Havana (/həˈvænə/;Spanish:La Habana[laaˈβana]ⓘ)[5] is the capital and largest city ofCuba. The heart of theLa Habana Province, Havana is the country's main port and commercial center.[6] It is the most populous city, the largest by area, and thesecond largest metropolitan area in theCaribbean region. The population in 2012 was 2,106,146 inhabitants,[7][6] and its area is 728.26 km2 (281.18 sq mi)[2] for the capital city side and 8,475.57 km2 for the metropolitan zone.[7] Its official population was 1,814,207 inhabitants in 2023.
Havana was founded by theSpanish in the 16th century. It served as a springboard for theSpanish conquest of the Americas, becoming a stopping point for Spanishgalleons returning to Spain. KingPhilip III of Spain granted Havana the title of capital in 1607.[8] Walls and forts were built to protect the city.[9] The city is the seat of theCuban government and various ministries, and headquarters of businesses and over 100 diplomatic offices.[10] The governor isReinaldo García Zapata of theCommunist Party of Cuba (PCC).[11][12] In 2009, the city/province had the third-highest income in the country.[13]
Contemporary Havana can essentially be described as three cities in one:Old Havana,Vedado and the newer suburban districts.[14] The city extends mostly westward and southward from thebay, which is entered through a narrow inlet and which divides into three main harbors:Marimelena, Guanabacoa and Antares. TheAlmendares River traverses the city from south to north, entering theStraits of Florida a few miles west of the bay.[15]
The city attracts over amillion tourists annually;[16] (1,176,627 international tourists in 2010,[16] a 20% increase from 2005). Old Havana was declared aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site in 1982.[17] The city is also noted for itshistory, culture, architecture and monuments.[18] As typical of Cuba, Havana experiences atropical climate.[19]
In 1514, Diego Velázquez founded the city San Cristóbal de la Habana, which meant "Saint Christopher of the Habana". Habana was the name of the local people group. It has been theorized that the name derived fromHabaguanex, who was a chief of the Native American tribe. His name isTaíno, anArawakan language, but nothing else is known. When Habana was adapted into English, the⟨b⟩ was switched to a⟨v⟩ because of a linguistic phenomenon known asbetacism, which is an assimilation of thevoiced bilabial plosive andvoiced labiodental fricative sounds that occurs in most modern Spanish dialects. Usage of the wordHavana in literature understandably peaked during theSpanish–American War, but it also represents a type of cigar, a color, and a type of rabbit as well as the city.[20] Havana is the prevailing name for the city found in English-language dictionaries.
French pirateJacques de Sores looting and burning Havana in 1555
Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar founded Havana in 1514, on the southern coast of the island, near the present town of Surgidero deBatabanó on the banks of theMayabeque River close toPlaya Mayabeque. However, all attempts to found a city on Cuba's south coast failed; an early map of Cuba drawn in 1514 places the town at the mouth of the river.[21][22]
Between 1514 and 1519 the Spanish established two settlements on the north coast, one of them inLa Chorrera, around the site of theTorreón de la Chorrera, what eventually became the neighborhoods of Vedado and Miramar, next to the mouth of theAlmendares River. The town that became Havana originated adjacent to what was then calledPuerto de Carenas (literally, "Careening Port"), in 1519. The quality of this natural bay, which now hosts Havana's harbor, warranted this change of location.
Pánfilo de Narváez gave Havana – the sixth town founded by the Spanish on Cuba – its name:San Cristóbal de la Habana. The name combinesSan Cristóbal,patron saint of Havana. Shortly after the founding of Cuba's first cities, the island served as little more than a base for theConquista of other lands.
Havana began as a trading port, and suffered regular attacks bybuccaneers, pirates, andFrench corsairs. The first attack and resultant burning of the city was by the French corsairJacques de Sores in 1555. Such attacks convinced the Spanish Crown to fund the construction of the first fortresses in the main cities – not only to counteract the pirates and corsairs, but also to exert more control over commerce with the West Indies, and to limit the extensivecontrabando (black market) that had arisen due to the trade restrictions imposed by theCasa de Contratación ofSeville (the crown-controlled trading house that held a monopoly on New World trade).[23]
Ships from all over the New World carried products first to Havana, to be taken by the fleet to Spain. The thousands of ships gathered in the city's bay also fueled Havana's agriculture and manufacture, since they had to be supplied with food, water, and other products needed to traverse the ocean.[23]
On 20 December 1592,King Philip II of Spain granted Havana the title of City. Later on, the city would be officially designated as "Key to the New World and Rampart of the West Indies" by theSpanish Crown. In the meantime, efforts to build or improve the defensive infrastructures of the city continued.[23]
Havana in 1690, according to the Atlas Van der Hagen. British Library.[24]
Havana expanded greatly in the 17th century. New buildings were constructed from the most abundant materials of the island, mainly wood, combining variousIberian architectural styles, as well as borrowing profusely fromCanarian characteristics. During this period the city also built civic monuments and religious constructions. The convent of St Augustin, El Morro Castle, the chapel of the Humilladero, the fountain of Dorotea de la Luna in La Chorrera, the church of the Holy Angel, thehospital de San Lázaro, the monastery of Santa Teresa and the convent of San Felipe Neri were completed in this era.
In 1649 a fatal epidemic, brought fromCartagena in Colombia, affected a third of the population of Havana. In 1674, the works for the City Walls were started, as part of the fortification efforts. They would be completed by 1740.
By the middle of the 18th century Havana had more than seventy thousand inhabitants, and was the third-largest city in the Americas, ranking behind Lima and Mexico City but ahead of Boston and New York City.[25]
During the 18th century Havana was the most important of the Spanish ports because it had facilities where ships could be refitted and, by 1740, it had become Spain's largest and most active shipyard and onlydrydock in the New World.[26]
The city was captured by the British during theSeven Years' War. Theepisode began on 6 June 1762, when at dawn, a British fleet, comprising more than 50 ships and a combined force of over 11,000 men of theRoyal Navy and Army, sailed into Cuban waters and made an amphibious landing east of Havana.[27] The British immediately opened up trade with theirNorth American andCaribbean colonies, causing a rapid transformation of Cuban society. Less than a year after Havana was seized, thePeace of Paris was signed by the three warring powers thus ending the Seven Years' War. The treaty gave BritainFlorida in exchange for the return of the city of Havana on to Spain.[28]
After regaining the city, the Spanish transformed Havana into the most heavily fortified city in the Americas likeCartagena, Colombia a city that under the leadership ofBlas de Lezo defeated a British invasion of 30,000 sailors. Construction began on what was to become the Fortress ofSan Carlos de la Cabaña, the third biggest Spanish fortification in the New World afterCastillo San Cristóbal (the biggest) andCastillo San Felipe del Morro both in San Juan, Puerto Rico. On 15 January 1796, the remains ofChristopher Columbus were transported to the island fromSanto Domingo. They rested there until 1898, when they were transferred toSeville's Cathedral, after Spain's loss of Cuba.
As trade between Caribbean and North American states increased in the early 19th century, Havana became a flourishing and fashionable city. Havana's theaters featured the most distinguished actors of the age, and prosperity among the burgeoning middle-class led to expensive new classical mansions being erected. During this period Havana became known as the Paris of theAntilles.
In 1837, the first railroad was constructed, a 51 km (32 mi) stretch between Havana andBejucal, which was used for transporting sugar from the valley ofGüines to the harbor. With this, Cuba became the fifth country in the world to have a railroad, and the first Spanish-speaking country. Throughout the century, Havana was enriched by the construction of additional cultural facilities, such as theTacón Theatre, one of the most luxurious in the world. The fact that slavery was legal in Cuba until 1886 led to Southern American interest, including a plan by theKnights of the Golden Circle to create a'Golden Circle' with a 1200mile-radius centered on Havana. After theConfederate States of America were defeated in theAmerican Civil War in 1865, many former slaveholders continued to run plantations by moving to Havana.
In 1863, the city walls were knocked down so that themetropolis could be enlarged. At the end of the 19th century, Havana witnessed the final moments of Spanish presence in the Americas.
Cuba's first presidential period underTomás Estrada Palma from 1902 to 1906 was considered to uphold the highest standards of administrative integrity in the history of the Republic of Cuba.[31]
While Cuba had the highest ratio of hospital beds to population in the Caribbean, around 80% of these beds were located in the city of Havana, there was only one rural hospital and it was equipped with only 10 beds. In July 1940, duringWorld War II, theHavana Conference was held and 21 American nations, including the host country Cuba, agreed to govern their own territories that were occupied by theAxis powers.In 1958, Cuba was a relatively well-advanced country by Caribbean standards, and in some cases by world standards.[32] On the other hand, Cuba was affected by perhaps the largest labor union privileges in the Americas, including bans on dismissals and mechanization. They were obtained in large measure "at the cost of the unemployed and the peasants", leading to disparities.[33] Between 1933 and 1958, Cuba extended economic regulations enormously, causing economic problems.[34] Unemployment became a problem as graduates entering the workforce could not find jobs. The middle class, which was comparable to that of the United States, became increasingly dissatisfied with unemployment and political persecution. The labor unions supported Batista until the very end. Batista stayed in power until he was forced into exile in December 1958.
After therevolution of 1959, the new government underFidel Castro began to improve social services, public housing, and official buildings. Nevertheless, after Castro's abrupt expropriation of all private property and industry (May 1959 onwards) under a strong communist model backed by the Soviet Union followed by the U.S.embargo, shortages that affected Cuba in general hit Havana especially hard. By 1966–68, the Cuban government hadnationalized all privately owned business entities in Cuba, down to "certain kinds of small retail forms of commerce" as per law No. 1076.[35]
In December 1982,Old Havana was inscribed as aUNESCO World Heritage Site for its oldest standing stone fortification system in the Americas and representation of its colonial city.
An economic downturn occurred after thecollapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. Soviet subsidies ended, representing billions of dollars which the Soviet Union had given theCuban government. Many believed the revolutionary government would soon collapse, as happened to the Sovietsatellite states of Eastern Europe.
After many years of economic struggle and prohibition, the socialist government has turned totourism for revenue and has brought foreign investors to remodel the nationalized, former Manzana de Gomez building, and turn it into theGran Hotel Manzana Kempinski La Habana, a new5-star hotel attempting to develop a new hospitality industry. In Old Havana, a number of streets and squares have been rehabilitated in an effort to rebuild for tourists.[36] But Old Havana is a large city, and the restoration efforts concentrate in all on less than 10% of its area.
On the night of 27 January 2019, an unusually violent and destructivetornado ripped through Havana. The tornado killed eight people and injured over 190. It was assigned an official rating of EF4 on theEnhanced Fujita scale by the Cuban Meteorology Institute, making this the first F4 or EF4 tornado in Cuba since 1940.
In 1902, pending an investigation byEmilio Núñez, Gener was removed as mayor of Havana byLeonard Wood, after a vote of twenty-three out of twenty-five members of the City Council requested him to do so.[45]
The city is administered by a city-provincial council, with a governor as chief administrative officer,[47] thus Havana functions as both a city and a province of Cuba. The city has little autonomy and is dependent upon the national government, particularly, for much of its budgetary and overall political direction.
Voters elect delegates to Municipal Assemblies in competitive elections every five years, and the Municipal Assemblies are responsible for each of the city's boroughs. These assemblies elect the borough presidents and vice presidents, which are equivalents to mayors and vice mayors in the other provinces. There is only one political party, theCommunist Party, but since there must be a minimum of two candidates, members of the Communist Party often run against each other. Candidates are not required to be members of the party. They are nominated directly by citizens in open meetings within each election district. Municipal Assembly delegates within the boroughs in turn elect members of the Provincial Council (until 2019 the Provincial Assembly), which in Havana serves roughly as the City Council; its president appoints the Governor and Vice Governor, who serve as the Mayor and Vice Mayor of Havana and can be either elected by the council or appointed by the president with council confirmation. There are direct elections for the city's deputies to the National Assembly based on slates, and a portion of the candidates is nominated at the local level. The People's Councils (Consejos Populares) consist of local city delegates who elect a full-time representative to preside over the body. These councils are directly responsible for the city's neighbourhoods and wards. In addition, there is involvement of "mass organizations" and representatives of local government agencies, industries and services. The 105 People's Councils in Havana cover an average of 20,000 residents.[citation needed]
Havana lies on the northern coast of Cuba along theStraits of Florida, south of theFlorida Keys, where theGulf of Mexico joins the Atlantic Ocean. The city extends mostly westward and southward from the bay, which is entered through a narrow inlet and which divides into three main harbors: Marimelena, Guanabacoa, and Atarés. TheAlmendares River traverses the city from south to north, entering the Straits of Florida a few miles west of the bay.[citation needed]
There are low hills on which the city lies rise gently from the waters of the straits. A noteworthy elevation is the 200-foot-high (60-meter) limestone ridge that slopes up from the east and culminates in the heights ofLa Cabaña andEl Morro, the sites of Spanish fortifications overlooking the eastern bay. Another notable rise is the hill to the west that is occupied by theUniversity of Havana and theCastillo del Príncipe (Havana).[citation needed]
Havana has atropical climate that is tempered by the island's position in the belt of thetrade winds and by the warm offshore currents.[clarification needed] Under theKöppen climate classification, Havana has atropical savanna climate (Aw) that closely borders on atropical rainforest climate (Af) and atropical monsoon climate (Am). Average temperatures range from 22 °C (72 °F) in January and February to 28 °C (82 °F) in August. The temperature seldom drops below 10 °C (50 °F). The lowest temperature was 1 °C (34 °F) in Santiago de Las Vegas, Boyeros. The lowest recorded temperature in Cuba was 0 °C (32 °F) in Bainoa,Mayabeque Province (before 2011 the eastern part of Havana province). Rainfall is heaviest in June and October and lightest from December through April, averaging 1,200 mm (47 in) annually. Hurricanes occasionally strike the island, but they ordinarily hit the south coast, and damage in Havana has been less than elsewhere in the country.[14] The most recent tropical cyclone to come near Havana at hurricane strength wasIan in 2022.
Tornadoes can be somewhat rare in Cuba, however, on the evening of 28 January 2019, a very rare strongEF4 tornado struck the eastern side of Havana. The tornado caused extensive damage, destroying at least 90 homes, killing four people and injuring 195.[49][50][51][52] By 4 February the death toll had increased to six, with 11 people still in critical condition.[53]
The table lists temperature averages:
Climate data for Havana (1961–1990, extremes 1859–present)
The city is divided into 15 municipalities[58] – orboroughs, which are further subdivided into 105consejos populares (wards)[59]
These preserved colorfulSpanish Colonial era buildings are a sight common across Havana.18th-century entrance of theCastillo del Príncipe, photo taken in 1997
By the end of 2012 official Census, 19.1% of the population of Cuba lived in Havana.[7] According to the census of 2012, the population was 2,106,146.[7] The city has an averagelife expectancy of 76.81 years at birth.[7] In 2009, there were 1,924 people living with HIV/AIDS in the city, 78.9% of these are men, and 21.1% being women.[60]
Havana agglomeration grew rapidly during the first half of the 20th century reaching 1million inhabitants in the 1943 census. The con-urbanization expanded over the Havana municipality borders into neighbor municipalities of Marianao, Regla and Guanabacoa. Starting from the 1980s, the city's population is growing slowly as a result of balanced development policies, low birth rate, its relatively high rate of emigration abroad, and controlled domestic migration. Because of the city and country's low birth rate and high life expectancy,[6][61] its age structure is similar to a developed country, with Havana having an even higher proportion of elderly than the country as a whole.[7]
As with the other Caribbean nations, there are fewmestizos in Havana (and Cuba as a whole), in contrast to many other countries, because the indigenousTaíno population was virtually wiped out by Eurasian diseases in the earliest period of the Spanish conquest.[63]
The Cuban government controls the movement of people into Havana on the grounds that the Havana metropolitan area (home to nearly 20% of the country's population) is overstretched in terms of land use, water, electricity, transportation, and other elements of the urban infrastructure. There is a population of internal migrants to Havana nicknamed"palestinos" (Palestinians)[64] (sometimes considered a racist term[65]) who mostly hail from the eastern region ofOriente.[66]
The city's significant minority of Chinese, mostly ofCantonese origin, were brought in the mid-19th century by Spanish settlers via thePhilippines with work contracts and after completing 8-year contracts many Chinese immigrants settled permanently in Havana.[62] Before the revolution the Chinese population counted to over 200,000,[67] today, Chinese ancestors could count up to 100,000.[68][failed verification] Chinese born/ native Chinese (mostly Cantonese as well) are around 400 presently.[69] There are some 3,000Russians living in the city; as reported by the Russian Embassy in Havana, most are women married to Cubans who had studied in the Soviet Union.[70] Havana also shelters other non-Cuban population of an unknown size. There is a population of several thousand North African teen and pre-teen refugees.[71]Between 2018, the most recent census, and the mid-Twentieth Century census of 1953, Havana's population has grown by an estimated 87 percent, a growth rate typical of mostCaribbean cities.
El Zapateado, Havana, in 1847, by Frédéric Mialhe[72][73]
El Casero, Havana, in 1855, by B. May and Frédéric Mialhe[72][73]
Roman Catholics form the largest religious group in Havana. Havana is one of the three Metropolitan sees on the island (the others being Camagüey and Santiago), with two suffragan bishoprics: Matanzas and Pinar del Río. Its patron saint is San Cristóbal (Saint Christopher), to whom the cathedral is devoted. it also has aminor basilica,Basílica Santuario Nacional de Nuestra Señora de la Caridad del Cobre and two other national shrines, Jesús Nazareno del Rescate and San Lázaro (El Rincón). It received papal visits from three successive supreme pontiffs:Pope John Paul II (January 1998),Pope Benedict XVI (March 2012) andPope Francis (September 2015).
The Jewish community in Havana has reduced after the Revolution from once having embraced more than 15,000 Jews,[citation needed] many of whom had fledNazi persecution and subsequently left Cuba to Miami or to Israel after Castro took to power in 1959. The city once had five synagogues, but only three remain (oneOrthodox, and twoConservative: one ConservativeAshkenazi and one ConservativeSephardic),Beth Shalom Grand Synagogue is one of them and another that is a hybrid of all 3 put together. In February 2007 theNew York Times estimated that there were about 1,500 known Jews living in Havana.[74]
Havana has a diversified economy, with traditional sectors, such as manufacturing, construction, transportation and communications, and new or revived ones such as biotechnology and tourism.[citation needed]
The city's economy first developed on the basis of its location, which made it one of the early great trade centers in the New World. Sugar and a flourishingslave trade first brought riches to the city, and later, after independence, it became a renowned resort. Despite efforts by Fidel Castro's government to spread Cuba's industrial activity to all parts of the island, Havana remains the center of much of the nation's industry.[75]
The traditional sugar industry, upon which the island's economy has been based for three centuries, is centered elsewhere on the island and controls some three-fourths of the export economy. But light manufacturing facilities, meat-packing plants, and chemical and pharmaceutical operations are concentrated in Havana. Other food-processing industries are also important, along with shipbuilding, vehicle manufacturing, production of alcoholic beverages (particularly rum), textiles, and tobacco products, particularly the world-famousHabanos cigars.[76] Although theharbors ofCienfuegos andMatanzas, in particular, have been developed under the revolutionary government, Havana remains Cuba's primary port facility; 50% of Cuban imports and exports pass through Havana. The port also supports a considerable fishing industry.[citation needed]
In 2000, nearly 89% of the city's officially recorded labor force worked for government-run agencies, institutions or enterprises. Havana, on average, has the country's highest incomes and human development indicators. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Cuba re-emphasized tourism as a major industry leading to its recovery. Tourism is now Havana and Cuba's primary economic source.[77]
Havana's economy is still in flux, despite Raúl Castro's embrace of free enterprise in 2011. Though there was an uptick in small businesses in 2011, many have since gone out of business, due to lack of business and income on the part of the local residents, whose salaries average $20 per month.[78]
After the Revolution, Cuba's traditional capitalist free-enterprise system was replaced by a heavily socialized economic system. In Havana, Cuban-owned businesses and U.S.-owned businesses were nationalized and today most businesses operate solely under state control.[citation needed]
In Old Havana and throughout Vedado there are several small private businesses, such as shoe-repair shops or dressmaking facilities. Banking as well is also under state control, and theNational Bank of Cuba, headquartered in Havana, is the control center of the Cuban economy. Its branches in some cases occupy buildings that were in pre-revolutionary times the offices of Cuban or foreign banks.[citation needed]
In the late 1990s Vedado, located along the atlantic waterfront, started to represent the principal commercial area. It was developed extensively between 1930 and 1960, when Havana developed as a major destination for U.S. tourists; high-rise hotels,casinos, restaurants, and upscale commercial establishments, many reflecting the art deco style.[79]
Vedado is today Havana's financial district, and the main banks, airline companies offices, shops, most businesses headquarters, numerous high-rise apartments and hotels, are located in the area.[80] The University of Havana is located in Vedado.
The city has long been a popular attraction for tourists. Between 1915 and 1930, Havana hosted more tourists than any other location in theCaribbean.[81] The influx was due in large part toCuba's proximity to the United States, where restrictiveprohibition onalcohol and other pastimes stood in stark contrast to the island's traditionally relaxed attitude to leisure pursuits. A pamphlet published by E.C. Kropp Co., Milwaukee, WI, between 1921 and 1939 promoting tourism in Havana, Cuba, can be found in the University of Houston Digital Library, Havana, Cuba, The Summer Land of the World, Digital Collection.[citation needed]
With the deterioration ofCuba – United States relations and the imposition of thetrade embargo on the island in 1961, tourism dropped drastically and did not return to anything close to its pre-revolution levels until 1989. The revolutionary government in general, andFidel Castro in particular, opposed any considerable development of tourism. In 1982, the Cuban government passed a foreign investment code which opened a number of sectors to foreign capital.[citation needed]
Through the creation of firms open to such foreign investment (such asCubanacan), Cuba began to attract capital for hotel development, managing to increase the number of tourists from 130,000 (in 1980) to 326,000 (by the end of that decade).[82]
Havana has also been a popularhealth tourism destination for more than 20 years. Foreign patients travel to Cuba, Havana in particular, for a wide range of treatments includingeye-surgery,neurological disorders such asmultiple sclerosis andParkinson's disease, andorthopedics. Many patients are from Latin America, although medical treatment forretinitis pigmentosa, often known asnight blindness, has attracted many patients from Europe and North America.[83][84]Havana attracts over amillion tourists annually,[16] the Official Census for Havana reports that in 2010 the city was visited by 1,176,627 international tourists,[16] a 20% increase from 2005.
(a)Acuartería (orciudadela,solar) is a large inner-city old mansion or hotel or boarding house subdivided into rooms, sometimes with over 60 families.[87]
The years after theSoviet Union collapsed in 1991, the city, and Cuba in general have suffered decades of economic deterioration, includingSpecial Period of the 1990s.[88] The national government does not have an official definition of poverty.[89] The government researchers argue that "poverty" in most commonly accepted meanings does not really exist in Cuba, but rather that there is a sector of the population that can be described as "at risk" or "vulnerable" using internationally accepted measures.[89]
The generic term "slum" is seldom used in Cuba, substandard housing is described: housing type, housing conditions, building materials, and settlement type. The National Housing Institute considers units insolares (a large inner-city mansion or older hotel or boarding house subdivided into rooms, sometimes with over 60 families)[87] andshanty towns to be the "precarious housing stock" and tracks their number. Most slum units are concentrated in the inner-city municipalities ofOld Havana andCentro Habana, as well as such neighborhoods asAtarés inRegla.[86] People living in slums have access to the same education, health care, job opportunities and social security as those who live in formerly privileged neighborhoods.Shanty towns are scattered throughout the city except for in a few central areas.[86]
Over 9% of Havana's population live incuartería (solares, ciudadela), 3.3% inshanty towns, and 0.3% in refugee shelters.[85][86] This does not include an estimate of the number of people living in housing in "fair" or "poor" condition because in many cases these units do not necessarily constitute slum housing but rather are basically sound dwellings needing repairs. According toInstituto Nacional de Vivienda (National Housing Institute) official figures, in 2001, 64% of Havana's 586,768 units were considered in "good" condition, up from 50% in 1990. Some 20% were in "fair" condition and 16% in "poor" condition.[86] Partial or total building collapses are not uncommon, although the number had been cut in half by the end of the 1990s as the worst units disappeared and others were repaired. Buildings in Old Havana and Centro Habana are especially exposed to the elements: high humidity, the corrosive effects of salt spray from proximity to the coast, and occasional flooding. Most areas of the city, especially the highly populated districts, are inurban decay.[90]
Havana is served byJosé Martí International Airport. The Airport lies about 11 kilometers (7 mi) south of the city center, in the municipality ofBoyeros, and is the main hub for the country'sflag carrierCubana de Aviación. The airport is Cuba's main international and domestic gateway, it connects Havana with the rest of theCaribbean,North,Central and South America, Europe and one destination in Africa.
The city is also served byPlaya Baracoa Airport which is small airport to the west of city used for some domestic flights, primarilyAerogaviota.
Havana has a network of suburban, interurban and long-distance rail lines. The railways are nationalized and run by the FFCC (Ferrocarriles de Cuba – Railways of Cuba). The FFCC connects Havana with all the provinces of Cuba, and theHavana Suburban Railway serves the city. The main railway stations are:Central Rail Station, La Coubre Rail Station,Casablanca Station, and Estación de Tulipán.
In 2004 the annual passenger volume was some 11million,[91] but demand is estimated at two-and-a-half to three times this value, with the busiest route being between Havana andSantiago de Cuba, some 836 kilometers (519 mi) apart by rail. In 2000 the Union de Ferrocarriles de Cuba bought French first class airconditioned coaches. New Chinese made and Russian made coaches for distance trains debuted in the 2010s, and some now serve suburban services.
In the 1980s there were plans for aMetro system in Havana similar toMoscow's, as a result of theSoviet Union influence in Cuba at the time. The studies of geology and finance made by Cuban, Czech and Soviet specialists were already well advanced in the 1980s.[92] The Cuban press showed the construction project and the course route, linking municipalities and neighborhoods in the capital.[92] In the late 1980s the project had already begun, each mile (1.6km) of track was worth a million dollars at the time, but with thefall of the Soviet Union in 1991 the project was later dropped.[92]
An interurban line,[a] known as theHershey Electric Railway, built in 1917 runs from Casablanca (across the harbor from Old Havana) to Hershey and on toMatanzas.[93]
Havana operated a tram system until 1952, which began as ahorsecar system, Ferro Carril Urbano de la Habana in 1858,[94] merged with rival coach operator in 1863 as Empresa del Ferro-Carril Urbano y Omnibus de La Habana and later electrified in 1900 under new foreign owners as Havana Electric Railway Company.[95] Ridership decline resulted in bankruptcy in 1950 with new owner Autobus Modernos SA abandoning the systems in favor of buses and the remaining cars were sold toMatanzas in 1952.[citation needed]
The city's road network is quite extensive, and has broad avenues, main streets and major access roads to the city such as the Autopista Nacional (A1),Carretera Central andVia Blanca. The road network has been under construction and growth since the Spanish era but is undergoing a major deterioration due to low maintenance.[96]Motorways (autopistas) include:
Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Havana
The national government assumes all responsibility for education, and there are adequate primary, secondary, and vocational training schools throughout Cuba. The schools are of varying quality and education is free and compulsory at all levels except higher learning, which is also free.
TheUniversity of Havana, located in theVedado section of Havana, was established in 1728 and was regarded as a leading institution of higher learning in theWestern Hemisphere. Soon after the Revolution, the university, as well as all other educational institutions, were nationalized. Since then several other universities have opened, like theHigher Learning Polytechnic Institute José Antonio Echeverría where the vast majority of today's Cuban engineers are taught.
TheCuban National Ballet School with 4,350 students is one of the largest ballet schools in the world and the most prestigious ballet school in Cuba.[97]
Plaza Vieja: a plaza in Old Havana, it was the site of executions, processions, bullfights, andfiestas.
Fortress San Carlos de la Cabaña: a fortress located on the east side of the Havana bay, La Cabaña is the most impressive fortress from Spanish times, particularly its walls constructed at the end of the 18th century.
El Capitolio Nacional: built in 1929 as the Senate and House of Representatives, the colossal building is recognizable by its dome which dominates the city's skyline. Inside stands the third largest indoor statue in the world,La Estatua de la República. Nowadays, theCuban Academy of Sciences headquarters and the Museo Nacional de Historia Natural (the National Museum of Natural History) has its venue within the building and contains the largest natural history collection in the country.
El Morro Castle: is a fortress guarding the entrance to Havana bay; Morro Castle was built because of the threat to the harbor from pirates.
Fortress San Salvador de la Punta: a small fortress built in the 16th century, at the western entry point to the Havana harbor, it played a crucial role in the defense of Havana during the initial centuries of Spanish presence. It houses some twenty old guns and military antiques.
Christ of Havana: Havana's 20-meter (66ft) marble statue of Christ (1958) blesses the city from the east hillside of the bay, much like the famousCristo Redentor in Rio de Janeiro.
The Malecon/Sea wall: is the avenue that runs along the north coast of the city, beside theseawall. The Malecón is the most popular avenue of Havana, it is known for its sunsets.
Necrópolis Cristóbal Colón: a cemetery and open-air museum,[98] it is one of the most famous cemeteries in Latin America, known for its beauty and magnificence. The cemetery was built in 1876 and has nearly 1million tombs. Some gravestones are decorated with sculpture by Ramos Blancos, among others.
The coat of arms of Havana consists of three castles that represent the three castles that defended the city: theFuerza Castle, theMorro Castle and thePunta Castle. The key represents that Havana was the gateway to theNew World. The shield, supported by an oak branch on one side and alaurel wreath on the other, symbolizes the strength of the nation, the laurel wreath, honor, and glory. These symbols represent the rights of man.[99]
Havana has diverse styles of architecture, from castles built in the 16th century, to modernist high-rise buildings.The present condition of many structures have deteriorated since 1959 or have been demolished, including the demolition of thePlaza del Vapor, built in 1835 by the architect of thePalacio de la Marquesa de Villalba, Eugenio Rayneri Sorrentino, the father ofEugenio Rayneri Piedra the architect of theEl Capitolio of 1929. ThePlaza del Vapor was demolished in 1959 by the new, revolutionary government.[b][c] Numerous building collapses throughout the city have resulted in injuries and deaths due to a lack of maintenance.[102][103]
Riches were brought from the Spanish into and through Havana as it was a keytransshipment point between thenew world andold world. As a result, Havana was the most heavily fortified city in the Americas. Most examples of early architecture can be seen in military fortifications such asLa Fortaleza de San Carlos de la Cabana (1558–1577) designed byBattista Antonelli and theCastillo del Morro (1589–1630). This sits at the entrance ofHavana Bay and provides an insight into the supremacy and wealth at that time.
Old Havana was also protected by a defensive wall begun in 1674 but had already overgrown its boundaries when it was completed in 1767, becoming the new neighborhood ofCentro Habana. The influence from different styles and cultures can be seen in Havana's Spanish architecture, with a diverse range ofMudéjar architecture,Spanish,Italian,Greek andRoman. TheSan Carlos and San Ambrosio Seminary (18th century) is a good example of early Spanish influenced architecture.The Havana cathedral (1748–1777) dominating the Plaza de la Catedral (1749) is the best example of Cuban Baroque. Surrounding it are the former palaces of the Count de Casa-Bayona (1720–1746) Marquis de Arcos (1746) and the Marquis de Aguas Claras (1751–1775).
TheIglesia del Espíritu Santo was devoted in 1638. The Espíritu Santo contains some notable paintings including a seated, post-crucifixion Christ on the right wall, and catacombs.[104] It is considered one of the oldest temples in Havana and it is said that its main interest lies essentially in the simplicity of the beautiful stone construction.[citation needed] The church was rebuilt and expanded in 1648 and given the rank of a parish. During the Spanish era it had exceptional importance, since by aPapal Bull of 1772 and a Royal Certificate of 1773, ofCharles III of Spain, it was declared "Única Iglesia inmune en esta ciudad, construida en 1855." ("the only immune church in this city, built-in 1855."), which meant that any persecuted individual could find Amparo (sanctuary) in it against the action of the authorities or of justice. A metal plaque at the foot of the bell tower attests to this fact.[citation needed] The Iglesia del Espíritu Santo's greatest interest from an architectural point of view lies in the simplicity of the coral stone construction and the lack of lavish decoration.[105][d] Other elements of great importance are the funerary crypts that were discovered in 1953. The crypt is from times before theColón Cemetery (1876) in El Vedado was built.
Iglesia y hospital San Francisco de Paula
TheAlameda de Paula was the first promenade in Cuba, designed and constructed in 1776 by Antonio Fernández Trevejo, following the instructions of theLaureano de Torres y Ayala, it was created on the site of the old Rincón refuse dump. It was an embankment with two rows of poplar trees and some benches, it became one of Havana's most important social and cultural spaces, it was the model of thePaseo del Prado designed in 1925. It was given the name Alameda de Paula because of its proximity to the old Hospital and Iglesia of San Francisco de Paula. Between 1803 and 1805 the pavement was tiled, a fountain and stone benches, lampposts and the marble column were added, it qualified as a pleasant entertainment for the residents of theVilla de San Cristóbal, lacking recreational sites at that time. In 1841, the stairs that gave access to the promenade were widened and several lampposts were added. In the year 2000, the Havana promenade was restored and extended until it reached the Iglesia de San Francisco de Paula.[106]
Towards the end of the 17th century, the first stone of what would be the hospital for women and thechurch of San Francisco de Paula was placed, the buildings were expanded in 1731 with the support and donations from the City Council and orders of the different General Captains in command of the island. In 1776, it was the most important hospital in Havana, there were several generations of famous doctors that trained here.[107] ThePresbyter of theCathedral of Havana, don Nicolás Estévez Borges, in 1664 ordered the construction of a Hospital for Women and an adjoining church devoted toSaint Francis of Paola who was one of the founders of the Roman Catholic Order of theMinims.[e] Both buildings were completely destroyed by a hurricane in 1730 and were rebuilt and enlarged in 1745 in the Baroque style seen today.[106]
Neoclassism was introduced into the city in the 1840s, at the time including Gas public lighting in 1848 and the railroad in 1837. In the second half of the 18th century, sugar and coffee production increased rapidly, which became essential in the development of Havana's most prominent architectural style. Many wealthyHabaneros took their inspiration from the French; this can be seen within the interiors of upper-class houses such as theAldama Palace built in 1844. This is considered the most important neoclassical residential building in Cuba and typifies the design of many houses of this period with portales of neoclassical columns facing open spaces or courtyards.
In 1925Jean-Claude Nicolas Forestier, the head of urban planning in Paris moved to Havana for five years to collaborate with architects and landscape designers. In the master planning of the city his aim was to create a harmonic balance between the classical built form and the tropical landscape. He embraced and connected the city's road networks while accentuating prominent landmarks. His influence has left a huge mark on Havana although many of his ideas were cut short by thegreat depression in 1929. During the first decades of the 20th century Havana expanded more rapidly than at any time during its history. Great wealth prompted architectural styles to be influenced from abroad. The peak of Neoclassicism came with the construction of theVedado district (begun in 1859). This area features a number of set back well-proportioned buildings in the Neoclassical style.
Palacio de Villalba, photo of 1898
Built in 1875, in the Reparto de las Las Murallas, (wide strip of land that remained after the city walls were demolished in 1863), it was the work of the architect Eugenio Rayneri y Sorrentino.[f] Around 1880 the mansion was owned by the Count of Casa Moré. The "La Flor de José Murias" tobacco factory was installed in the building. Later, through the exploitation of rents, it became a tenement house. In 1951 some of its spaces were dedicated to housing. On its upper floor, the Spanish Center and the Israeli Center of Cuba had their headquarters.
The palace of the Marquesa de Villalba and theMercado de Tacón were designed by the Eugenio Rayneri y Sorrentino at almost the same time, 1875 and 1876, respectively, each in a style that accommodated the particular typology (residential and commercial) thus conceiving each work with the formal element accommodating different aesthetic requirements.[108] The property is, after theAldama Palace, the strongest example of Cuban Neoclassicism. The palace of the Marquesa de Villalba is in the neoclassical style, perhaps only comparable in Havana – according to Alina Castellanos – to the Aldama Palace. But while the latter limits the decoration to the natural slenderness of the colonnade, in the most classical way of the Greek Parthenon, the former uses Roman and Renaissance elaborations, hence, the arcade has been projected on pillars, the building was crowned with a considerable cornice. The neoclassical decoration can also be seen in the window covers, which take alternate forms of a triangular or semicircular pediment, and glass over the door, similar to thePlaza del Vapor.[109]
ThePalacio de Aldama is a neoclassical mansion located diagonally opposite to the oldPlaza del Vapor (Parque del Curita), and in front of the oldCampo de Marte; present day Parque de la Fraternidad, in Havana, Cuba. Built in 1840 by the Dominican architect and engineer Manuel José Carrera, its main facade of columns spans one block on Calle Amistad between Calles Reina and Estrella.
Royal Palm Hotel (Havana), entrance, c. 1930
The Royal Palm Hotel is located on the corner of San Rafael and Industria. It was inaugurated as "Edificio Luis. E. del Valle", in honor of the sugar magnate who owned the building. However, it was soon sold to Canadian Wilbur E. Todgham, who turned it into the famed Royal Palm Hotel.[110] The commercial function of the ground floor has been preserved to date, taking advantage of its excellent location on Boulevard de San Rafael. Taking into account the architectural values of this building and its socio-cultural importance within the urban landscape in which it is located, the building received a major restoration in 2000, with the support of the Provincial Council of Seville, Spain.[110]
TheBacardi Building (Edificio Bacardí) is Havana landmark designed by the architects Esteban Rodríguez-Castells and Rafael Fernández Ruenes and completed in 1930.[111] It is located on the corner of Calles Monserrate and San Juan de Dios on a 1,320sq meter lot in Las Murallas,Old Havana. The building is in theart deco style that was popular internationally in the early decades of the 20th century. The Bacardi Building was designed to be the headquarters for theBacardi Rum Company; it was nationalized by the Castro government in the early 1960s. In 2001, the building was restored by an Italian construction firm. The interior retains the original decorations in marble and granite. It is regarded as one of the finestArt Deco buildings in Latin America.[112]
López Serrano Building
Designed by the architect Ricardo Mira in 1929, who in 1941 designed La Moderna Poesia bookstore on Obispo Street for the same owner, theLópez Serrano Building was the tallest residential building in Cuba until the construction of theFOCSA Building in 1956. The construction of the building was promoted by José Antonio López Serrano, a publisher who ran La Moderna Poesía.[113]
Hotel Habana Libre is located in the most central corner of Vedado.
HotelTryp Habana Libre is one of the larger hotels inCuba, situated inVedado, Havana. The hotel has 572 rooms[114] in a 25-floor tower at Calle 23 ("La Rampa") and Calle L. Opened in 1958 as the Habana Hilton, the hotel famously served as the residence ofFidel Castro and other revolutionaries throughout 1959, after their capture of Havana. The Habana Hilton was constructed at a cost of $24million, under the personal auspices of PresidentFulgencio Batista. It was built as an investment by the Caja de Retiro y Asistencia Social de los Trabajadores Gastronomicos,[115] the pension plan of the Cuban catering workers' union, with additional financing from the Banco de Fomento Agricola e Industrial de Cuba (BANFAIC). It was operated by the AmericanHilton Hotels International group and was designed by the well-known Los Angeles architectWelton Becket, who had previously designed theBeverly Hilton for the chain. Becket designed the 27-story Habana Hilton in collaboration with Havana-based architects Lin Arroyo,[116] and Gabriela Menéndez.[117] Arroyo was the Minister of Public Works under Batista.[118] The hotel was constructed by theFrederick Snare Corporation.[119]
TheRadiocentro CMQ Building complex is a former radio and television production facility and office building at the intersection of Calle L andLa Rampa inEl Vedado, Cuba. It was modeled afterRaymond Hood's 1933Rockefeller Center in New York City.[120] With 1,650 seats, the theater first opened on 23 December 1947, under the name Teatro Warner Radiocentro, it was owned by brothers Goar andAbel Mestre. Today the building serves as the headquarters of theCuban Institute of Radio and Television (ICRT). For the construction of this building, the Havana building authorities granted a permit in 1947 amending the ordinances that were then in effect inEl Vedado prohibiting the construction of buildings of more than three storeys. This statute was modified six years later to expand the construction of up to four floors because many planners and owners claimed the need to authorize them to build taller buildings in the area.[121]
Aerial view of the FOCSA building from the west, with the floating corridors, ca. 1958
TheFOCSA Building is a residential block in the Vedado neighborhood of Havana, Cuba. It was named after the contracting companyFomento de Obras y Construcciones, Sociedad Anónima, and the architects were Ernesto Gómez Sampera (1921–2004), Mercedes Diaz (his wife), andMartín Domínguez Esteban (1897–1970), who was the architect of theRadiocentro CMQ Building. The structural engineer was Luis Sáenz Duplace, of the firm Sáenz, Cancio & Martín, and professor of engineering at theUniversity of Havana. The civil engineers were Bartolome Bestard and Manuel Padron. Gustavo Becquer and Fernando H. Meneses were the mechanical and electrical engineers, respectively.[122][123] It is located on a site bordered by Calles 17 and M and Calles 19 and N in theVedado.[123][122] TheEdificio Focsa (1956) represents Havana's economic dominance at the time. This 35-story complex was conceived and based on Corbusian ideas of a self-contained city within a city. It contained 400 apartments, garages, a school, a supermarket, and a restaurant on the top floor. This was the tallest high-strength concrete structure in the world at the time (using no steel frame).
TheEdificio del Seguro Médico is a commercial building in ElVedado, Havana.[124] Built between 1955 and 1958, it was designed as a mixed use building for apartments and offices for the headquarters of the National Medical Insurance Company byAntonio Quintana Simonetti.
Contemporary Havana can essentially be described as three cities in one:Old Havana,Vedado, and the newer suburban districts.[14] Old Havana, with its narrow streets and overhanging balconies, is the traditional centre of part of Havana's commerce, industry, and entertainment, as well as being a residential area.
To the west a newer section, centred on the uptown area known asVedado, has become the rival of Old Havana for commercial activity and nightlife. TheCapitolio Nacional building marks the beginning of Centro Habana, a working-class neighborhood that lies between Vedado and Old Havana.[125] Barrio Chino and theReal Fabrica de Tabacos Partagás, one of Cuba's oldest cigar factories is located in the area.[126]
A third Havana is that of the more affluent residential and industrial districts that spread out mostly to the west. Among these isMarianao, one of the newer parts of the city, dating mainly from the 1920s. Some of the suburban exclusivity was lost after the revolution, many of the suburban homes having been nationalized by the Cuban government to serve as schools, hospitals, and government offices. Several private country clubs were converted to public recreational centres.Miramar, located west of Vedado along the coast, remains Havana's exclusive area; mansions, foreign embassies, diplomatic residences, upscale shops, and facilities for wealthy foreigners are common in the area.[127] TheInternational School of Havana is located in the Miramar neighborhood.
In the 1980s many parts ofOld Havana, including the Plaza de Armas, became part of a projected 35-yearmultimillion-dollar restoration project, for Cubans to appreciate their past and boost tourism. In the past ten years[which?], with the assistance of foreign aid and under the support of local city historian Eusebio Leal Spengler, large parts of Habana Vieja have been renovated. The city is moving forward with their renovations, with most of the major plazas (Plaza Vieja, Plaza de la Catedral, Plaza de San Francisco and Plaza de Armas) and major tourist streets (Obispo and Mercaderes) near completion.
TheMuseo Nacional de Bellas Artes de La Habana is a Fine Arts museum that exhibits Cuban and international art. The museum houses one of the largest collections of paintings and sculpture from Latin America and is the largest in the Caribbean region.[128] Under theCuban Ministry of Culture, it occupies two locations in the vicinity of Havana'sPaseo del Prado, these are thePalace of Fine Arts, devoted to Cuban art and thePalace of theAsturian Center, dedicated to universal art.[129] Its artistic heritage is made up of over 45,000 pieces.[130] Since 1995 the capital hosts the headquarters of theLudwig Foundation of Cuba in Vedado, founded by the German collectors Peter and Irene Ludwig, it is a non-governmental and non-profit organization for the dissemination and protection of Cuban art.Notable artists associated with the city includeFederico Beltrán Masses,[131][132]Víctor Manuel García Valdés,[133][134] andWifredo Lam.[135][136]
CMQ was a Cuban radio and television station located in Havana,Cuba, reaching an audience in the 1940s and 1950s, attracting viewers and listeners with a program that ranged from music and news dissemination. It later expanded into radio and television networks. As a radio network it was a heated competitor of theRHC-Cadena Azul network.The company was founded on March 12, 1933, by Miguel Gabriel and Ángel Cambó. Ten years later, on August 1, 1943, half of it was acquired by the business group ofGoar Mestre. In the beginning, it transmitted only in the capital expanding later to the rest of the country.
Pre-revolutionary Cuba was an early adopter of new technology, including TV. Cuba was the first Latin American country to have television. In December 1946 station CM-21P conducted an experimental multi-point live broadcast.
Regular commercial broadcasting began in October 1950 with Gaspar Pumarejo'sUnión Radio TV. This was followed by Goar Mestre Espinosa'sCMQ-TV on channel 6 on 18 December 1950. CMQ officially launched on 11 March 1951, and would become anNBC affiliate. By 1954, CMQ-TV had expanded into a seven station network. With the CMQ network, Cuba the second country in the world, only after the United States, to have a national TV network.[142][143]
At the beginning of the 1950s with the transmission of the novelEl Derecho de Nacer, by Felix B. Caignet, displaced the competing station, RHC Cadena Azul. It is with this leadership that the second Cuban television channel, CMQ TV, Channel 6 is born. It was initially located on Calle Monte, on the corner of Paseo del Prado. On 12 March 1948, the radio studio was moved to theRadiocentro building in La Rampa and Calle L inEl Vedado.[citation needed]
The Havana Film Festival is a Cuban festival that focuses on the promotion of Latin American filmmakers. It is also known in Spanish asFestival Internacional del Nuevo Cine Latinoamericano de La Habana, and in English as International Festival of New Latin American Cinema of Havana.[144] It takes place every year during December in the city ofHavana, Cuba.
The inaugural International Festival of New Latin American Cinema was held on 3 December 1979, and more than 600 film directors of Latin America responded to the first call made by theCuban Institute of the Cinematographic Art and Industry (ICAIC). Its founders the included President of ICAIC, Alfredo Guevara, and the filmmakersJulio García Espinosa andPastor Vega.[145]
As expressed in its founding convocation, the festival aimed to "promote the regular meeting of Latin American filmmakers who with their work enrich the artistic culture of our countries (…); ensure the joint presentation of fiction films, documentaries, cartoons and current events (…), and contribute to the international diffusion and circulation of the main and most significant productions of our cinematographies".[146]
In 2013 the Havana Film Festival announced that it was reappointing Iván Giroud as its president. Giroud had previously served as president from 1994 to 2010.[147]
All Cuban residents have free access to health care in hospitals,[148] local polyclinics, and neighborhood family doctors who serve on average 170 families each,[149] which is one of the highest doctor-to-patient ratio in the world.[150] However, the health system has suffered from shortages of supplies, equipment and medications caused by ending of theSoviet Union subsidies in the early 1990s and theUS embargo.[151] Nevertheless, Havana'sinfant mortality rate in 2009 was 4.9 per 1,000 live births,[7] 5.12 in the country as a whole, which is lower than manydeveloped nations,[152][153] and the lowest in thedeveloping world.[152][153][154] Administration of the health care system for the nation is centered largely in Havana. Hospitals in Havana are run by the national government, and citizens are assigned hospitals and clinics to which they may go for attention.[citation needed]
Many Cubans are avid sports fans who particularly favor baseball. Havana's team in theCuban National Series isIndustriales, one of the most successful teams in the tournament. In the past, it has also been represented byHabana (in the pre-revolutionaryCuban League) as well asMetropolitanos andLa Habana in the National Series.
The city has several large sports stadiums, the largest one being theEstadio Latinoamericano, where Industriales play. Admission to sporting events is generally free, and impromptu games are played in neighborhoods throughout the city. Social clubs at the beaches provide facilities for water sports and include restaurants and dance halls.
Havana was host to the11th Pan American Games in 1991.[155] Stadiums and facilities for this were built in the relatively unpopulated eastern suburbs.
^The Plaza del Vapor met a similar fate in 1959 as the Paris food marketLes Halles would meet in 1971. Les Halles, unable to compete in the new market economy and in need of massive repairs, the colorful ambiance once associated with the bustling area of merchant stalls, diappeared altogether when Les Halles was dismantled; the wholesale market was relocated to the suburb ofRungis. Two of the glass and cast iron market pavilions were dismantled and re-erected elsewhere; one in the Paris suburb ofNogent-sur-Marne, the other inYokohama, Japan.[100] At the beginning of the 1959 Revolution Fidel Castro ordered to stop all construction in Cuba, and to have the Plaza del Vapor demolished; theMinistry of Public Health declared the Plaza del Vapor unhealthy and its vendors were resettled on the grounds of Calle Amistad between Calles Estrella and Monte where the demolished Mars and Belona dance academy had operated for years. TheNational Institute of Savings and Housing (INAV)replaced Batista's National Lottery, which had been abolished by the Revolutionary government, and a new lottery to raise money for new construction, and directed by Pastorita Núñez who projected that a new, modern building, not unlike those that were proposed byJosep Lluís Sert a year earlier in hisHavana Plan Piloto of 1955–1958 would now be built in the empty lot.[101]
^(INAV) is a state agency created with the objective of building houses for all Cubans who lacked them a lottery,[101]
^The San Francisco de Paula Hospital for women began its functions in 1672, welcoming, in crowded conditions most of the time, black and white mentally ill patients. The gloomy aspect of the construction and the screams of the sick women made this place a well-known place in the area, but not for the reasons why hospitals like to be known, but as a gloomy reference. In the great 19th century Creole novel, Cecilia Valdés by Cirilo Villaverde, the church-hospital is evoked several times because, supposedly, Cecilia's mother was confined there when she lost the use of her mental faculties after the troubles and vicissitudes of her love affair with Don Cándido Gamboa.
^Thomas, Hugh:Cuba, A pursuit of freedom, 2nd Edition, p. 1.
^Harbron, John D..Trafalgar and the Spanish navy, Lestrange Maritime Press, 2004,ISBN0-87021-695-3, pp. 15–17. Havana built nearly 50% more Ships of the Line than any other Spanish dockyard during the 18th century.
^Pocock, Tom (1998). "Chapter Six".Battle for Empire: The very first world war 1756–63. Michael O'Mara Books.ISBN978-1-85479-390-4.
^Thomas, Hugh: Cuba: The Pursuit of Freedom 2nd edition. Chapter One
^Masó y Vázquez, Calixto (1976).Historia de Cuba: la lucha de un pueblo por cumplir su destino histórico y su vocación de libertad (2nd ed.). Miami, Fla.: Ediciones Universal.ISBN978-0-89729-875-9.
^(in Spanish)Russians in CubaArchived 1 November 2011 at theWayback Machine Los rusos que se quedaron en la isla -unos 3.000 actualmente- son en su mayoría mujeres como Marina o Natalia que se casaron con cubanos que habían ido a la URSS a estudiar, indicó la embajada rusa en La Habana.
^abINV, Instituto Nacional de la Vivienda (2001a) Boletín Estadístico Anual. 2001. INV, Havana.
^abcdeGonzález Rego, R. 1999. "Una Primera Aproximación al Análisis Espacial de los Problemas Socioambientales en los Barrios y Focos Insalubres de Ciudad de La Habana". Facultad de Filosofía e Historia. Departamento de Sociología, Universidad de La Habana. 250 p.
^Burnett, Victoria."Cuba - Overview".New York Times. Retrieved1 December 2011.
^abAngela, Ferriol Maruaga; et al.:Cuba crisis, ajuste y situación social (1990–1996), La Habana, Cuba : Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1998, Champter 1
^abcHavana MetroArchived 19 January 2012 at theWayback Machine Hace unos años parecía que la capital cubana tendría metro, cuando en la década de 1980 los estudios de geología y finanzas realizados por especialistas cubanos y soviéticos iban muy adelantados.
^"Biografiá" (in Spanish). Retrieved9 January 2017.
^"Federico Beltran Masses". Retrieved10 January 2017....the only child of Luis Beltran Fernandez Estepona, a former Spanish army officer stationed in Cuba, and Dona Mercedes Masses Olives, the daughter of a doctor from Lleida, Catalonia, who himself had married the daughter of a wealthy Spanish Cuban-landowner.
^The effects of the U.S. embargo on medicines in Cuba have been studied in numerous reports. •R Garfield and S Santana. Columbia University, School of Nursing, New York;"The impact of the economic crisis and the US embargo on health in Cuba" "this embargo has raised the cost of medical supplies and food Rationing, universal access to primary health services" •American Association for World Health;Online. American Association for World Health Report. March 1997. Accessed6 October 2006. Supplementary source :American Public Health Association websiteArchived 13 August 2006 at theWayback Machine "After a year-long investigation, the American Association for World Health has determined that the U.S. embargo of Cuba has dramatically harmed the health and nutrition of large numbers of ordinary Cuban citizens." •Felipe Eduardo Sixto;An evaluation of Four decades of Cuban HealthcareArchived 19 June 2010 at theWayback Machine. "The lack of supplies accompanied by a deterioration of basic infrastructure (potable water and sanitation) resulted in a setback of many of the previous accomplishments. The strengthening of the U.S. embargo contributed to these problems." •Pan American Health organization; Health Situation Analysis and Trends SummaryRegional Core Health Data System – Country Profile: CUBAArchived 16 October 2015 at theWayback Machine"The two determining factors underlying the crisis are well known. One is the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the socialist bloc, and the other is the economic embargo the Government of the United States." •Harvard Public Health;Review/Summer 2002 : The Cuban ParadoxArchived 30 May 2012 atarchive.today "Because its access to traditional sources of financing is seriously hindered by the sanctions, which until recently included all food and medicine, Cuba has received little foreign and humanitarian aid to maintain the vitality of its national programs" •The Lancet medical journal;Role of USA in shortage of food and medicine. "The resultant lack of food and medicines to Cuba contributed to the worst epidemic of neurological disease this century."
Barclay, Juliet (1993).Havana: Portrait of a City. London: Cassell.ISBN978-1-84403-127-6 (2003 paperback edition). A comprehensive account of the history of Havana from the early 16th century to the end of the 19th century.
Carpentier, Alejo.La ciudad de las columnas (The city of columns). A historical review of the city from one of the major authors in the iberoamerican literature, a native of this city.
Cluster, Dick, & Rafael Hernández,History of Havana. New York: Palgrave-MacMillan, 2006.ISBN978-1-4039-7107-4. A social history of the city from 1519 to the present, co-authored by a Cuban writer and editor resident in Havana and an American novelist and writer of popular history.
Eguren, Gustavo.La fidelísima Habana (The very faithful Havana). A fundamental illustrated book for those who wants to know the history of La Habana, includes chronicles, articles from natives and non-natives, archives documents, and more.
United Railways of Havana.Cuba: A Winter Paradise. 1908–1909, 1912–1913, 1914–1915 and 1915–1916 editions. New York, 1908, 1912, 1914 and 1915. Maps, photos and descriptions of suburban and interurban electric lines.
"Electric Traction in Cuba".Tramway & Railway World (London), 1 April 1909, pp. 243–44. Map, photos and description of Havana Central Railroad.
"The Havana Central Railroad".Electrical World (New York), 15 April 1909, pp. 911–12. Text, 4 photos.
"Three-Car Storage Battery Train".Electric Railway Journal (New York), 28 September 1912, p. 501. Photo and description of Cuban battery cars.
Berta Alfonso Gallol.Los Transportes Habaneros. Estudios Históricos. La Habana, 1991. The definitive survey (but no pictures or maps).
James A. Michener and John Kings.Six Days in Havana. University of Texas Press; first edition (1989).ISBN978-0-292-77629-6. Interviews with close to 200 Cubans of widely assorted backgrounds and positions, and concerns how the country has progressed after 90 years of independence from Spain and under the 30-year leadership of Castro.
One more interesting note about that edition ofThe New York Times: On page 5, there is a short blurb mentioning, "The plan for holding a Pan-American exhibition at Buffalo has been shelved for the present owing to the unsettled condition of the public mind consequent upon the Spanish-Cuban complications." PresidentWilliam McKinley was assassinated at the Pan-American Exhibition when it was finally held in 1901.
Cathryn Griffith,Havana Revisited: An Architectural Heritage. W. W. Norton 2010.ISBN978-0-393-73284-9
Guadalupe Garcia,Beyond the Walled City: Colonial Exclusion in Havana. 2015, Berkeley: University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-28604-7 (review).
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