Arabic is used for religious purposes by Muslim Americans and by some Arab Christians (notablyCatholics of theMelkite andMaronite Churches as well as Rum Orthodox, i.e.Antiochian Orthodox Christians andCoptic churches.). A significant number of educated Arab professionals who immigrate often already know English quite well, as it is widely used in the Middle East. Lebanese immigrants also have a broader understanding of French as do many Arabic-speaking immigrants fromNorth Africa.[139][140][141][142]
12,805Texans can speak theCzech language.[143]
Drawing on Boas's model for interviewing speakers of the language and digitally cataloging the dialects, John Tomecek founded and Lida Cope of East Carolina University developed the Texas Czech Legacy Project at the University of Texas at Austin to document and preserve the dwindling language.[144][145][146]Because the majority of Texas immigrants came from Moravia, the Czech spoken in Texas is largely characterized by Moravian dialects (Lachian andMoravian Wallachian) which vary to some extent from the Bohemian dialects spoken by most Czech-Americans. Czech-language journalism has been very active in the state over the years. Thirty-three newspapers and periodicals have been published. As of 1993 one weekly newspaper,Našinec, published atGranger, and one monthly,Hospodář, published atWest, were still being published entirely in Czech. Other periodicals such asVěstník and theBrethren Journal contained sections printed in Czech.[147]
The first Finnish settlers in America were amongst the settlers who came from Sweden and Finland to theNew Sweden colony. Most colonists were Finnish. However, the Finnish language was not preserved as well among subsequent generations as Swedish.
Between the 1890s and the outbreak of the first World War, an estimated quarter millionFinnish citizens immigrated to the United States, mainly in rural areas of theMidwest and more specifically in the mining regions of NortheasternMinnesota, Northern Wisconsin andMichigan'sUpper Peninsula.Hancock, Michigan, as of 2005, still incorporates bi-lingual street signs written in both English and Finnish.[148][149]Americans of Finnish origin yield at 800,000 individuals, though only 26,000 speak the language at home. There is a distinctive dialect of English to be found in the Upper Peninsula, known asYooper. Yooper often has a Finnish cadence and uses Finnish sentence structure with modified English, German, Swedish, Norwegian, and Finnish vocabulary.[citation needed]Notable Finnish Americans include U.S. Communist Party leaderGus Hall, film directorRenny Harlin, and the Canadian-born actressPamela Anderson.
Northern Clark County, Washington (encompassing Yacolt, Amboy, Battle Ground and Chelatchie) contains a large exclave ofOld Apostolic Lutherans who originally immigrated from Finland. Many families in this portion of the county speak fluent Finnish at home before learning English.[citation needed] Another noteworthy Finnish community in the United States is found inLake Worth Beach, Florida, north of Miami.
Modern Hebrew is spoken by Israeli immigrants. Liturgical Hebrew is used as a religious or liturgical language[150] by many of the United States' approximately 7 million Jews.[151]
About 40 million Americans have Irish ancestry, many of whose ancestors would have spokenIrish Gaelic. In 2013, around 20,600 Americans spoke Irish at home and as of 2008 it was the 76th most spoken language in the United States.[152] An additional 1,600 spoke Scottish Gaelic.[153]
TheItalian language and otherItalo-Dalmatian languages have been widely spoken in the United States for more than one hundred years, primarily due to large-scale immigration from the late 19th century to the mid 20th century.
In addition to Italian learned by most people today, there has been a strong representation of the languages of Southern Italy amongst the immigrant population (Sicilian andNeapolitan in particular). As of 2009, though 15,638,348 American citizens report themselves as Italian-Americans, only 753,992 of these report speaking the Italian language at home (0.3264% of the US population).
Between 1981 and 1985 about 150,000 Cambodians resettled in the United States.[154] Before 1975 very few Cambodians came to the United States. Those who did were children of upper-class families sent abroad to attend school. After thefall of Phnom Penh to the communist Khmer Rouge in 1975, some Cambodians managed to escape. In 2007 the American Community Survey reported that there were approximately 200,000 Cambodians living in the United States, making up about 2% percent of the Asian population. This population is, however, heavily concentrated in two areas: theLos Angeles metropolitan area inCalifornia, especially the city ofLong Beach; andGreater Boston inNew England, especiallyLowell, Massachusetts. These two areas hold a majority of the Cambodians living in the US.
In 2011 over 1.1 million Americans spokeKorean at home. This number increased greatly at the end of the 20th century, increasing 327% from the 300,000 speakers in 1980. The greatest concentration of these speakers was in theLos Angeles,New York, andWashington D.C. metro areas.[155] Most notably, speakers of Korean are found in the so-calledKoreatowns.[156][157]
As of 2013, around 580,000 Americans spoke Polish at home.[153] ThePolish language is very common in theChicago metropolitan area. Chicago's third largestwhite ethnic groups arethose of Polish descent, afterGerman andIrish.[158] ThePolish people and the Polish language in Chicago were very prevalent in the early years of the city, and today the 650,000 Poles inChicago make up one of the largest ethnicallyPolish populations in the world, comparable to the city ofWrocław, the fourth largest city in Poland. That makes it one of the most important centers ofPolonia and the Polish language in the United States, a fact that the city celebrates every Labor Day weekend at the Taste of Polonia Festival inJefferson Park.[159]
Texas Silesian, a dialect of theSilesian language (itself controversially considered a branch of Polish by some linguists), has been used by TexasSilesians in American settlements from 1852 to the present.
The first Portuguese speakers in America werePortuguese Jews who had fled thePortuguese Inquisition. They spokeJudeo-Portuguese and founded the earliest Jewish communities in theThirteen Colonies, two of which still exist:Congregation Shearith Israel in New York andCongregation Mikveh Israel in Philadelphia. However, by the end of the 18th century, their use of Portuguese had been replaced by English.
In the late 19th century, many Portuguese, mainlyAzoreans,Madeirans andCape Verdeans (who prior to independence in 1975 were Portuguese citizens), immigrated to the United States, settling in cities likeProvidence, Rhode Island,New Bedford, Massachusetts, andSanta Cruz, California. There was also substantialPortuguese immigration to Hawaii to supplement plantation labor.
In the mid-late 20th century there was another wave of Portuguese immigration to the US, mainly the Northeast (New Jersey, New York, Connecticut, Massachusetts), and for a timePortuguese became a major language in Newark, New Jersey. Many Portuguese Americans may include descendants of Portuguese settlers born inPortuguese Africa (known asPortuguese Africans, or, in Portugal, asretornados) andAsia (mostlyMacau). There were around 1 millionPortuguese Americans in the United States by 2000. Portuguese (European Portuguese) has been spoken in the United States by small communities of immigrants, mainly in the metropolitanNew York City area, likeNewark, New Jersey.
The Portuguese language is also spoken widely byBrazilian Americans, concentrated inMiami,New York City, andBoston.
There has been a Swedish presence in America since theNew Sweden colony came into existence in March 1638.
Widespread diaspora of Swedish immigration did not occur until the latter half of the 19th century, bringing in a total of a million Swedes. No other country had a higher percentage of its people leave for the United States except Ireland and Norway. At the beginning of the 20th century,Minnesota had the highest ethnic Swedish population in the world after the city ofStockholm.
3.7% of US residents claim descent from Scandinavian ancestors, amounting to roughly 11–12 million people. According to SIL's Ethnologue, over half a million ethnic Swedes still speak the language, though according to the 2007 American Community Survey only 56,715 speak it at home.Cultural assimilation has contributed to the gradual and steady decline of the language in the US. After the independence of the US from theKingdom of Great Britain, the government encouraged colonists to adopt the English language as a common medium of communication, and in some cases, imposed it upon them. Subsequent generations of Swedish Americans received education in English and spoke it as their first language. Lutheran churches scattered across the Midwest started abandoning Swedish in favor of English as their language of worship. Swedish newspapers and publications alike slowly faded away.
There are sizable Swedish communities in Minnesota, Ohio, Maryland, Philadelphia, and Delaware, along with small isolated pockets in Pennsylvania, San Francisco, Fort Lauderdale, and New York. Chicago once contained a large Swedish enclave calledAndersonville on the city's north side.
John Morton, the person who cast the decisive vote leading to Pennsylvania's support for theUnited States Declaration of Independence, was of Finnish descent. Finland was part of the Kingdom of Sweden in the 18th century.
Wisconsin Walloon is a dialect of theWalloon language brought to Wisconsin fromWallonia, Belgium's largely French-speaking region. It is spoken in theDoor Peninsula ofWisconsin,United States.[160]
The speakers of Wisconsin Walloon are descendants ofBelgian immigrants from a wave of immigration lasting from 1853 to 1857. It includes around 2,000 Belgians who immigrated to Wisconsin.[161] Walloon is sometimes referred to by its speakers as "Belgian".[162] The descendants of native Walloon speakers have since switched to English, and as of 2021, Walloon has fewer than 50 speakers in the United States.[160]
Up to two million Americans are thought to have Welsh ancestry. However, there is very littleWelsh being used commonly in the United States. According to the 2007 American Community Survey, 2,285 people speak Welsh at home; primarily spoken inCalifornia (415),Florida (225),New York (204),Ohio (135), andNew Jersey (130).[163] Some place names, such asBryn Mawr in Chicago andBryn Mawr, Pennsylvania (English:Big Hill) are Welsh. Several towns inPennsylvania, mostly in theWelsh Tract, have Welsh namesakes, includingUwchlan,Bala Cynwyd,Gwynedd, andTredyffrin.
Tagalog speakers were already present in the United States as early as the late sixteenth century as sailors contracted by theSpanish colonial government. In the eighteenth century, they established settlements inLouisiana, such asSaint Malo. After theAmerican annexation of the Philippines, the number of Tagalog speakers steadily increased, as Filipinos began to migrate to the U.S. as students or contract laborers. Their numbers, however, decreased uponPhilippine independence, as some Filipinos wererepatriated.
Today, Tagalog, together with its standardized formFilipino, is spoken by over a million and a halfFilipino Americans and is promoted by Filipino American civic organizations and Philippine consulates. AsFilipinos are the second largestAsian ethnic group in the United States, Tagalog is the second most spokenAsian language in the country, afterChinese.Taglish, a form ofcode-switching between Tagalog and English, is also spoken by a number of Filipino Americans.
Tagalog is also taught at some universities where a significant number of Filipinos exist. As it is the national and most spoken language of the Philippines, most Filipinos in the United States are proficient in Tagalog in addition to their local regional language.
According to the2010 census, there are over 1.5 million Americans who identify themselves as Vietnamese in origin, ranking fourth among the Asian American groups and forming the largestOverseas Vietnamese population.
Orange County, California, is home to the largest concentration of ethnic Vietnamese outside Vietnam, especially in itsLittle Saigon area. Other significant Vietnamese communities are found in the metropolitan areas ofSan Jose,Houston,Dallas-Fort Worth,Seattle,Northern Virginia, andNew Orleans. Similarly to other overseas Vietnamese communities in Western countries (except France), the Vietnamese population in the United States was established following theFall of Saigon in 1975 and communist takeover ofSouth Vietnam following theVietnam War.
There are many South Asians in the United States. These includeIndians,Pakistanis, andBangladeshis, who speak various South Asian languages. MajorSouth Asian languages spoken in the US includeTelugu (see "Telugu" below),Malayalam,Kannada,Tamil (see "Tamil" below),Gujarati,Hindi andUrdu (see "Hindi-Urdu" below),Bengali,Punjabi,Sinhala,Nepali (see "Nepali" below), andMarathi.
Hindi andUrdu are the two standard registers of the Hindustani language, anIndo-Aryan language native toNorth India,Central India, andPakistan. While the formal registers draw vocabulary from Sanskrit and Arabic & Persian respectively, the colloquial forms are indistinguishable. Hindi and Urdu are widely spoken among theIndian andPakistani communities in the United States as a first or second language. Speakers are concentrated in states with large South Asian populations, including California, Illinois, New Jersey, New York, Texas, and Virginia.[164]
Additionally, Hindi-Urdu (Hindustani) is a cultural language for many South Asians who have different mother tongues and dialects. Bollywood in particular, as well as film music, is an important cultural product that influences many South Asian youth. Some South Indians, Bangladeshis, and Indian Bengalis learn the language or its dialects through films.[165][166]
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The first Nepalese to enter the United States were classified as "other Asian". Immigration records show that between 1881 and 1890, 1,910 "other Asians" were admitted to the United States. However, Nepal did not open its borders until 1950, and most Nepalis who left the country during that time went primarily to India to study. Nepalese Americans were first classified as a separate ethnic group in 1974 when 56 Nepalese immigrated to the United States. New York City, Boston, Dallas-Fort Worth, Columbus, Los Angeles, Cincinnati, Erie, Harrisburg, Chicago, Denver,Gainesville, Portland, and Saint Paul have the largest number of Nepalese. There are some Nepalese community or cultural events in every American state, includingDashain,Tihar,Holi,Teej Special, andNepali New Year.
The Tamil community in the United States is largely bilingual. Tamil is taught in weekly classes in many Hindu temples and by associations such as the American Tamil Academy in South Brunswick, Tamil Jersey School in Jersey City, New Jersey,[167]
The written form of the language is highly formal and quite distinct from the spoken form. A few universities, such as the University of Chicago and the University of California Berkeley, have graduate programs in the language.[168]
In the second half of the 20th century, Tamils from India migrated as skilledprofessionals to the United States,Canada,Europe, andSoutheast Asia. The Tamil American population numbers over 195,685 individuals,[169] and theFederation of Tamil Sangams of North America functions as anumbrella organization for the growing community.[170]
TheNew York City andLos Angeles metropolitan areas are home to the largest concentrations of Tamil-speakingSri Lankan Americans.[171][172][173] New York City'sStaten Island alone is estimated to be home to more than 5,000 Sri Lankan Americans,[174] one of the largest Sri Lankan populations outsideSri Lanka itself,[175] and a significant proportion of whom speak Tamil.
Central New Jersey is home to the largest population concentration of Tamils.New Jersey houses its ownTamil Sangam.[176] Sizeable populations ofIndian American Tamils have also settled in theNew York City andWashington metropolitan areas, as well as on the West Coast in Silicon Valley, where there are Tamil associations such as the Bay Area Tamil Mandram.[177]
There were 171,000 speakers ofTelugu in 2006–2008.[178]In the second half of the 20th century, Telugu people from India (especially fromAndhra Pradesh,Telangana,Karnataka andTamil Nadu) migrated as professionals to the United States.Central New Jersey is home to the largest population concentration of Telugu people. Telugu people have also settled inNew York City and theDC metropolitan area, as well as on the West Coast in Silicon Valley. TheNew York City andLos Angeles metropolitan areas are home to the largest concentrations of Telugu-speakers.
General:
The United States has never had an official language and attempts to declare English its official language have been unsuccessful in the U.S. Congress.
chinese.
