Kyrgyz Country 𐰴𐰃𐰼𐰏𐰃𐰕:𐰅𐰠 Qïrğïz El | |||||||||||||
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| 840–925 | |||||||||||||
Kyrgyz Khanate and contemporary Asian polities, in the 8th century Kyrgyz Khaganate (as activity range) and contemporary Asian polities, in the 9th century Kyrgyz Khanate and contemporary Asian polities, in the 10th century Kyrgyz Khanate and contemporary Asian polities, around the 11th and 12th centuries Kyrgyz Khanate as a part ofMongol Empire, and contemporary Asian polities, in the 13th century | |||||||||||||
| Status | Khaganate (Nomadic empire) | ||||||||||||
| Capital |
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| Common languages |
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| Religion |
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| Demonym | Yenisei Kyrgyz (Qïrğïz bodun) | ||||||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||||
| Khagan (Īnāl)[3][4] | |||||||||||||
• 693-711 | Bars Beg (first) | ||||||||||||
• 711-758 | Unknown khan(s)[Note 2] | ||||||||||||
• 758–795 | Bilge Tong Erkin [ru] | ||||||||||||
• 795-847 | Aču Khagan [ru] (as khagan after 840) | ||||||||||||
• 847-866 | Ïnǧu Khagan [ru] | ||||||||||||
• 866–925 | Unknown khagan(s) | ||||||||||||
• 925–1207 | Unknown Khan(s)[Note 3] | ||||||||||||
| History | |||||||||||||
• Established | 840 | ||||||||||||
• Disestablished | 925 | ||||||||||||
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Early Turkic Khaganates
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TheKyrgyz Khaganate (alsoYenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate orKirghiz Khaganate, self defined asKyrgyz country;Old Turkic: 𐰴𐰃𐰼𐰏𐰃𐰕:𐰅𐰠, romanized:Qïrğïz El) was aTurkic Khaganate centered in southern Siberia. After the defeat of theUyghur Khaganate in 840, they gained political prestige and, for a short period until the mid-10th century (c. 925), established a nominal supremacy on the steppe.
Many scholars have assumed that the Kyrgyz extended their control over the Mongolian Plateau after 840 However, as Michael Drompp observes, the Kyrgyz remained in their Yenisei homelands and there is no evidence of a permanent migration to theTian Shan or beyond.[5]
Peter Golden likewise emphasizes that their domination was nominal and military in character and that they did not establish a centralized empire like theGökturks orUighurs.[6] In another work, Golden stresses that their power was real enough to defeat the Uighurs, but they did not create a lasting empire. Their authority was limited to the Yenisei region.[7] According to the Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, their ascendancy did not translate into territorial expansion.[8]
The earliest records of Kyrgyz Khaganate were written during theTang dynasty. The Kyrgyz did not keep reliable written records during this period.
Before 201 BC,Xiongnu chanyuModu conquered theYenisei Kyrgyz, then known to Chinese as Gekun (鬲昆), along with the Hunyu (渾庾), Qushe (屈射),Dingling (丁零), andXinli (薪犁).[9]
In 50 BC, Xiongnu chanyuZhizhi defeated theWusun, Wujie (Oguzes?[10]),Dinglings and Jiankun (Kyrgyzes).[11] During those times, Kyrgyz people lived in theBorohoro Mountains and theManasi River valley on eastTengir-Too, about 7,000 li (4,000 km (2,500 mi)) west ofOrdos – the center of the Xiongnu's territory.[citation needed]
InChinese historiography, the Kyrgyzes' endonym was first transcribed as Gekun (orKo-kun;Chinese:鬲昆) or Jiankun (orChien-kun;Chinese:堅昆) inRecords of the Grand Historian andBook of Han, respectively.[12] other transcriptions areJiegu (結骨),Hegu (紇骨),Hegusi (紇扢斯),Hejiasi (紇戛斯),Hugu (護骨),Qigu (契骨),Juwu (居勿), andXiajiasi (黠戛斯),[13]Peter Golden reconstructs underlying *Qïrğïz < *Qïrqïz< *Qïrqïŕ and suggests a derivation fromOld Turkicqïr 'gray' (horse color) plus suffix-q(X)ŕ/ğ(X)ŕ ~k(X)z/g(X)z.[14][15]
They were largely subordinate to theGöktürks from 560s to 700s.[16] Kyrgyz khanBars Beg was a brother-in-law ofBilge Qaghan. His son ruled the Kyrgyzs after Bars Beg's defeat at the hands ofQapaghan in 710.[17] After the down fall of the Göktürks, they submitted to theUyghurs.[18] Their leaderBayanchur killed the Kyrgyz leader and appointed a new Kyrgyzkhan namedBilge Tong Erkin [ru] (毗伽頓頡斤).
After an unsuccessful campaign against the Kyrgyz in 693, the leader of the GöktürkSecond Turkic Khaganate,Qapaghan, was forced to recognize the title ofkhagan[Note 4] for theKyrgyz rulerBars Beg and even tried to create a dynastic alliance with him by marrying his "younger sister-princess" to him. However, this only temporarily dulled the most acute contradictions between the Göktürks and the Kyrgyz, who fought for dominance overCentral Asia. In 707 and 709 Kyrgyz envoys visited theTang Empire twice. At this time, the Göktürks were at war with the Tang Empire and the Kyrgyz found themselves in a new coalition with theTürgesh, Chik, Az and Tang Empire. The greatest danger to the Göktürks during this period was represented by the Kyrgyz who gained strength. In 709, the Göktürk army defeated the Chiks and Azs, capturingTuva and a bridgehead for the invasion of the Kyrgyz lands. Bars Beg Khan did not dare to intervene, hoping for the impregnability of their lands beyond theSayan Mountains. However, in the winter of 710–711. the Göktürk army, having made a roundabout maneuver, crossed the Sayan Range and suddenly fell upon the Kyrgyz. As a result of the defeat inBattle of Sayan Mountains, the Kyrgyz army was defeated, and Bars Beg died. The Kyrgyz state was conquered, Göktürk troops were stationed in theMinusinsk Hollow. However, management was handed over to the Kyrgyz ruler. A Kyrgyz embassy arrived in China in 711. Perhaps it was sent by Bars Beg Khan before his death in the hope of help. In 722 and 723 two Kyrgyz embassies arrived in Tang China, headed bytegin Isibo Sheyuzhe Bishi Sygin and Tegin Juili Pinhezhong Sigin.[19]
The first embassy to Yenisei Kyrgyz was sent during reign of theEmperor Taizong of Tang, in 632.[20] He received a Kyrgyz ambassador named Shiboqu Azhan (失鉢屈阿棧) who was later appointed to the Yanran (燕然) Commandery.
The Kyrgyz rulers claimed descent from theHan dynasty generalLi Ling, grandson of the generalLi Guang.[21][22][23] Li Ling was captured by theXiongnu and defected in the first century BCE.[24][25] And since the Tang imperialLi family also claimed descent from Li Guang, the Kyrgyzkhan was therefore recognized as a member of the Tang imperial family. This relationship soothed the relationship when Kyrgyz khaganAču Khagan [ru] (阿熱) invaded theUyghur Khaganate and putQasar Khagan to death. The news brought toChang'an by Kyrgyz ambassador Zhuwu Hesu (註吾合素).
The Khitan rulerAbaoji did extend his influence onto theMongolian Plateau in 924, but there is no indication whatsoever of any conflict with the Kyrgyz. The only information we have from Khitan (Liao) sources regarding the Kyrgyz indicates that the two powers maintained diplomatic relations. Scholars who write of a Kyrgyz "empire" from about 840 to about 924 are describing a fantasy. All available evidence suggests that despite some brief extensions of their power onto the Mongolian Plateau, the Kyrgyz did not maintain a significant political or military presence there after their victories in the 840s.[16]
— Michael Drompp
The Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate of theAre family bolstered his ties and alliance to the Tang imperial family against the Uyghur Khaganate by claiming descent from the Han dynasty general Li Ling who had defected to the Xiongnu and married a Xiongnu princess, daughter of Qiedihou Chanyu and was sent to govern the Jiankun (Ch'ien-K'un) region which later became Yenisei. Li Ling was a grandson of Li Guang (Li Kuang) of the Longxi Li family descended from Laozi which the Tang dynasty Li imperial family claimed descent from.[26] The Yenisei Kyrgyz and Tang dynasty launched a successful war between 840 and 848 to destroy the Uyghur Khaganate and its centre at the Orkhon valley using their claimed familial ties as justification for an alliance.[27] Tang forces under General Shi Xiong wounded the Uyghur khagan Ögä, seized livestock, took 5,000–20,000 Uyghur Khaganate soldiers captive, killed 10,000 Uyghur Khaganate soldiers on 13 February 843 at the Battle of Shahu (kill the barbarians) mountain.[28][29][30]
In 845,Aču Khagan [ru] was made Zong Yingxiong Wu Chengming Khagan (Chinese:宗英雄武誠明可汗;lit. 'Fathering Heroes', 'Martial and Sincere', 'Khagan of Light') byEmperor Wuzong. But Wuzong died before his ambassadors departed Chang'an. The new emperorXuanzong did not rush to make him khagan. At a general council of senior officials, they decided that the titles were given to the Uyghurs when they were strong, and if the Yenisei Kyrgyz were awarded as well, they would become proud and become dangerous. The emperor revoked the letter.[16]
After Aču's murder by one of his officials in 847, new Kyrgyzkhagan was madeÏnǧu Khagan [ru] (英武誠明可汗) by Xuanzong,[16] who sent Li Ye (李業) to award him the title.
After the tenth century, there is little additional information regarding the Kyrgyz until their absorption into theMongol Empire in the thirteenth century. There was a conflict between the Kyrgyz and theQara Khitai around 1130; the Kyrgyz were not defeated, but there is some speculation that at some point they came under the sway of the Qara Khitai. Almost 80 years later, in 1207/1208, the Kyrgyz submitted to the rising power of the Mongols underGenghis Khan.[16]
— Michael Drompp
The religion of the population of the Kyrgyz Khaganate has been studied by various historians since the 19th century. Chinese and Arabic-Persian sources contain various information about the religion of the Yenisei Kyrgyz. Thus, the Chinese chronicles preserved data on the religious rituals of the Yenisei Kyrgyz:[31]
A sacrifice is made to the spirits in the field. There is no fixed time for sacrifice. Shamans are called gan [kam]. At funerals, they wrap the body of the deceased in three rows and cry, and then burn it, and the collected bones are buried a year later. After that, crying is produced at certain times.
The Persian historianGardizi in the 11th century wrote the following about the Yenisei Kyrgyz:[31]
Some Kyrgyz worship the cow, others the wind, others the hedgehog, others the magpie, others the falcon, and others the mahogany trees. They have a special measured speech that they use in prayer. When they pray, they turn towards the south. They worship Saturn and Venus, and Mars is considered a bad omen. They have a prayer house.… Lamps (lit) they don't go out until they go out by themselves.
Similar information is given in the "Dictionary of Countries" byYaqut al-Hamawi, which was published at the beginning of the 13th century:[31]
They have a temple for worship, and they have reed pens with which to write. They do not extinguish their lamps until the combustible substance in them goes out by itself. They know the poetic speech that they utter during their prayer. They have several holidays a year. They pray facing south, worship Saturn and Venus, and consider Mars a bad omen. They have stones that glow at night, thanks to which they do not need lamps and which are used only in their country.
According toGardizi and al-Marwazi, there was a position of "faginun" in the Kyrgyz Khaganate, who performed the duties of religious ministers. During the rituals, which were accompanied by music, the faginuns brought themselves to unconsciousness, and after waking up, predicted various events such as natural disasters or invasions of enemies. The burial cycle of the Yenisei Kyrgyz has been archaeologically studied quite well in various regions of Southern Siberia and Central Asia. The funeral ceremony took a long period of time — at least one year. The cycle consisted of several stages: choosing a place for the burial of the deceased, transporting the body of the deceased, preparing a funeral pyre, and so on. As the Kyrgyz Khaganate rose, other beliefs began to enter the state. Thus, asManichaeism spread, some Kyrgyz khagans began to use the title "Khagan of Light" in relation to themselves, and monumental Manichaean temples began to be built in the state (the aforementioned Gardizi and Yakut al-Hamawi write about them)[32] and Manichaean monasteries.[33]Nestorian missionaries also actively served on the territory of the Khaganate.Nestorianism became widespread among the Kyrgyz aristocracy during the Kyrgyz expansion. Objects similar to the doors of the Christian panagia were found at the Kyrgyz burial ground of the 13th—14th centuries "Koibaly-I" from the Minusinsk Hollow. In turn, some Yenisei Kyrgyz who lived inEast Turkestan, under the influence ofIslam, switched from cremation rituals to traditional funerals.[31]
The Kyrgyz Khaganate pursued a tolerant policy towards all religions of the state. The statesmen of the Kyrgyz Khaganate took into account the interests of adherents of all religions who lived in their territory. The religious elite of the state included the khagan, who had a sacred status, his dynasty and entourage, missionaries and traditional religious servants — shamans who participated in the most important religious events.[31]
According to theTobchiyan andJami' al-tawarikh, title of the Yenisei Kyrgyzkhagan wasĪnāl (Persian:اینال,Chinese:亦纳勒).[3][4]
| Title name in Old Turkic | Title name in Chinese (Mandarinpinyin romanization) | Reign | Religion | Dynasty |
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| Bars Beg Khan (𐰉𐰺𐰽:𐰋𐰏:𐰴𐰣)[Note 2] Inanch Alp Bilge (𐰃𐰣𐰀𐰣𐰲𐰆:𐰀𐰞𐰯:𐰋𐰄𐰠𐰏𐰅) | 巴爾斯別克 (Barsbek) 亦難赤阿爾普毗伽 (Yinanchi Alp Pitsye) | 693–711 | Tengrism | Are dynasty |
| Unknown khan(s) | 711–758 | |||
| Bilge Tong Erkin [ru] (𐰋𐰄𐰠𐰏𐰅:𐱄𐰆𐰣𐰏:𐰅𐰼𐰚𐰄𐰤) | 毗伽頓頡斤 (Pitsye Tungye Gin) | 758–795 | ||
| Aču Khagan [ru] (𐰀𐰳𐰆:𐰴𐰍𐰣) | 宗英雄武誠明可汗 (Zong Yingxiong Wu Chengming Khagan) 阿熱 (Are/Ajo) | 795–847 | Manichaeism[Note 1] | |
| Ïnǧu Khagan [ru] (𐰄𐰤𐰍𐰆:𐰴𐰍𐰣) | 英武誠明可汗 (Yingwu Chengming Khagan) | 847–866 | ||
| Unknown khagan(s) | 866–925 | |||
| Unknown khan(s)[Note 3] | 925–1207 | ProbablyTengrism | Unknown |
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