The territory of modern-day Kuwait has been occupied by humans since antiquity, particularly due to its strategic location at the head of the Persian Gulf near the mouth of theTigris and Euphrates rivers. In the early 18th century, the territory of modern-day Kuwait was under the jurisdiction of theBani Khalid clan; then the territory became known as theSheikdom of Kuwait and aBritishprotectorate in 1899. Prior to thediscovery of oil reserves in 1938, the territory of modern-day Kuwait contained a regional trade port.[22][23] The protectorate agreements with the United Kingdom ended in June 1961 when Kuwait officially became an independent state.
From 1946 to 1982, Kuwait underwent large-scale modernization, largely based on income fromoil production. In the 1980s, Kuwait experienced a period of geopolitical instability and an economic crisis following thestock market crash. It suffered pro-Iranian attacks during theIran–Iraq War, as a result of Kuwait's financial support to Iraq. In 1990, the state of Kuwait wasinvaded, installed a puppet regime, and subsequentlyannexed byIraq under the leadership ofSaddam Hussein following disputes over oil production. TheIraqi occupation of Kuwait ended on 26 February 1991, after a U.S. and Saudi Arabia–ledinternational coalition expelled Iraqi forces from the country during theGulf War.[24]
Like most otherArab states of the Persian Gulf, Kuwait is anemirate; theemir is the head of state and the rulingAl Sabah family dominates the country's political system. Kuwait's official state religion is Islam, specifically theMaliki school of Sunni Islam. Kuwait is ahigh-income economy, backed by the world'ssixth largest oil reserves. Kuwait is considered to be a pioneer in the region when it comes to the arts and popular culture, often called the "Hollywood of the Gulf"; the nation started the oldest modern arts movement in the Arabian Peninsula and is known to have created among the leading artists in the region.[25][26] Kuwaiti popular culture, in the form of theatre, radio, music, and television soap opera, is exported to neighboringGulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states.[27] Kuwait is a founding member of the GCC and is also a member of theUnited Nations, theArab League, andOPEC.
The name "Kuwait" is from theKuwaiti Arabic diminutive form ofكوت (Kut orKout), meaning "fortress built near water".[28] The country's official name has been the "State of Kuwait" since 1961.
Following the post-glacial flooding of thePersian Gulf basin, debris from theTigris–Euphrates river formed a substantial delta, creating most of the land in present-day Kuwait and establishing the present coastlines.[29] One of the earliest evidence of human humidity in Kuwait dates back to theMesolithic era (c. 8000 BC).[30] Historically, most of present-day Kuwait was part of ancientMesopotamia.[31][32]
During the Dilmun era (from ca. 3000 BC), Failaka was known as "Agarum", the land ofEnzak, a great god in the Dilmun civilization according to Sumerian cuneiform texts found on the island.[51] As part of Dilmun, Failaka became a hub for the civilization from the end of the 3rd to the middle of the 1st millennium BC.[51][52] After the Dilmun civilization, Failaka was inhabited by theKassites ofMesopotamia,[53] and was formally under the control of theKassite dynasty of Babylon.[53] Studies indicate traces of human settlement can be found on Failaka dating back to as early as the end of the 3rd millennium BC, and extending until the 20th century AD.[51] Many of the artifacts found in Falaika are linked to Mesopotamian civilizations and seem to show that Failaka was gradually drawn toward the civilization based inAntioch.[54]
UnderNebuchadnezzar II, the bay of Kuwait was underBabylonian control.[55] Cuneiform documents found in Failaka indicate the presence of Babylonians in the island's population.[56]Babylonian Kings were present in Failaka during theNeo-Babylonian Empire period,Nabonidus had a governor in Failaka and Nebuchadnezzar II had a palace and temple in Falaika.[57][58] Failaka also contained temples dedicated to the worship ofShamash, the Mesopotamian sun god in the Babylonian pantheon.[58]
Following theFall of Babylon, the bay of Kuwait came under the control of theAchaemenid Empire (c. 550‒330 BC) as the bay was repopulated after seven centuries of abandonment.[59] Failaka was under the control of the Achaemenid Empire as evidenced by the archaeological discovery of Achaemenid strata.[57][60] There areAramaic inscriptions that testify Achaemenid presence.[60]
In fourth century BC, theancient Greeks colonized the bay of Kuwait underAlexander the Great. The ancient Greeks named mainland KuwaitLarissa and Failaka was namedIkaros.[61][62][63][64] The bay of Kuwait was namedHieros Kolpos.[65] According toStrabo andArrian, Alexander the Great named FailakaIkaros because it resembled theAegean Island of that name in size and shape. Elements ofGreek mythology were mixed with the local cults.[66] "Ikaros" was also the name of a prominent city situated in Failaka.[67] LargeHellenisticforts andGreek temples were uncovered.[68] Archaeological remains of Greek colonization were also discovered in Akkaz, Umm an Namil, and Subiya.[30]
At the time of Alexander the Great, the mouth of theEuphrates River was located in northern Kuwait.[69][70] The Euphrates river flowed directly into the Persian Gulf via KhorSubiya which was a river channel at the time.[69][70] Failaka was located 15 kilometers from the mouth of the Euphrates river.[69][70] By the first century BC, the Khor Subiya river channel dried out completely.[69][70]
In 127 BC, Kuwait was part of theParthian Empire and the kingdom ofCharacene was established aroundTeredon in present-day Kuwait.[71][72][73] Characene was centered in the region encompassing southern Mesopotamia,[74] Characene coins were discovered in Akkaz, Umm an Namil, and Failaka.[75][76] A busy Parthian commercial station was situated in Kuwait.[77]
In 224 AD, Kuwait became part of theSassanid Empire. At the time of the Sassanid Empire, Kuwait was known asMeshan,[78] which was an alternative name of the kingdom of Characene.[79][80] Akkaz was aPartho-Sassanian site;[81] theSassanid religion'stower of silence was discovered in northern Akkaz.[81][82][83] Late Sassanian settlements were discovered in Failaka.[84] InBubiyan, there is archaeological evidence of Sassanian to early Islamic periods of human presence as evidenced by the recent discovery of torpedo-jar pottery shards on several prominent beach ridges.[85]
Marine Museum in Kuwait City. Demonstrates the founding of Kuwait as a sea port for merchants.
In the early to mid 1700s,Kuwait City was a smallfishing village. Administratively, it was a sheikhdom, ruled bysheikhs from the localBani Khalid clan.[94] Sometime in the mid 1700s, theBani Utbah settled in Kuwait City.[95][96] Sometime after the death of the Bani Khalid's leader Barak bin Abdul Mohsen and the fall of theBani Khalid Emirate, the Utub were able to wrest control of Kuwait as a result of successivematrimonial alliances.[96]
In the latter half of the eighteenth century, Kuwait began establishing itself as a maritimeport and gradually became a principal commercial center for the transit of goods betweenBaghdad, India, Persia,Muscat, and theArabian Peninsula.[97][98] By the late-1700s, Kuwait had established itself as a trading route from the Persian Gulf toAleppo.[99] During thePersian siege of Basra in 1775–79, Iraqi merchants took refuge in Kuwait and were partly instrumental in the expansion of Kuwait's boat-building and trading activities.[100] As a result, Kuwait's maritime commerce boomed,[100] as the Indian trade routes with Baghdad, Aleppo,Smyrna andConstantinople were diverted to Kuwait during this time.[99][101][102] TheEast India Company was diverted to Kuwait in 1792.[103] The East India Company secured the sea routes between Kuwait, India and the east coasts of Africa.[103] After the Persians withdrew fromBasra in 1779, Kuwait continued to attract trade away from Basra.[104] The flight of many of Basra's leading merchants to Kuwait continued to play a significant role in Basra's commercial stagnation well into the 1850s.[104]
The instability in Basra helped foster economic prosperity in Kuwait.[105][106] In the late 18th century, Kuwait was a haven for Basra merchants fleeingOttoman persecution.[107] Kuwait was the center ofboat building in the Persian Gulf,[108] its ships renowned throughout theIndian Ocean.[109][110] Its sailors developed a positive reputation in the Persian Gulf.[97][111][112] In the 19th century, Kuwait became significant in thehorse trade,[113] with regular shipments in sailing vessels.[113] In the mid 19th century, it was estimated that Kuwait exported an average of 800 horses to India annually.[105]
In 1919, SheikhSalim Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah intended to build a commercial city in the south of Kuwait. This caused a diplomatic crisis with Najd, but Britain intervened, discouraging Sheikh Salim. In 1920, an attempt by theIkhwan to build a stronghold in southern Kuwait led to theBattle of Hamdh. The Battle of Hamdh involved 2,000Ikhwan fighters against 100 Kuwaiticavalrymen and 200 Kuwaitiinfantrymen. The battle lasted for six days and resulted in heavy but unknown casualties on both sides resulting in the victory of the Ikhwan forces and leading to the battle of Jahra around the Kuwait Red Fort. TheBattle of Jahra happened as the result of theBattle of Hamdh. A force of three to four thousandIkhwan, led byFaisal Al-Dawish, attacked theRed Fort at Al-Jahra, defended by fifteen hundred men. The fort was besieged and the Kuwaiti position precarious.[119] The Ikhwan attack repulsed for the while, negotiations began between Salim and Al-Dawish; the latter threatened another attack if the Kuwaiti forces did not surrender. The local merchant class convinced Salim to call in help from British troops, who showed up with airplanes and three warships, ending the attacks.[119][120] After the Battle of Jahra, Ibn Saud's warriors, theIkhwan, demanded that Kuwait follows five rules.[121] They demanded that all theShias be evicted, that all should adopt theIkhwan doctrine, that the Turks be labelled "heretics", that smoking,munkar, and prostitution be abolished, and that American missionary hospital be destroyed.[122]
TheKuwait–Najd War of 1919–20 erupted in theaftermath of World War I. The war occurred becauseIbn Saud of Najd wanted to annex Kuwait.[116][123] The sharpened conflict between Kuwait and Najd led to the death of hundreds of Kuwaitis. The war resulted in sporadic border clashes throughout 1919–1920.
WhenPercy Cox was informed of the border clashes in Kuwait, he sent a letter to theRuler of Arabistan SheikhKhazʽal Ibn Jabir offering the Kuwaiti throne to either him or one of his heirs. Khaz'al refused.[124] He then asked:
...even so, do you think that you have come to me with something new? Al Mubarak's position as ruler of Kuwait means that I am the true ruler of Kuwait. So there is no difference between myself and them, for they are like the dearest of my children and you are aware of this. Had someone else come to me with this offer, I would have complained about them to you. So how do you come to me with this offer when you are well aware that myself and Al Mubarak are one soul and one house, what affects them affects me, whether good or evil.[124]
Following the Kuwait–Najd War in 1919–20, Ibn Saud imposed a trade blockade against Kuwait from the years 1923 until 1937.[125] The goal of the Saudi economic and military attacks on Kuwait was to annex as much of Kuwait's territory as possible. At theUqair conference in 1922, the boundaries of Kuwait and Najd were set; as a result of British interference, Kuwait had no representative at the Uqair conference. After the Uqair conference, Kuwait was still subjected to a Saudi economic blockade and intermittent Saudiraiding.
Kuwait immensely declined in regional economic importance,[110] due to the trade blockades and the world economic depression.[116] BeforeMary Bruins Allison visited Kuwait in 1934, Kuwait had already lost its prominence in long-distance trade.[110]
TheGreat Depression harmed Kuwait's economy, starting in the late 1920s.[125] International trading was one of Kuwait's main sources of income before oil.[125] Kuwait's merchants were mostly intermediary merchants.[125] As a result of the decline of European demand for goods from India and Africa, Kuwait's economy suffered. The decline in international trade resulted in an increase in gold smuggling by Kuwait's ships to India.[125] Some local merchant families became rich from this smuggling.[126] Kuwait'spearl industry also collapsed as a result of the worldwide economic depression.[126] At its height, Kuwait's pearl industry had led the world's luxury market, regularly sending out between 750 and 800 ships to meet the European elite's desire for pearls.[126] During the economic depression, luxuries like pearls were in little demand.[126] The Japanese invention ofcultured pearls also contributed to the collapse of Kuwait's pearl industry.[126]
Freya Stark wrote about the extent of poverty in Kuwait at the time:[125]
Poverty has settled in Kuwait more heavily since my last visit five years ago, both by sea, where the pearl trade continues to decline, and by land, where the blockade established by Saudi Arabia now harms the merchants.
On 22 February 1938,oil was first discovered in theBurgan field.
Between 1946 and 1980, Kuwait experienced a period of prosperity driven by oil and its liberal cultural atmosphere; this period is called the "golden era of Kuwait".[127][128][129][130] In 1946, crude oil was exported for the first time. In 1950, a major public-work programme began to enable Kuwaiti citizens to enjoy a luxurious standard of living.
By 1952, the country became the largest oil exporter in the Persian Gulf region. This massive growth attracted many foreign workers, especially from Palestine, Iran, India, and Egypt – with the latter being particularly political within the context of theArab Cold War.[131] It was also in 1952 that the first masterplan of Kuwait was designed by the British planning firm ofMinoprio,Spenceley, and Macfarlane. In 1958,Al-Arabi magazine was first published.[132] Many foreign writers moved to Kuwait because they enjoyed greaterfreedom of expression than elsewhere in the Middle East.[133][134] Kuwait's press was described as one of thefreest in the world.[135] Kuwait was the pioneer in the literary renaissance in the Middle East.[132]
In June 1961, Kuwait became independent with the end of theBritish protectorate and the SheikhAbdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah becameEmir of Kuwait. Kuwait'snational day, however, is celebrated on 25 February, the anniversary of the coronation of Sheikh Abdullah (it was originally celebrated on 19 June, the date of independence, but concerns over the summer heat caused the government to move it).[136]
At the time, Kuwait was considered the most developed country in the region.[137][138][139] Kuwait was the pioneer in the Middle East in diversifying its earnings away from oil exports.[140] TheKuwait Investment Authority is the world's first sovereign wealth fund.
Kuwaiti society embraced liberal and non-traditional attitudes throughout the 1960s and 1970s.[141][142] For example, most Kuwaiti women did not wear thehijab in the 1960s and 70s.[143][144]
Although Kuwait formally gained independence in 1961, Iraq initially refused to recognize the country's independence by maintaining that Kuwait is part of Iraq, albeit Iraq later briefly backed down following a show of force by Britain andArab League support of Kuwait's independence.[145][146][147]
The short-livedOperation Vantage crisis evolved in July 1961, as the Iraqi government threatened to invade Kuwait and the invasion was finally averted following plans by the Arab League to form an international Arab force against the potential Iraqi invasion of Kuwait.[148][149] As a result of Operation Vantage, the Arab League took over the border security of Kuwait and the British had withdrawn their forces by 19 October.[145] Iraqi prime ministerAbd al-Karim Qasim was killed in a coup in 1963 but, although Iraq recognised Kuwaiti independence and the military threat was perceived to be reduced, Britain continued to monitor the situation and kept forces available to protect Kuwait until 1971. There had been no Iraqi military action against Kuwait at the time: this was attributed to the political and military situation within Iraq which continued to be unstable.[16]
A treaty of friendship between Iraq and Kuwait was signed in 1963 by which Iraq recognised the 1932 border of Kuwait.[150] Under the terms of the newly draftedConstitution, Kuwait held its firstparliamentary elections in 1963.
Kuwait University was established in 1966.[139] Kuwait'stheatre industry became well known throughout the region.[127][139] After the 1967Six Day War, Kuwait along with other Arabic speaking countries voted the three no's of theKhartoum Resolution: no peace with Israel, no recognition of Israel, and no negotiations with Israel. From the 1970s onward, Kuwait scored highest of all Arab countries on theHuman Development Index.[139] The Iraqi poetAhmed Matar left Iraq in the 1970s to take refuge in the more liberal environment of Kuwait. Kuwait is the 25th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024Global Peace Index.[151]
TheKuwait-Iraq 1973 Samita border skirmish evolved on 20 March 1973, when Iraqi army units occupied El-Samitah near the Kuwaiti border, which evoked an international crisis.[152]
On 6 February 1974,Palestinian militants occupied the Japanese embassy in Kuwait, taking the ambassador and ten others hostage. The militants' motive was to support theJapanese Red Army members and Palestinian militants who were holding hostages on a Singaporean ferry in what is known as theLaju incident. Ultimately, the hostages were released, and the guerrillas allowed to fly toAden. This was the first time Palestinian guerrillas struck in Kuwait as the Al Sabah ruling family, headed by Sheikh Sabah Al-Salim Al-Sabah, funded the Palestinian resistance movement. Kuwait had been a regular endpoint for Palestinianplane hijacking in the past and had considered itself safe.
The Al Sabah strongly advocatedIslamism throughout the 1980s.[153] At that time, the most serious threat to the continuity of Al Sabah came from home-grown democrats,[153] who were protesting the1976 suspension of the parliament.[153] The Al Sabah were attracted to Islamists preaching the virtues of ahierarchical order that included loyalty to the Kuwaiti monarchy.[153] In 1981, the Kuwaiti governmentgerrymandered electoral districts in favour of the Islamists.[154][153] Islamists were the government's main allies, hence Islamists were able to dominate state agencies, such as thegovernment ministries.[153]
During theIran–Iraq War, Kuwait ardently supported Iraq. As a result, there werevarious pro-Iran terror attacks across Kuwait, including the 1983 bombings, the attempted assassination ofEmir Jaber in May 1985, the1985 Kuwait City bombings, and the hijacking of several Kuwait Airways planes. Kuwait's economy and scientific research sector significantly suffered due to the pro-Iran terror attacks.[155]
After the Iran–Iraq War ended, Kuwait declined an Iraqi request to forgive its US$65 billion debt.[160] An economic rivalry between the two countries ensued after Kuwait increased its oil production by 40 percent.[161] Tensions between the two countries increased further in July 1990, after Iraq complained toOPEC claiming that Kuwait was stealing its oil from a field near the border byslant drilling of theRumaila field.[161]
In August 1990, Iraqi forcesinvaded and annexed Kuwait without any warning. After a series of failed diplomatic negotiations, the United States led a coalition to remove the Iraqi forces from Kuwait, in what became known as theGulf War. On 26 February 1991, in phase of code-namedOperation Desert Storm, the coalition succeeded in driving out the Iraqi forces. As they retreated, Iraqi forces carried out ascorched earth policy by setting oil wells on fire.[162]
During the Iraqi occupation, nearly 1,000 civilians were killed in Kuwait. In addition, 600 people went missing during Iraq's occupation;[163] remains of approximately 375 were found in mass graves in Iraq. Kuwait celebrates 26 February asLiberation Day.
In the early 1990s, Kuwaitdeported nearly 400,000 Palestinians.[164] Kuwait's policy was a form ofcollective punishment, in response to the alignment of thePLO with Saddam Hussein. Kuwait also deported thousands of Iraqis and Yemenis after the Gulf War.[165][166] Hundreds of thousands ofstateless Bedoon were also expelled from Kuwait in the early-to-mid 1990s.[167][168][165][169][166] At theHouse of Commons of the United Kingdom in 1995, it was revealed that the Al Sabah ruling family deported 150,000 stateless Bedoon to refugee camps in the Kuwaiti desert near the Iraqi border with minimal water, insufficient food, and no basic shelter.[170][168] Many of the stateless Bedoon fled to Iraq where they remain stateless people even today.[171][172]
In March 2003, Kuwait became the springboard for the US-ledinvasion of Iraq. In 2005, women won the right to vote and run in elections. Upon the death of the Emir Jaber in January 2006, SheikhSaad Al-Sabah succeeded him but was removed nine days later due to his failing health. As a result, SheikhSabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah was sworn in as Emir. From that point onwards, Kuwait suffered from chronic political deadlock between the government and parliament which resulted in multiple cabinet reshuffles and dissolutions.[173] This significantly hampered investment and economic reforms in Kuwait, making the country's economy much more dependent on oil.[173]
Despite the political instability, Kuwait had the highestHuman Development Index ranking in the Arab world from 2006 to 2009.[174][175][176][177][178][179] China awarded Kuwait Investment Authority an additional $700 million quota on top of $300 million awarded in March 2012.[180] The quota is the highest to be granted by China to foreign investment entities.[180]
On 26 June 2015, asuicide bombing took place at a Shia Muslim mosque in Kuwait. TheIslamic State of Iraq and the Levant claimed responsibility for the attack. Twenty-seven people were killed and 227 people were wounded. It was the largest terror attack in Kuwait's history. In the aftermath, a lawsuit was filed accusing the Kuwaiti government of negligence and direct responsibility for the terror attack.[191][192]
TheCOVID-19 pandemic exacerbated Kuwait's economic crisis.[213][214][215][216] Kuwait's economy faced a budget deficit of $46 billion in 2020.[217][218][173] It was Kuwait's first fiscal deficit since 1995.[219][220] In September 2020, Kuwait's Crown Prince SheikhNawaf Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah became the 16th Emir of Kuwait and the successor to Emir Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, who died at the age of 91.[221] In October 2020, SheikhMishal Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah was appointed as the Crown Prince.[222][223][224][225] In December 2023, Kuwait's Emir Sheikh Nawaf al-Ahmad al-Jaber al-Sabah died and was replaced by Mishal Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah.[226]
Kuwait currently has the largest US military presence in the entire Middle East region.[227] There are over 14,000 US military personnel stationed in the country.[227]Camp Arifjan is the largest US military base in Kuwait. The US uses bases in Kuwait as staging hubs, training ranges, and logistical support for its Middle East operations.[227]
In recent years, Kuwait's infrastructure projects market has regularly underperformed due to political deadlock between the executive and legislative branches.[228][173] Kuwait is now the region's most oil-dependent country with the lowest share of economic diversification.[173][214] According to the World Economic Forum, Kuwait has the weakest infrastructure quality in the region.[229]
Since March 2024, Kuwait has beenrevoking the citizenship of many citizens (by decree).[230][231] By March 2025, Kuwait revoked the citizenship of 42,000 people in just six months.[232][233][234] The most high-profile revocation was that of singerNawal and actor Dawood Hussain in early December 2024.[235] According toCarnegie Endowment, Kuwait has weaponized citizenship revocation as a tool for political control.[236]
Skyline ofKuwait City, capital and largest city of Kuwait
A satellite image of Kuwait reveals its desert topography.Kuwait shares land borders with Iraq and Saudi Arabia, and maritime borders with Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Iran.
Located at the head of thePersian Gulf in the north-east corner of theArabian Peninsula, Kuwait is one of the smallest countries in the world in terms of land area. Kuwait lies between latitudes28° and31° N, and longitudes46° and49° E. Kuwait is generally low-lying, with the highest point being 306 m (1,004 ft)above sea level.[16]Mutla Ridge is the highest point in Kuwait.
Kuwait hasten islands.[237] With an area of 860 km2 (330 sq mi), theBubiyan is the largest island in Kuwait and is connected to the rest of the country by a 2,380-metre-long (7,808 ft) bridge.[238] 0.6% of Kuwaiti land area is considered arable[16] with sparse vegetation found along its 499-kilometre-long (310 mi) coastline.[16]Kuwait City is located onKuwait Bay, a natural deep-water harbor.
Kuwait'sBurgan field has a total capacity of approximately 70 billion barrels (11 billion cubic metres) of proven oil reserves. During the 1991Kuwaiti oil fires, more than 500 oil lakes were created covering a combined surface area of about 35.7 km2 (13+3⁄4 sq mi).[239] The resultingsoil contamination due to oil and soot accumulation had made eastern and south-eastern parts of Kuwait uninhabitable. Sand and oil residue had reduced large parts of the Kuwaiti desert to semi-asphalt surfaces.[240] The oil spills during theGulf War also drastically affected Kuwait's marine resources.[241]
Due to Kuwait's proximity to Iraq and Iran, the winter season in Kuwait is colder than other coastal countries in the region (especially UAE, Qatar, and Bahrain).[242] Kuwait is also less humid than other coastal countries in the region. The spring season in March is warm with occasional thunderstorms. The frequent winds from the northwest are cold in winter and hot in summer. Southeasterly damp winds spring up between July and October. Hot and dry south winds prevail in spring and early summer. The shamal, a northwesterly wind common during June and July, causes dramatic sandstorms.[243] Summers in Kuwait are some of the hottest on earth. The highest recorded temperature was 54.0 °C (129.2 °F) atMitribah on 21 July 2016, which is the highest temperature recorded in Asia.[244][245]
At present, there are fiveprotected areas in Kuwait recognized by theIUCN. In response to Kuwait becoming the169th signatory of theRamsar Convention,Bubiyan Island's Mubarak al-Kabeer reserve was designated as the country's first Wetland of International Importance.[250] The 50,948 ha (125,900 acres) reserve consists of small lagoons and shallowsalt marshes and is important as a stop-over for migrating birds on two migration routes.[250] The reserve is home to the world's largest breeding colony ofcrab-plover.[250]
Currently,444 species of birds have been recorded in Kuwait, 18 species of which breed in the country.[251] The arfaj is the national flower of Kuwait.[252] Due to its location at the head of the Persian Gulf near the mouth of theTigris–Euphrates river, Kuwait is situated at the crossroads of many major bird migration routes and between two and three million birds pass each year.[253] Kuwait's marine and littoral ecosystems contain the bulk of the country's biodiversity heritage.[253] The marshes in northern Kuwait and Jahra have become increasingly important as a refuge for passage migrants.[253]
Twenty eight species of mammal are found in Kuwait; animals such as gerboa, desert rabbits andhedgehogs are common in the desert.[253] Large carnivores, such as thewolf,caracal andjackal, are no longer present.[253] Among the endangered mammalian species are thered fox andwild cat.[253] Forty reptile species have been recorded although none are endemic to Kuwait.[253]
Kuwait, Oman and Yemen are the only locations where the endangeredsmoothtooth blacktip shark is confirmed as occurring.[254]
Kuwait is the most water stressed country in the world.
Kuwait is part of theTigris–Euphrates river system basin.[256][257][258][259][260][261] Several Tigris–Euphratesconfluences form parts of the Kuwait–Iraq border.[262]Bubiyan Island is part of theShatt al-Arab delta.[85] Kuwait is partially part of theMesopotamian Marshes.[263][264][265] Kuwait does not currently have any permanent rivers within its territory. However, Kuwait does have severalwadis, the most notable of which isWadi al-Batin which forms the border between Kuwait and Iraq.[266] Kuwait also has several river-like marine channels around Bubiyan Island, most notablyKhawr Abd Allah which is now anestuary, but once was the point where theShatt al-Arab emptied into the Persian Gulf. Khawr Abd Allah is located in southern Iraq and northern Kuwait, theIraq-Kuwait border divides the lower portion of the estuary, but adjacent to the port ofUmm Qasr the estuary becomes wholly Iraqi. It forms the northeast coastline of Bubiyan Island and the north coastline ofWarbah Island.[267]
Kuwait relies on waterdesalination as a primary source of fresh water for drinking and domestic purposes.[268][269] There are currently more than six desalination plants.[269] Kuwait was the first country in the world to use desalination to supply water for large-scale domestic use. The history of desalination in Kuwait dates back to 1951 when the first distillation plant was commissioned.[268]
In 1965, the Kuwaiti government commissioned the Swedish engineering company of VBB (Sweco) to develop and implement a plan for a modernwater-supply system for Kuwait City. The company builtfive groups of water towers, thirty-one towers total, designed by its chief architectSune Lindström, called "the mushroom towers". For a sixth site, the Emir of Kuwait, SheikhJaber Al-Ahmed, wanted a more spectacular design. This last group, known asKuwait Towers, consists of three towers, two of which also serve as water towers.[270] Water from the desalination facility is pumped up to the tower. The thirty-three towers have a standard capacity of 102,000 cubic meters of water. "The Water Towers" (Kuwait Tower and the Kuwait Water Towers) were awarded theAga Khan Award for Architecture (1980 Cycle).[271]
Kuwait's fresh water resources are limited to groundwater, desalinated seawater, and treated wastewater effluents.[268] There are three major municipal wastewater treatment plants.[268] Most water demand is currently satisfied through seawater desalination plants.[268][269] Sewage disposal is handled by a national sewage network that covers 98% of facilities in the country.[272]
According toInternational IDEA’s Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker, Kuwait performs in the low to mid-range on overall democratic measures, with particular weaknesses in political representation, including credible elections, effective parliament and inclusive suffrage.[279][280][281]
TheSeif Palace, the original seat of the Government of Kuwait
The Emir appoints the judges. TheConstitution of Kuwait was promulgated in 1962.[282] The Constitutional Court is charged with ruling on the conformity of laws and decrees with the constitution.
Kuwait's political instability has significantly hampered the country's economic development and infrastructure.[284][173][214] Kuwait is regularly characterized as being a "rentier state" in which the ruling family uses oil revenues to buy the political acquiescence of the citizenry; more than 70% of government spending consists of public sector salaries and subsidies.[285] Kuwait has the highest public sector wage bill in the GCC region as public sector wages account for 12.4% of GDP.[217]
Kuwaiti women are considered among the most emancipated women in the Middle East. In 2014 and 2015, Kuwait was ranked first among Arab countries in theGlobal Gender Gap Report.[286][287][288] In 2013, 53% of Kuwaiti women participated in the labor force,[289] where they outnumber working Kuwaiti men,[290] giving Kuwait the highest female citizen participation in the workforce of any GCC country.[290][289][291] According to theSocial Progress Index, Kuwait ranks first insocial progress in the Arab world and Muslim world and second highest in the Middle East after Israel.[292] However, women's political participation in Kuwait has been limited.[293] Despite multiple prior attempts at grantingKuwaiti women suffrage, they were not permanently enfranchised until 2005.[294]
The Al Sabah ruling family adhere to theMaliki school of Sunni Islam. Article 4 of theKuwait constitution stipulates that Kuwait is a hereditary emirate whose emir must be an heir ofMubarak Al-Sabah.[283] Mubarak had four sons, but an informal pattern of alternation between the descendants of his sonsJabir andSalem emerged since his death in 1915.[300] This pattern of succession had one exception before 2006, when SheikhSabah Al-Salim, a son of Salem, was named crown prince to succeed his half-brother SheikhAbdullah Al-Salem as a consequence of infighting and lack of consensus within the ruling family council.[300] The alternating system was resumed when Sheikh Sabah Al-Salim named SheikhJaber Al-Ahmed of the Jabir branch as his crown prince, eventually ruling as Emir for 29 years from 1977 to 2006.[300] On 15 January 2006, Emir Sheikh Jaber Al-Ahmed died and his crown prince, SheikhSaad Al-Abdullah of the Salem branch was named Emir.[301] On 23 January 2006, the National Assembly unanimously voted in favor of Sheikh Saad Al-Abdullah abdicating in favor of SheikhSabah Al-Ahmed, citing his illness with a form of dementia.[300] Instead of naming a successor from the Salem branch as per convention, Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmed named his half-brother SheikhNawaf Al-Ahmed as crown prince and his nephew SheikhNasser Al-Mohammed as prime minister.[300] On 16 December 2023, SheikhNawaf Al-Ahmed died, And SheikhMishal Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber would be the successor.
Theoretically, Article 4 of the constitution stipulates that the incoming Emir's choice of crown prince needs to be approved by an absolute majority of theNational Assembly.[283] If this approval is not achieved, the emir is constitutionally required to submit three alternative candidates for crown prince to the National Assembly.[283] This process previously caused contenders for power to engage in alliance-building in the political scene, which had taken historically private feuding within the ruling family to the "public arena and the political realm".[300]
The foreign affairs of Kuwait are handled at the level of theMinistry of Foreign Affairs. The first foreign affairs department bureau was established in 1961. Kuwait became the 111th member state of theUnited Nations in May 1963. It is a long-standing member of theArab League andGulf Cooperation Council.
Before theGulf War, Kuwait was the only "pro-Soviet" state in the Persian Gulf region.[302] Kuwait acted as a conduit for the Soviets to the other Arab states of the Persian Gulf, and Kuwait was used to demonstrate the benefits of a pro-Soviet stance.[302] In July 1987, Kuwait refused to allow U.S. military bases in its territory.[303] As a result of theGulf War, Kuwait's relations with the U.S. have improved (major non-NATO ally). Kuwait is also a major ally ofASEAN and enjoys a close economic relationship with China while working to establish a model of cooperation in numerous fields.[304][305]
Kuwait is amajor non-NATO ally to the United States and currently has the largest US military presence in the entire Middle East region.[227] The United States government utilizes Kuwait-based military bases as staging hubs, training ranges, and logistical support for regional and international military operations.[227] The bases include Camp Arifjan, Camp Buehring, Ali Al Salem Air Field, and the naval base Camp Patriot.[227]Kuwait also has strong economic ties to China andASEAN.[306][307]
The Kuwaiti armed forces consist of theLand Forces, theAir Force (including the Air Defense Force), theNavy (including the Coast Guard), theNational Guard, and the Emiri Guard, with a total of 17,500 active personnel and 23,700 reservists. The Emiri Guard is tasked with the protection of the Emir of Kuwait. The National Guard remains independent of the regular armed forces command structure, subordinated directly to the Emir and the prime minister, and is involved in both internal security and external defense. The Coast Guard is part of theMinistry of Interior while all of the other branches are part of theMinistry of Defense, and the National Guard provides assistance to both agencies. Since 1991 the United States has been the country's main security partner, carrying out training exercises with its military, and Kuwait is also a participant in the Gulf Cooperation Council'sPeninsula Shield Force. The Kuwaiti military uses American, Russian, and western European equipment.[310][311]
In 2017 Kuwait reintroduced mandatory military service for its male citizens, consisting of four months of training and eight months of service. Conscription was previously in effect from 1961 to 2001, though it was not fully enforced at that time.[312][313] Kuwait was the only Gulf country to have had military conscription until 2014, when Qatar also implemented the policy.[314]
When Saudi Arabia began itsintervention in the Yemeni civil war in early 2015, Kuwait joined the Saudi-led coalition. Kuwaiti forces provided an artillery battalion and 15 fighter jets, though their contribution to the operations in Yemen was limited.[315][316]
Human rights in Kuwait has been the subject of significant criticism, particularly regarding theBedoon (stateless people).[169][167][331][165] The Kuwaiti government's handling of the stateless Bedoon crisis has come under criticism from many human rights organisations and even theUnited Nations.[332] According toHuman Rights Watch in 1995, Kuwait has produced 300,000 stateless Bedoon.[333] Kuwait has the largest number of stateless people in the entire region.[167][334] Since 1986, the Kuwaiti government has refused to grant any form of documentation to the Bedoon including birth certificates, death certificates, identity cards, marriage certificates, and driving licences.[334][335] According to several human rights organizations, Kuwait is committingethnic cleansing andgenocide against the stateless Bedoon.[169][167][334] Additionally,LGBT people in Kuwait have few legal protections.[336]
On the other hand, human rights organizations have criticized Kuwait for the human rights abuses toward foreign nationals. Foreign nationals account for 70% of Kuwait's total population. Thekafala system leaves foreign nationals prone to exploitation. Administrative deportation is very common in Kuwait for minor offenses, including minor traffic violations. Kuwait is one of the world's worst offenders inhuman trafficking. Hundreds of thousands of foreign nationals are subjected to numerous human rights abuses including involuntary servitude. They are subjected to physical and sexual abuse, non-payment of wages, poor work conditions, threats, confinement to the home, and withholding of passports to restrict their freedom of movement.[337][338]
Kuwait's mistreatment of foreign workers has resulted in various high-profile diplomatic crises. In 2018, there was adiplomatic crisis between Kuwait and the Philippines due to the mistreatment of Filipino workers in Kuwait. Approximately 60% of Filipinos in Kuwait are employed as domestic workers. In July 2018, Kuwaiti fashionistaSondos Alqattan released a controversial video criticizing domestic workers from the Philippines.[339] In 2020, there was a diplomatic crisis between Kuwait and Egypt due to the mistreatment of Egyptian workers in Kuwait.[340]
Various Kuwaitis have been jailed after they criticized the Al Sabah ruling family.[341] In 2010, theU.S. State Department said it had concerns about the case of Kuwaiti blogger and journalist Mohammad Abdul-Kader al-Jassem who was on trial for allegedly criticizing the ruling al-Sabah family, and faced up to 18 years in prison if convicted.[342] He was detained after a complaint against him was issued by the office of Kuwait's Emir Sheikh Sabah al-Ahmad al-Sabah.[342]
Extensive corruption among Kuwait's high-level government officials is a serious problem resulting in tensions between the government and the public.[343] In theCorruption Perceptions Index 2007, Kuwait was ranked 60th out of 179 countries for corruption (least corrupt countries are at the top of the list). On a scale of 0 to 10 with 0 the most corrupt and 10 the most transparent,Transparency International rated Kuwait 4.3.[344]
In 2009, 20% of the youth in juvenile centres had dyslexia, as compared to the 6% of the general population.[345] Data from a 1993 study found that there is a higher rate of psychiatric morbidity in Kuwaiti prisons than in the general population.[346]
Al Hamra Tower is the tallest sculpted tower in the world.
Kuwait has a wealthypetroleum-based economy.[347] Its official currency is theKuwaiti dinar. By various per-capita measures of economic output, Kuwait is one of the wealthiest countries in the world.[348][349][350][351]
In 2021, Kuwait was the GCC region's most oil-dependent country with the weakest infrastructure quality and lowest share of economic diversification.[173][214][229]
In 2019, Iraq was Kuwait's leading export market and food/agricultural products accounted for 94.2% of total export commodities.[352] Globally, Kuwait's main export products were mineral fuels including oil (89.1% of total exports), aircraft and spacecraft (4.3%), organic chemicals (3.2%), plastics (1.2%), iron and steel (0.2%), gems and precious metals (0.1%), machinery including computers (0.1%), aluminum (0.1%), copper (0.1%), and salt, sulphur, stone and cement (0.1%).[353] Kuwait was the world's biggest exporter of sulfonated, nitrated and nitrosated hydrocarbons in 2019.[354] Kuwait was ranked 63rd out of 157 countries in the 2019Economic Complexity Index (ECI).[354]
In recent decades, Kuwait has enacted certain measures to regulate foreign labor due to security concerns. For instance, workers fromGeorgia are subject to heightened scrutiny when applying for entry visas, and an outright ban was imposed on the entry of domestic workers fromGuinea-Bissau andVietnam.[355] Workers fromBangladesh are also banned.[356] In April 2019, Kuwait added Ethiopia, Burkina Faso, Bhutan, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau to the list of banned countries bringing the total to 20. According to Migrant Rights, the bans are put in place mainly due to the fact that these countries lack embassies and labour corporations in Kuwait.[357]
Despite its relatively small territory, Kuwait has proven crudeoil reserves of 104 billion barrels, estimated to be 10% of the world's reserves. Kuwait also has substantialnatural gas reserves. All natural resources in the country are state property.
As part of Kuwait Vision 2035, Kuwait aims to position itself as a global hub for the petrochemical industry.[358]Al Zour Refinery is the largest refinery in the Middle East.[359][360][361] It is Kuwait's largest environmentally friendly oil refinery,[362][358] where this refers to the effect on the local environment as opposed to the global environmental impact of burning the resulting oil. This Al Zour Refinery is a Kuwait-China cooperation project under theBelt and Road Initiative.[363] Al Zour LNG Terminal is the Middle East's largest import terminal forliquefied natural gas.[364][365][366] It is the world's largest capacity LNG storage and regasification green field project.[367][368] The project has attracted investments worth US$3 billion.[369][370] Other megaprojects include biofuel and clean fuels.[371][372] On January 20, 2025, theKuwait Oil Company announced a major hydrocarbon discovery at the Al Jlaiaa offshore field, which it sees as a significant milestone in the nation's energy sector. The development aligns with Kuwait's strategic plans to enhance its offshore exploration and production capabilities.[373][374]
Kuwait has a state-funded healthcare system, which provides treatment without charge to Kuwaiti nationals. There are outpatient clinics in every residential area in Kuwait. A public insurance scheme exists to provide reduced cost healthcare to expatriates. Private healthcare providers also run medical facilities in the country, available to members of their insurance schemes. As part of Kuwait Vision 2035, many new hospitals recently opened.[375][376][377] In the years leading up to theCOVID-19 pandemic, Kuwait invested in its health care system at a rate that was proportionally higher than most other GCC countries.[378] Under the Kuwait Vision 2035 healthcare strategy, the public hospital sector significantly increased its capacity.[376][375][377] Many new hospitals recently opened, Kuwait currently has 20 public hospitals.[379][376][375][377] The new Sheikh Jaber Al-Ahmad Hospital is the largest hospital in the Middle East.[380] Kuwait also has 16 private hospitals.[375]
Private sector hospitals in Kuwait offer multiple specialities. This trend is likely to grow further, especially in tapping opportunities to reduce treatments performed overseas and develop inbound medical tourism market by developing high end speciality hospitals.[381]
Kuwait has a modern network of highways.Roadways extended 5,749 km (3,572 mi), of which 4,887 km (3,037 mi) is paved. There are more than two million passenger cars, and 500,000 commercial taxis, buses, and trucks in use. On major highways the maximum speed is 120 km/h (75 mph). Since there is no railway system in the country, most people travel by automobiles.
The country's public transportation network consists almost entirely of bus routes. The state owned Kuwait Public Transportation Company was established in 1962. It runs local bus routes across Kuwait as well as longer distance services to other Gulf states. The main private bus company is CityBus, which operates about 20 routes across the country. Another private bus company, Kuwait Gulf Link Public Transport Services, was started in 2006. It runs local bus routes across Kuwait and longer distance services to neighbouring countries.
The Kuwait Ports Public Authority manages and operates ports across Kuwait. The country's principal commercial seaports areShuwaikh and Shuaiba, which handled combined cargo of 753,334 TEU in 2006.[382] Mina Al-Ahmadi is the largest port in the country.
There are two airports in Kuwait.Kuwait International Airport serves as the principal hub for international air travel. State-ownedKuwait Airways is the largest airline in the country. A portion of the airport complex is designated as Al Mubarak Air Base, which contains the headquarters of theKuwait Air Force, as well as the Kuwait Air Force Museum. In 2004, the first private airline of Kuwait,Jazeera Airways, was launched. In 2005, the second private airline,Wataniya Airways was founded.
As of May 2025[update], Kuwait International Airport is facing serious problems, as 14 international airlines have stopped flying to the airport. This is due to issues such as management problems, a weak economy, and tough competition from nearby airports. Fewer flights have led to fewer passengers, causing worries about the airport's future and its dwindling importance in the region.[383]
The general education system consists of four levels:kindergarten (lasting for 2 years),primary (lasting for 5 years),intermediate (lasting for 4 years) andsecondary (lasting for 3 years).[384] Schooling at primary and intermediate level is compulsory for all students aged 6 – 14. All the levels of state education, including higher education, are free.[385] The public education system is undergoing a revamp due to a project in conjunction with theWorld Bank.[386][387] There are two public universities and 14 private universities.
TheKuwait Investment Authority (KIA) is Kuwait's largestsovereign wealth fund specializing in foreign investment. The KIA is the world's oldest sovereign wealth fund. Since 1953, the Kuwaiti government has directed investments into Europe, the United States and theAsia–Pacific. In 2021, the holdings were valued at around $700 billion in assets.[388][389] It is the3rd largest sovereign wealth fund in the world.[388][389]
Kuwait has a leading position in the financial industry in the GCC.[390] The Emir has promoted the idea that Kuwait should focus its energies, in terms of economic development, on the financial industry.[390] The historical preeminence of Kuwait (among the GCC monarchies) in finance dates back to the founding of theNational Bank of Kuwait in 1952.[390] The bank was the first local publicly traded corporation in the GCC region.[390] In the late 1970s and early 1980s, an alternative stock market, trading in shares of GCC companies, emerged in Kuwait, theSouk Al-Manakh.[390] At its peak, its market capitalization was the third highest in the world, behind only the United States and Japan, and ahead of the United Kingdom and France.[390]
Kuwait has a large wealth-management industry.[390] Kuwaiti investment companies administer more assets than those of any other GCC country, save the much larger Saudi Arabia.[390] The Kuwait Financial Centre, in a rough calculation, estimated that Kuwaiti firms accounted for over one-third of the total assets under management in the GCC.[390]
The relative strength of Kuwait in the financial industry extends to its stock market.[390] For many years, the total valuation ofall companies listed on theKuwait Stock Exchange far exceeded the value of those on any other GCC bourse, except Saudi Arabia.[390] In 2011, financial and banking companies made up more than half of the market capitalization of the Kuwaiti bourse; among all the GCC states, the market capitalization of Kuwaiti financial-sector firms was, in total, behind only that of Saudi Arabia.[390] In recent years, Kuwaiti investment companies have invested large percentages of their assets abroad, and their foreign assets have become substantially larger than their domestic assets.[390]
Kuwait is a major source of foreign economic assistance to other states through theKuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development, an autonomous state institution created in 1961 on the pattern of international development agencies. In 1974, the fund's lending mandate was expanded to include alldeveloping countries in the world.
In the past five years, there has been a rise inentrepreneurship and small business start-ups in Kuwait.[391][392] Theinformal sector is also on the rise,[393] mainly due to the popularity of Instagram businesses.[394][395][396] In 2020, Kuwait ranked fourth in the MENA region in startup funding after the UAE, Egypt and Saudi Arabia.[397]
The biggest non-oil industry is steel manufacturing.[398][399][400][401][402] United Steel Industrial Company (KWT Steel) is Kuwait's main steel manufacturing company, which caters to all of Kuwait's domestic market demands (particularly construction).[399][398][400][401] Kuwait is self-sufficient in steel.[399][398][400][401]
In 2016, Kuwait's food self-sufficiency ratio was 49.5% in vegetables, 38.7% in meat, 12.4% in dairy, 24.9% in fruits, and 0.4% in cereals.[403] 8.5% of Kuwait's entire territory consists of agricultural land, although arable land constitutes 0.6% of Kuwait's entire territory.[404][405] Historically, Jahra was a predominantly agricultural area. There are currently various farms in Jahra.[406]
Kuwait was the first country in the region to implement5G technology.[417] Kuwait is among the world's leading markets in 5G penetration.[417][418]
Tourism in Kuwait still remains very limited due to poor infrastructure and the alcohol ban. The annual "Hala Febrayer" festival somewhat attracts tourists from neighboring GCC countries,[419] and includes a variety of events including music concerts, parades, and carnivals.[419][420][421] The festival is a month-long commemoration of theliberation of Kuwait, and runs from 1 to 28 February.Liberation Day itself is celebrated on 26 February.[422]
The Palms Beach Hotel & Spa in Kuwait
In 2020, Kuwait's domestic travel and tourism spending was $6.1 billion.[423] TheWTTC named Kuwait as one of the world's fastest-growing countries in travel and tourismGDP in 2019, with 11.6% year-on-year growth.[423] In 2016, the tourism industry generated nearly $500 million in revenue.[424] In 2015, tourism accounted for 1.5 percent of the GDP.[425][426]Sabah Al Ahmad Sea City is one of Kuwait's biggest attractions.
Kuwait has an emerging space industry which is largely driven by private sector initiatives.[433] Seven years after the launch of the world's first communications satellite,Telstar 1, Kuwait in October 1969 inaugurated the first satellite ground station in the Middle East, "Um Alaish".[434] The Um Alaish satellite station complex housed several satellite ground stations including Um Alaish 1 (1969), Um Alaish 2 (1977), and Um Alaish 3 (1981). It provided satellite communication services in Kuwait until 1990 when it was destroyed by the Iraqi armed forces during the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait.[435] In 2019, Kuwait's Orbital Space established an amateur satellite ground station to provide free access to signals from satellites in orbit passing over Kuwait. The station was named Um Alaish 4 to continue the legacy of "Um Alaish" satellite station.[436] Um Alaish 4 is a member of FUNcube distributedground station network[437] and the Satellite Networked Open Ground Station project (SatNOGS).[438]
Kuwait's Orbital Space in collaboration with the Space Challenges Program[439] andEnduroSat[440] introduced an international initiative called "Code in Space". The initiative allows students from around the world to send and execute their own code in space.[441] The code is transmitted from a satellite ground station to acubesat (nanosatellite) orbiting earth 500 km (310 mi) above sea level. The code is then executed by the satellite's onboard computer and tested under real space environment conditions. The nanosatellite is called "QMR-KWT" (Arabic: قمر الكويت) which means "Moon of Kuwait", translated from Arabic.[442] QMR-KWT launched to space on 30 June 2021[443] onSpaceXFalcon 9 Block 5 rocket and was part of the payload of a satellite carrier called ION SCV Dauntless David by D-Orbit.[444] It was deployed into its final orbit (Sun-synchronous orbit) on 16 July 2021.[445] QMR-KWT is Kuwait's first satellite.[443][446][442]
TheKuwait Space Rocket (KSR) is a Kuwaiti project to build and launch the firstsuborbitalliquid bi-propellant rocket inArabia.[447] The project is divided into two phases with two separate vehicles: an initial testing phase with KSR-1 as atest vehicle capable of reaching an altitude of 8 km (5.0 mi) and a more expansive suborbital test phase with the KSR-2 planned to fly to an altitude of 100 km (62 mi).[448]
Kuwait's Orbital Space in collaboration with theKuwait Scientific Center (TSCK) introduced for the first time in Kuwait the opportunity for students to send a science experiment to space. The objectives of this initiative was to allow students to learn about (a) how science space missions are done; (b)microgravity (weightlessness) environment; (c) how to do science like a real scientist. This opportunity was made possible through Orbital Space agreement withDreamUp PBC andNanoracks LLC, which are collaborating withNASA under a Space Act Agreement.[449] The students' experiment was named "Kuwait's Experiment: E.coli Consuming Carbon Dioxide to Combat Climate Change".[450][451] The experiment was launched onSpaceX CRS-21 (SpX-21) spaceflight to theInternational Space Station (ISS) on 6 December 2020. AstronautShannon Walker (member of the ISSExpedition 64) conducted the experiment on behalf of the students. In July 2021, Kuwait University announced that it is launching a national satellite project as part of state-led efforts to pioneer the country's sustainable space sector.[452][453]
Expatriates in Kuwait account for around 60% of Kuwait's total population. At the end of December 2018, 57.65% of Kuwait's total population wereArabs (including Arab expats).[454]Indians andEgyptians are the largest expat communities respectively.[455][20]
Kuwait's official state religion isMaliki Sunni Islam. TheAl Sabah ruling family adhere to theMaliki school of Sunni Islam. Most Kuwaiti citizens are Muslim; there is no official national census but it is estimated that 60%–70% are Sunni and 30%–40% are Shia.[456][457] Kuwait also has a large community of expatriateChristians,Hindus,Buddhists, andSikhs.[458] As of 2020, there are an estimated 837,585 Christians, comprising 17.93% of the population — the second largest religious group.[454] Most Christians in Kuwait are fromKerala in India, namelyMalankara Orthodox,Mar Thoma, andRoman Catholic. The first Malankara Orthodox parish was St. Thomas Indian Orthodox Pazhayapally Ahmadi, established in 1934.[459] Kuwait includes anative Christian community, estimated to be composed of between 259 and 400 Kuwaiti citizens.[460] Kuwait is the onlyGCC country besides Bahrain to have a local Christian population who hold citizenship. A small number of Kuwaiti citizens follow theBaháʼí Faith.[458][461]
Kuwait's official language isModern Standard Arabic, but its everyday usage is limited to journalism and education.Kuwaiti Arabic is the variant of Arabic used in everyday life.[462] English is widely understood and often used as a business language. Besides English, French is taught as a third language for the students of thehumanities at schools, but for two years only. Kuwaiti Arabic is a variant ofGulf Arabic, sharing similarities with the dialects of neighboring coastal areas in Eastern Arabia.[463] Due to immigration during its pre-oil history as well as trade, Kuwaiti Arabic borrowed a lot of words fromPersian,Indian languages,Balochi language, Turkish, English and Italian.[464]
Kuwaitipopular culture, in the form of theatre, radio, music, and television soap opera, flourishes and is even exported to neighboring states.[27][474] Within theArab states of the Persian Gulf, the culture of Kuwait is the closest to the culture ofBahrain; this is evident in the close association between the two states in theatrical productions and soap operas.[475]
Atheatrical play titled "Fateh Masr" at Al Mubarikya school in the 1940s
Kuwait has the oldestperforming arts industry in the Arabian Peninsula.[476] Kuwait's television drama industry is the largest and most active Gulf Arab drama industry and annually produces a minimum of fifteen serials.[477][478][479] Kuwait is the main production center of the Gulf television drama and comedy scene.[478] Most Gulf television drama and comedy productions are filmed in Kuwait.[478][480][481] Kuwaiti soap operas are the most-watched soap operas from the Gulf region.[477][482][483] Soap operas are most popular during the time ofRamadan, when families gather to break their fast.[484] Although usually performed in theKuwaiti dialect, they have been shown with success as far away asTunisia.[485] Kuwait is frequently dubbed the "Hollywood of the Gulf" due to the popularity of its television soap operas and theatre.[486][487]
Kuwait is the main centre ofscenographic andperforming arts education in the GCC region.[488][489] Many famous Middle Eastern actors and singers attribute their success to training in Kuwait.[490] The Higher Institute of Theatrical Arts (HIDA) provideshigher education in theatrical arts.[489] The institute has several divisions and attracts theatrical students from all over the GCC region. Many actors have graduated from the institute, such asSouad Abdullah, Mohammed Khalifa,Mansour Al-Mansour, along with a number of prominent critics such asIsmail Fahd Ismail.
Kuwait is known for its home-grown tradition oftheatre.[491][492][493] Kuwait is the only country in the Gulf Arab region with a theatrical tradition.[491] The theatrical movement in Kuwait constitutes a major part of the country's cultural life.[494] Theatrical activities in Kuwait date back to the 1920s when the first spoken dramas were released.[495] Theatre activities are still popular today.[494]
Theatre in Kuwait issubsidized by the government, previously by the Ministry of Social Affairs and now by the National Council for Culture, Arts, and Letters (NCCAL).[496] Every urban district has a public theatre.[497] The public theatre inSalmiya is named after actorAbdulhussain Abdulredha. The annual Kuwait Theater Festival is the largest theatrical arts festival in Kuwait.
Kuwait is the birthplace of various popular musical genres, such assawt andfijiri.[498][499] Traditional Kuwaiti music is a reflection of the country's seafaring heritage,[500] which was influenced by many diverse cultures.[501][502][498] Kuwait is widely considered the centre oftraditional music in the GCC region.[498] Kuwaiti music has considerably influenced the music culture in other GCC countries.[503][499] Kuwait pioneeredcontemporary Khaliji music.[504][505][506] Kuwaitis were the first commercial recording artists in the Gulf region.[504][505][506] The first known Kuwaiti recordings were made between 1912 and 1915.[507]Saleh and Daoud Al-Kuwaity pioneered the Kuwaiti sawt music genre and wrote over 650 songs, many of which are considered traditional and still played daily on radio stations both in Kuwait and the rest of the Arab world.[499][508][509][510][511][512]
Kuwait is home to variousmusic festivals, including the International Music Festival hosted by the National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters (NCCAL).[513][514] TheSheikh Jaber Al-Ahmad Cultural Centre contains the largest opera house in the Middle East.[515] Kuwait has several academic institutions specializing in university-levelmusic education.[516][517] The Higher Institute of Musical Arts was established by the government to providebachelor's degrees in music.[518][516][517] In addition, the College of Basic Education offers bachelor's degrees in music education.[518][516][517] The Institute of Musical Studies offers music education qualifications equivalent tosecondary school.[518][517][516]
Kuwait has a reputation for being the central music influence of the GCC countries.[519] Over the last decade of satellite television stations, many Kuwaiti musicians have become household names in other Arab countries. For example,Bashar Al Shatty became famous due toStar Academy. Contemporary Kuwaiti music is popular throughout the Arab world.Nawal El Kuwaiti, Nabeel Shoail andAbdallah Al Rowaished are the most popular contemporary performers.[520]
Kuwait has the oldestmodern arts movement in the Arabian Peninsula.[521][522][523] Beginning in 1936, Kuwait was the first Gulf Arab country to grant scholarships in the arts.[521] The Kuwaiti artistMojeb al-Dousari was the earliest recognizedvisual artist in the Gulf Arab region.[524] He is regarded as the founder ofportrait art in the region.[525] The Sultan Gallery was the first professional Arab art gallery in the Gulf.[526][527]
The government organizes variousarts festivals, including theAl Qurain Cultural Festival and Formative Arts Festival.[535][536][537] The Kuwait International Biennial was inaugurated in 1967,[538] more than 20 Arab and foreign countries have participated in the biennial.[538] Prominent participants includeLayla Al-Attar. In 2004, the Al Kharafi Biennial for Contemporary Arab Art was inaugurated.
Kuwaiti cuisine is a fusion ofArabian,Iranian, andMesopotamian cuisines. Kuwaiti cuisine is part of theEastern Arabian cuisine. A prominent dish in Kuwaiti cuisine ismachboos, a rice-based dish usually prepared withbasmati rice seasoned with spices, and chicken or mutton.
Seafood is a significant part of the Kuwaiti diet, especiallyfish.[539]Mutabbaq samak is a national dish in Kuwait. Other local favourites arehamour (grouper), which is typically served grilled, fried, or withbiryani rice because of its texture and taste;safi (rabbitfish);maid (mulletfish); andsobaity (sea bream).
Kuwait's traditionalflatbread is called Iraniankhubz. It is a large flatbread baked in a special oven and it is often topped with sesame seeds. Numerous local bakeries dot the country; the bakers are mainly Iranians (hence the name of the bread, "Iraniankhubuz").
Several Kuwaiti museums are devoted toIslamic art, most notably theTareq Rajab Museums andDar al Athar al Islamiyyah cultural centres.[540][547][548][549] The Dar al Athar al Islamiyyah cultural centres include education wings, conservation labs, and research libraries.[549][550] There are severalart libraries in Kuwait.[551][549][552][550]Khalifa Al-Qattan's Mirror House is the most popular art museum in Kuwait.[553] Many museums in Kuwait are private enterprises.[554][547] In contrast to the top-down approach in other Gulf states, museum development in Kuwait reflects a greater sense of civic identity and demonstrates the strength of civil society in Kuwait, which has produced many independent cultural enterprises.[555][547][554]
Urban Kuwaiti society is moreopen than other Gulf Arab societies.[556] Kuwaiti citizens are ethnically diverse, consisting of both Arabs andPersians (Ajam).[557][558][559] Kuwait stands out in the region as the most liberal in empowering women in the public sphere.[560][561][562]Kuwaiti women outnumber men in the workforce.[290] Kuwaiti political scientist Ghanim Alnajjar sees these qualities as a manifestation of Kuwaiti society as a whole, whereby in the Gulf Arab region it is "the least strict about traditions".[563]
Kuwait produces morenewspapers and magazines per capita than its neighbors.[564][565] The state-ownedKuwait News Agency (KUNA) is the largest media house in the country. The Ministry of Information regulates the media industry in Kuwait. Kuwait's media is annually classified as partly free in theFreedom of Press survey by Freedom House.[566] Since 2005,[567] Kuwait has frequently earned the highest ranking of all Arab countries in the annualPress Freedom Index by Reporters Without Borders.[568][569][570][571][572][573][574][575][576] In 2009, 2011, 2013 and 2014, Kuwait surpassed Israel as the country with the greatest press freedom in the Middle East.[568][569][570][571][575] Kuwait is also frequently ranked as the Arab country with the greatest press freedom in Freedom House's annual Freedom of Press survey.[577][578][579][580][581][582][583]
Kuwait has 15 satellite television channels, of which four are controlled by the Ministry of Information. State-ownedKuwait Television (KTV) offered first colored broadcast in 1974 and operated five television channels. Government-funded Radio Kuwait also offers daily informative programming in several languages includingArabic,Persian,Urdu, and English on theAM andSW.
Kuwait has in recent years produced several prominent contemporary writers such asIsmail Fahd Ismail, author of over twenty novels and numerous short story collections. There is also evidence that Kuwaiti literature has long been interactive withEnglish andFrench literature.[584]
In May 2022, Kuwait hosted the Third Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Games at the 360 Marina. The event featured 16 different sports, including volleyball, basketball, swimming, athletics, karate and judo and attracted over 1,700 male and female players.[590]
^El-Katiri, Laura, Bassam Fattouh and Paul Segal. 2011Anatomy of an oil-based welfare state: rent distribution in Kuwait. Kuwait City: Kuwait Programme on Development, Governance and Globalisation in the Gulf States
^Woertz, Eckart; Ajl, Max (2018)."Wise cities" in the Mediterranean?: challenges of urban sustainability. Barcelona: Barcelona Centre for International Affairs.ISBN978-84-92511-57-0.OCLC1117436298.
^Carter, Robert (2002). "Ubaid-period boat remains from As-Sabiyah: excavations by the British Archaeological Expedition to Kuwait".Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies.32:13–30.JSTOR41223721.
^Nyrop, Richard F. (2008). Richard F. Nyrop (ed.).Area Handbook for the Persian Gulf States. Wildside Press LLC. p. 11.ISBN978-1-4344-6210-7.From about 4000 to 2000 B.C. the civilization of Dilmun dominated 250 miles of the eastern coast of Arabia from present-day Kuwait to Bahrain and extended sixty miles into the interior to the oasis of Hufuf (see fig. 2).
^abCalvet, Yves (1989). "Failaka and the Northern Part of Dilmun".Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies.19:5–11.JSTOR41223078.
^Connan, Jacques; Carter, Robert (2007). "A geochemical study of bituminous mixtures from Failaka and Umm an-Namel (Kuwait), from the Early Dilmun to the Early Islamic period".Jacques Connan, Robert Carter.18 (2):139–181.doi:10.1111/j.1600-0471.2007.00283.x.
^Eidema, Jesper; Højlund, Flemming (1993). "Trade or diplomacy? Assyria and Dilmun in the eighteenth century BC".World Archaeology.24 (3):441–448.doi:10.1080/00438243.1993.9980218.
^Bent, J. Theodore (January 1890). "The Bahrein Islands, in the Persian Gulf".Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography.12 (1).JSTOR: 13.doi:10.2307/1801121.JSTOR1801121.
^"Hellenism in the East"(PDF).Amelie Kuhrt, Susan Sherwin-White. 1987.Archived(PDF) from the original on 30 December 2013. Retrieved14 January 2021.To the south of Characene, on Failaka, the north wall of the fort was pushed forward, before occupation ceased around 100 BC.
^Hill, Bennett D.; Beck, Roger B.; Crowston, Clare Haru (2008).A History of World Societies, Combined Volume(PDF). p. 165. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 3 December 2013.Centered in the fertile Tigris- Euphrates Valley, but with access to the Persian Gulf and extending south to Meshan (modern Kuwait), the Sassanid Empire's economic prosperity rested on agriculture; its location also proved well suited for commerce.
^Falk, Avner (1996).A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. p. 330.ISBN978-0-8386-3660-2.In 224 he defeated the Parthian army of Ardavan Shah (Artabanus V), taking Isfahan, Kerman, Elam (Elymais) and Meshan (Mesene, Spasinu Charax, or Characene).
^Cohen, Abraham (1980).Ancient Jewish Proverbs. Library of Alexandria.ISBN978-1-4655-2678-6.The large and small measures roll down and reach Sheol; from Sheol they proceed to Tadmor (Palmyra), from Tadmor to Meshan (Mesene), and from Meshan to Harpanya (Hipparenum).
^abGachet, J. (1998). "Akkaz (Kuwait), a Site of the Partho-Sasanian Period. A preliminary report on three campaigns of excavation (1993–1996)".Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies.28:69–79.JSTOR41223614.
^"Tell Akkaz in Kuwait.",The Journal of the American Oriental Society,archived from the original on 21 September 2022, retrieved14 January 2021
^Kennet, Derek; Blair, Andrew; Ulrich, Brian; Al-Duwīsh, Sultan M. (2011). "The Kadhima Project: investigating an Early Islamic settlement and landscape on Kuwait Bay".Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies.41. jstor.org:161–172.JSTOR41622130.
^abCasey, Michael (2007).The history of Kuwait – Greenwood histories of modern nations. Greenwood.ISBN978-0-313-34073-4.
^"ʻAlam-i Nisvāṉ". University of Karachi. 1995. p. 18.Archived from the original on 24 February 2018.Kuwait became an important trading port for import and export of goods from India, Africa and Arabia.
^Lauterpacht, Elihu; Greenwood, C. J.; Weller, Marc (1991).The Kuwait Crisis: Basic Documents. Cambridge international documents series, Issue 1. Cambridge, UK: Research Centre for International Law, Cambridge University Press. p. 4.ISBN978-0-521-46308-9.
^Al-Khatrash, F. A. (1970) British political relation with Kuwait 1890-1921, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online:http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/9812/
^Kostiner, Joseph. "On Instruments and Their Designers: The Ikhwan of Najd and the Emergence of the Saudi State."Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 21, no. 3, 1985, pp. 298–323.JSTOR,http://www.jstor.org/stable/4283073. Accessed 2 Apr. 2025
^abSajjad, Valiya S."Kuwait Literary Scene A Little Complex".Arab Times. Archived fromthe original on 29 November 2014.A magazine, Al Arabi, was published in 1958 in Kuwait. It was the most popular magazine in the Arab world. It came out it in all the Arabic countries, and about a quarter million copies were published every month.
^Sager, Abdulaziz; Koch, Christian; Tawfiq Ibrahim, Hasanain, eds. (2008).Gulf Yearbook 2006–2007. I. B. Tauris. p. 39.The Kuwaiti press has always enjoyed a level of freedom unparalleled in any other Arab country.
^Al-Nakib, Farah (1 March 2014). "Towards an Urban Alternative for Kuwait: Protests and Public Participation".Built Environment.40 (1):101–117.doi:10.2148/benv.40.1.101.
^Muslim Education Quarterly. Vol. 8. Islamic Academy. 1990. p. 61.Archived from the original on 20 May 2022. Retrieved1 May 2021.Kuwait is a primary example of a Muslim society which embraced liberal and Western attitudes throughout the sixties and seventies.
^abJames Paul & Martin Spirit; Robinson, Peter (2008)."Kuwait: The first crisis 1961".Riots, Rebellions, Gunboats and Peacekeepers. Archived fromthe original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved17 January 2010.
^Helene von Bismarck, "The Kuwait Crisis of 1961 and its Consequences for Great Britain's Persian Gulf Policy", inBritish Scholar, vol. II, no. 1 (September 2009) pp. 75–96
^Helene von Bismarck, "The Kuwait Crisis of 1961 and its Consequences for Great Britain's Persian Gulf Policy"British Scholar, vol. II, no. 1 (September 2009) pp. 75–96
^Jones, D. A.; Nithyanandan, M.; Williams, I. (4 June 2012). "Sabah Al-Ahmad Sea City Kuwait: development of a sustainable man-made coastal ecosystem in a saline desert".Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management.15:84–92.Bibcode:2012AqEHM..15S..84J.doi:10.1080/14634988.2012.663706.S2CID83932029.
^abc"Kuwait: Selected Issues"(PDF). p. 17.Archived(PDF) from the original on 30 October 2014.Kuwait has higher female labor market participation than other GCC countries; further improvements in labor force participation can support future growth prospects. Kuwait's labor force participation rate for Kuwaiti women (53 percent) is slightly above the world average (51 percent) and much higher than theMENA average (21 percent).
^abcdefUlrichsen, Kristian; Henderson, Simon (4 October 2019)."Kuwait: A Changing System Under Stress".The Washington Institute for Near East Policy.Archived from the original on 2 September 2021. Retrieved19 September 2021.
^Cafiero, Giorgio (12 August 2020)."Kuwait's Yemen foreign policy".Middle East Institute.Archived from the original on 5 February 2024. Retrieved5 February 2024.
^Nyrop, Richard F. (1985).Persian Gulf states: Country Studies. DA pam;550-185. For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O. p. 80.Archived from the original on 18 January 2016. Retrieved2 November 2014.In addition, Kuwait has established a secular legal system, unique among the Gulf states.
^ILGA World; Lucas Ramón Mendos (2019).State-Sponsored Homophobia(PDF) (Report) (13th ed.). International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association. pp. 201,444–446. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 12 June 2023. Retrieved19 July 2023.
^Elbeheri, Gad; Everatt, John; Malki, Mohammad Al (2009). "The incidence of dyslexia among young offenders in Kuwait".Dyslexia.15 (2):86–104.doi:10.1002/dys.361.PMID18433005.S2CID41540141.
^Fido, Abdullahi; Al-Jabally, Maher (1993). "Presence of psychiatric morbidity in prison population in Kuwait".Annals of Clinical Psychiatry.5 (2):107–110.doi:10.3109/10401239309148971.PMID8348201.
^ab"RLA hailed for expertise on Kuwait development".Hospitality Net. 23 February 2021.In 2020, domestic travel and tourism spending for Kuwait reached $6.1bn, up from $1.6bn, with family tourism a rapidly-growing segment.
^Alawi, Ali (6 March 2013)."Ali's roadtrip from Bahrain to Kuwait (PHOTOS)". Archived fromthe original on 17 April 2016. Retrieved20 April 2016.The trip to Kuwait – a country that has built a deep connection with people in the Persian Gulf thanks to its significant drama productions in theater, television, and even music – started with 25 kilometers of spectacular sea view
^abAl Mukrashi, Fahad (22 August 2015)."Omanis turn their backs on local dramas".Gulf News.Archived from the original on 25 April 2016.Kuwait's drama industry tops other Gulf drama as it has very prominent actors and actresses, enough scripts and budgets, produces fifteen serials annually at least.
^"Closer cultural relations between the two countries".Oman Daily Observer. 20 February 2017. Archived fromthe original on 15 April 2017. Retrieved14 April 2017.The Kuwaiti television is considered the most active in the Gulf Arab region, as it has contributed to the development of television drama in Kuwait and the Persian Gulf region. Therefore, all the classics of the Gulf television drama are today Kuwaiti dramas by Kuwaiti actors
^"Big plans for small screens".BroadcastPro Me. Archived fromthe original on 23 April 2016. Retrieved9 April 2016.Around 90% of Khaleeji productions take place in Kuwait.
^ab"Shooting the Past".y-oman.com. 11 July 2013. Archived fromthe original on 5 May 2016. Retrieved22 April 2016.Most Omanis who get to study drama abroad tend to go to Kuwait or Egypt. In the Gulf, Kuwait has long been a pioneer in theatre, film and television since the establishment of its Higher Institute of Dramatic Arts (HIDA) in 1973. By contrast, there is no drama college or film school in Oman, although there is a drama course at Sultan Qaboos University.
^Rubin, Don, ed. (1999)."Kuwait".The World Encyclopedia of Contemporary Theatre. Vol. 4: The Arab world. London: Taylor & Francis. p. 143.ISBN978-0-415-05932-9.
^Badley, Bill. "Sounds of the Arabian Peninsula". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.),World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 351–354. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.ISBN1-85828-636-0
^"Press Freedom".Archived from the original on 27 September 2015.Since 2005, Kuwait has earned the highest ranking of all Arab countries on the annual Press Freedom Index of Reporters Without Borders.
Bianco, C. (2021). Can Europe Choreograph a Saudi-Iranian Détente? European University Institute, Robert Schuman Center for Advanced Studies, Middle East Directions. Available at:[1].
Bianco, C., & Stansfield, G. (2018). The intra-GCC crises: Mapping GCC fragmentation after 2011. International Affairs, 94(3), 613–635.
Miniaoui, Héla, ed. Economic Development in the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries: From Rentier States to Diversified Economies. Vol. 1. Springer Nature, 2020.
Guzansky, Y., & Even, S. (2020). The economic crisis in the Gulf States: A challenge to the "contract" between rulers and ruled. INSS Insight No. 1327, 1 June 2020. Available at[2].
Guzansky, Y., & Marshall, Z. A. (2020). The Abraham accords: Immediate significance and long-term implications. Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs, 1–11.
Guzansky, Y., & Segal, E. (2020). All in the family: Leadership changes in the Gulf. INSS Insight No. 1378, 30 August 2020. Available at:[3]
Guzansky, Y., & Winter, O. (2020). Apolitical Normalization: A New Approach to Jews in Arab States. INSS Insight No. 1332, 8 June 2020. Available at:[4].
Tausch, Arno (2021).The Future of the Gulf Region: Value Change and Global Cycles. Gulf Studies, Volume 2, edited by Prof. Mizanur Rahman, Qatar University (1st ed.). Cham, Switzerland: Springer.ISBN978-3-030-78298-6.
Woertz, Eckart. "Wither the self-sufficiency illusion? Food security in Arab Gulf States and the impact of COVID-19." Food Security 12.4 (2020): 757-760.
Zweiri, Mahjoob, Md Mizanur Rahman, and Arwa Kamal, eds. The 2017 Gulf Crisis: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Vol. 3. Springer Nature, 2020.
_aerial_c1959.jpeg)
.svg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
