| Kushite religion | |
|---|---|
_(14578210660).jpg) | |
| Type | Indigenous religion |
| Orientation | PolytheisticAnimism (during theKerma culture)[1] |
| Region | Nubia (present-day Sudan) |
| Headquarters | Kerma, later Meroe |
| Territory | Nubia |
| Defunct | Mid-4th century AD |
Kushite religion is the traditional belief system and pantheon of deities associated with the Ancient Kushites, who founded theKingdom of Kush in the land ofNubia (also known asTa-Seti) in present-daySudan.[2][3]
The recorded origins and foundations of early kushite practices and some deities go back to or influenced by primarily theKerma culture as well as influences from theC-Group culture,A-Group culture andPan-grave culture. By the Middle Kingdom, Nubians had greater control over their territory and some integrated into Egyptian society. The founding of the Kingdom of Kush, with its capital at Kerma, marked a significant period where Nubians maintained their distinct religious practices, as seen in the elaborate burials of the Classic Kerma Period (ca. 1750-1450 BC).
In the New Kingdom Period, Nubia fell under Egyptian control, but later unified under leaders like King Alara and King Kashta, leading to the establishment of the "Second Kingdom of Kush." This era saw the integration of Nubian and Egyptian deities. After the fall of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, Nubian religious practices persisted through various foreign dominations. During the Meroitic Period, the capital moved to Meroe, and the focus shifted to indigenous deities likeApedemak. By the mid-4th century, the region's conversion to Christianity marked the end of traditional Kushite religion.
Despite their close proximity toAncient Egypt, a civilization that practiced what many historians consider one of the most extensive religious systems in the ancient world, Kushites possessed an intricate unique pantheon in their own right.[4] Due to the lack of Nubian texts and artifacts prior to their interactions with Egyptians, much of early Nubian religion is still unclear. Fortunately, archeologists have uncovered many elements of their practices via the burials of A Group,Napata,C Group,Kerma and via writings after many Nubians adopted theEgyptian language during theNapatan Period.[4]
Excavations of early Nubian societies also uncovered hints as to how their daily lives greatly influenced their spiritual beliefs. TheA Group Culture (ca. 3700-2800 BC) revealed the domestication of animals, agricultural cultivation, elaborate pottery that was polished red and black, and fine amulets, figurines and necklaces made of ivory.[4] These goods were also found in burials at the Terminal A Group Cemetery L atQustul and suggest that Nubians inLower Nubia also had ritualistic practices that were independent ofAncient Egyptian religion. The materials that comprised the burial goods also revealed that Nubians traded regularly with Egypt and peoples inWestern Asia, who saw Nubia as "a corridor to sub-Saharan Africa" and its exotic goods of ebony, giraffe tails, elephants, stones, ostrich eggs, etc.[4] Archeologist Bruce Williams concluded that much of earlyPre-Dynastic culture that's often attributed to Egypt is also Nubian in origin. He maintained that Nubia developed its own complex, Dynastic culture that was not an imitation of Egypt and that both emerging kingdoms "belonged to the 'great East African substratum'."[3]
During theEarly Dynastic Period (ca. 3050-2685 BC) and theOld Kingdom Period (ca. 2685-2150 BC), Egypt's hunger to control Nubia and its lucrative trade routes and gold mines led to a military campaign into Nubia, increasing contact between the nations.[3][4] The C Group Culture emerged circa 2300 BC. Archaeological digs revealed stone, circular graves "with the deceased in a flexed position surrounded by grave goods" in the early phase of the culture. By the next phase, burials had undergone a rapid "Egyptianization" with rectangular graves and Egyptian grave goods. Outside of C Group, the tomb biography aboutPepy I byWeni the Elder revealed the names of six other Nubian kingdoms: Medja, Wawat, Yam, Irtjet and Setju.[4]
By theFirst Intermediate Period (ca 2150-2008 BC) and earlyMiddle Kingdom Period (ca 2009-1760 BC), Nubia had full control of its land and peace with Egypt. Nubians also lived and work in the lands of their neighbor. Some scholars believe there is even evidence that Nubians married and birthed their way into the Egyptian monarchy.[4]Pharaoh Mentuhotep II and hisqueen consort,Kemsit, are said to have been of Nubian origin, due to his appointment of Nubian archers into the Egyptian army and depictions of her with a black or pink face. But it was Mentuhotep II who renewed Egypt's interest to control all of Nubia. At the beginning of theTwelfth Dynasty, this is finally accomplished byAmenemhat I, who also may have been of Nubian ancestry.[4]
The "FirstKingdom of Kush," with its capital atKerma, was first mentioned during the Twelfth Dynasty in Egyptian writings. However, it's still unclear if Kush was a centralized, dominant power that united Nubia or if there were small, independent polities across Nubia. While Egypt's control over Nubia continued into theSecond Intermediate Period (ca. 1685-1550 BC), Kerman culture revealed the determination of Nubians to propagate their indigenous, Nubian beliefs.[4] From theEarly Kerma Period (ca. 2500-2050 BC) to the Classic Kerma Period (ca 1750-1450), they solidified their burial practices. In Kerma, the deceased were buried in large, elaborate, roundtumuli. They were laid on top of cowhides or beds and positioned on their sides "in a flexed position with their faces looking north, heads pointed east and feet west."[4] They were also dressed in loincloths or wrapped in sheep skin, surrounded by grave goods of weapons, jewelry, mirrors, vessels of water, pottery, and other personal possessions. InMedja, the deceased were buried in "shallow, round graves," or pan graves, with grave goods that consisted of bow-and-arrows, cattle skulls, pottery, and jewelry.[4]
During theNew Kingdom Period (ca 1550-1077 BC),Ahmose I andThutmose I relaunched campaigns in Nubia, which lasted for eighty-eight years. These battles are believed to have ended circa 1460 BC when Nubia once again fell completely under Egyptian control. Nubians launched a serious of rebellions to free themselves from Egypt with most of them failing.[4] By theThird Intermediate Period (ca. 1076-723 BC), Napata was regarded as one of the most significant trade centers of theOld World, and Nubia was divided into independent cultures.King Alara (ca. 785-765 BC) united Nubia fromUpper Nubia to theThird Cataract and formed the "Second Kingdom of Kush."King Kashta (ca. 765-753 BC) expanded the kingdom to include Lower Nubia andThebes. Their conquests paved the way forKing Piankhi (also called Piye) to conquer all of Egypt and found theTwenty-fifth Dynasty (ca. 722-655/53 BC), marking the beginning of theLate Period (ca. 722-332 BC).[4] During this era, aspects of Nubian religion began to undergo another "Egyptianization." Pre-existing Nubian deities that were associated with Egyptian deities took on the names of their Egyptian counterparts but kept their Nubian characteristics, creating new iconography.[4] Thetomb of Alara (ca. early to mid-8th century BC) and other burials of the first Napatan Dynasty revealed a traditional Nubian royal burial with Egyptian elements.[4][6]
Kendall noted that the occupant of Ku.9 (likely Alara):
Egyptian deities also began to undergo a "Nubianization" in Egypt.[4] Egyptians originally depictedAman as a human-headed male, but by theNew Kingdom both Egypt and Kush depicted him as a ram-headed male, a depiction very reminiscent of the indigenous Nubian ram-headed deities of water and fertility that were originally worshipped atKerma.[4] While it is well-documented that Nubians worshipped Egyptian gods, such as Aman (also called Amen and Gem Aten) andIsis, artifacts also revealed that Egyptians also worshipped Nubian deities, such asDedwen (also called Dedun),Bes,Menhit andMandulis (Melul inMeroitic).[4] There are also deities that were "shared" at the border of Lower Nubia and Upper Egypt and considered to be both Nubian and Egyptian, such asBastet,Satis andAnaka.[4] Some historians suggested that Bastet has Nubian origins.[4][7]
Circa 655/53 BC, the Kingdom of Kush would lose their hold on territories north of Lower Nubia, marking theTwenty-fifth Dynasty as the last Kushite rulers of Egypt. Beginning in theLate Period, Kush and Egypt transitioned through centuries of diverse rulers, who assimilated Kushite/Egyptian culture and left traces of their own. TheNeo-Assyrian Empire (ca. 671–663 BC) began conquest underEsarhaddon[8] and eventually defeatedPharaoh Taharqa (690-664 BC) underAshurbanipal.[9] A conquered Egypt fell under the rule ofPsamtik I. When his reign ended, Kushite influence over Egypt officially ended.[4] During Assyrian rule, thesacking of Thebes resulted in the destruction of numerous temples that were devoted to Kushite and Egyptian deities.[10][11] The remainder of Assyrian rule was marked by conquest wars against theBabylonians and Medes (ca. 626-609 BC).[12] During this period, Egyptian royals once again gained control of the kingdom as the Assyrian Empire declined.[13]
Egypt was later conquered by theAchaemenid (Persian) Empire (ca. 524-330 BC) underCambyses II, who founded theTwenty-seventh Dynasty (ca. 525-404 BC).[14][15] Under Persian rule, Cambyses II andOchus (also called Artaxerxes III) persecuted followers of traditionalEgyptian religion. Both were known to instruct their guards to plunder temples, pillage towns, steal religious text, and slaughter sacred animals.[16] During theHellenistic Greek Period, Egypt was conquered by theMacadonian Empire (ca. 332-323 BC) underAlexander the Great.[17][4] Instead of positioning himself as a conqueror, Alexander proclaimed himself the "liberator" of Egypt. This implied that Greece was there to free the Egyptian people from the clutches of the old Egyptian pharaohs and pantheon. Further diminishing the role of Egyptian deities in governmental affairs, thecult of Alexander associated him with the Greek godsZeus andApollo rather thanAmun andRa.[18] After Alexander's death, thePtolemaic Dynasty (305-30 BC) won control of Egypt underPtolemy I and his sonPtolemy II.[4][19][20] The Greek pantheon continued to dominant Ptolemaic cults, with Ptolemy I and his dynasty being associated with them.[21]
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Further south, Kush had entered itsMeroitic Period (mid-3rd Century BC -mid-4th Century AD). The capital moved from Napata toMeroe in Upper Nubia. Away from the cults of traditional Egyptian religion, Meroitic Kushites created a new pantheon that centered Nubian deities and indigenous practices with little Egyptian influence.Apedemak, the lion protector god, and his consort,Amesemi, became the most prominent deities.Aman was depicted holding objects that were associated with Apedemak, such as sovereign arrows, emphasizing that Apedemak had more influence in Meroe. Nevertheless, Aman still maintained a presence as a representation of Nubian ram-headed gods, whileIsis was absorbed and became a representation of traditional Nubian goddesses.[4]
Kushite rulers also redirected their attention to protecting their borders from invaders. In 319 BC, Ptolemy I dispatched an army to attack Kush.[4] In the 270s BC, Ptolemy II invaded Nubia and defeated the Kingdom of Kush, gaining access to Kushite territory and the control of lucrative gold deposits in a region known asDodekasoinos.[22] Trade managed to continue between Kushites and Egyptians as Kush continued to secure war elephants, which were important to the Ptolemies.[4]
TheRoman Empire (30 BC-641 AD) eventually conquered Egypt afterCaesar Augustus defeatedMark Antony andCleopatra VII.[23][4] During Roman rule, there was an even greater religious and political shift away from traditional Egyptian practices in Egypt. Roman emperors maintained their original titles, ending the use of thepharaoh title and the ruler's historical connection to Egyptian and Kushite deities. Imperial cults were also created in Egypt to honor of Augustus, but he was identified with Zeus and other Olympian gods.[24][18] In 25 BC,Amanirenas, a KushiteKandake, commanded an army of about 30,000 Nubian warriors and was successful in preventing the expansion of the Roman Empire into Nubia. She was the first of a long line of Kandake who ruled and protected Kush.[25] Despite the influences from the invaders of Egypt, Kushites continued to maintain cults for indigenous Nubian deities.[4]
By themid-4th century, theKingdom of Kush had fallen. Nubians, without a functioning kingdom and possibly desperate to maintain what little control they had left over the ivory trade, attacked theKingdom of Aksum. UnderKing Ezana, Aksum responded with a large military force and plundered Meroë circa 350 AD.[26][27] In the5th century, Nubia split into three new kingdoms:Nobatia (ca. 350-590 AD) with its capital atFaras,Makuria (ca. 5th century-1518) with its capital atDongola, andAlodia (ca. 6th century–c. 1500) with its capital atSoba.[27] Circa580 AD, these kingdoms converted toChristianity[4] with the Temple ofTaharqa being renovated to include a church.[4] Faras also became a religious center for Christian Nubian bishops.[27] With the advent of Christianity, most temples dedicated to indigenous Kushite deities were replaced with churches and monasteries dedicated toYahweh.[4]Burial practices also changed fromKerman-stylestone circles,Medjayu-stylepan-graves andMeroitic-styletumuli withfunerary goods toChristian-stylerectangular graves with no funerary goods and across or smalltombstone on top.[4][28]
| Amun | (also calledAsha Renu,Amen,Aman andGem Aten) He was a ram-headed god with wavy horns and curled horns who was depicted wearing a largesun-disc. His name translates to "the Sun Disc is Found."[4][29] |
|---|---|
| Amanete | Named in an official's inscription fromKaranog, more information has not been discovered about the deity.[4] |
| Amesemi | Thelunar,sky goddess of Meroë and consort of Apedemak, she was often depicted with a short, curly afro and a headdress topped with two falcons and a crescent moon.[4][30] At the Temple of Aman inNaqa, her image was carved into a stele alongsideAmanishakheto of Meroe and Apedemak.[31] |
| Anhur | (also calledOnuris) A hunting and war god who was the consort ofMehit orAtari when she was associated withTefnut in the "Distant Goddess" motif during theAmarna Period.[4][32] He is believed to be the god who hunted the Eye of Re in Nubia and her back to Re.[33] |
| Anuket | (also calledAnaka) A ram-headed goddess of divine protection that was associated with the water. She was also a part of a triad with Satis and Khnum. Collectively, they were seen as the source of Nile's yearly inundation. Her cult was at Kawa, where she appears as the consort of Aman and the associate of Satis.[4] She forms with triad ofElephantine with Satis and Khenmu.[4][33] |
| Apedemak | Awar andprotection lion god who was depicted with a lion head, often carrying large bows-and-arrows as he offered prisoners and dhurra (millet) to the ruling qore (king). The crops are evidence that he also has lunar aspects.[4][34] He is also depicted walking elephants and lions on leashes.[4] |
| Aqedise | A lunar god who was considered the Nubian equivalent ofKhonsu.[4] |
| Arensnuphis | (possibly calledTabo) A war and hunter lion-head god of the desert who was often paired with Sabomakal. Their images were often positioned over the entrances of temples, emphasizing their roles as guardians. In human form, he also "wore ashort kilt, a tall feather crown and divine beard." Originally of Nubia, he had a temple at Philae and was associated with Dedwen,Isis and Anhur.[4][33] |
| Ariten | Named in an official's inscription from Karanog, more information has not been discovered about the deity.[4] |
| Atari | (also calledHathor in Egypt) The "Mistress of God" goddess of the sky, sun, and femininity[35] she is often depicted as acow, symbolizing her maternal and celestial aspect, although her most common form was a woman wearing a headdress of cow horns and a sun disk.[36][37] She could also be represented as alioness, acobra, or asycamore tree.[38] |
| Bastet | A cat goddess, she was originally depicted as a lion goddess of fertility and protection.[39] Her eminence in Nubia far exceeded that in Egypt, suggesting that she possibly had a Nubian origin or an indigenous Nubian equivalent. The Temple of Bastet atTare (also called Per-Bast) was often visited by newly-crowned rulers and amulets with her depiction were also found in the burials of Nubian royals, revealing her importance to the protection the of the monarchy.[4][39] |
| Bes | A god associated with protection of Nubian women during childbirth, his image was found in amammisi, or divine birth temple. His eminence in Kush far exceeded that in Egypt, suggesting that he possibly had a Nubian origin or an indigenous Nubian equivalent.[4] His Egyptian titles "Lord ofPunt" and "Ruler of Nubia" also emphasize a beginning in Nubia. He was also depicted withAtari who is also associated with childbirth.[4] |
| Breith | The "divine brother" ofMandulis, he is depicted with a falcon body and a human head. More information has not been discovered about him.[4] |
| Dedun | (also calledDedwen) Depicted as a lionprotector god, he was first mentioned in Egyptian Pyramid Texts as a Nubian god of incense, who burned incense at the birth of royals.[40][41] Due to his use of incense, he was also associated withfortune, prosperity and wealth. The Temple of Osiris-Dedwen (B 700) atJebel Barkal, constructed at the request ofAtlanersa, revealed that Aman-Re transformed into Osiris-Dedwen. He subsequently became associated with the protection of deceased Nubian royals.[42] |
| Khnum | (also calledKhenmu) The ram-headed god ofvirility andfertility was originally the Nubian god who fashioned human beings from the clay and then placed them in the womb of their mothers to be born into the earth. He forms with triad of Elephantine withAnaka andSatis.[33] |
| Makedeke | Named in an official's inscription from Karanog, more information has not been discovered about the deity.[4] |
| Mandulis | (also calledMerul and Melul) A sun god who was depicted as god with a falcon body with a human head and the "divine brother" of Breith. He re-emerged during the Roman Period, where he appeared in the gateway at the Temple of Dendur with Emperor Augustus presenting he and Arensnuphis with offerings.[4][43] TheTemple of Kalabsha was also dedicated to him.[4] |
| Mash | Named in an official's inscription from Karanog, more information has not been discovered about the deity.[4] |
| Mehit | The lunar lion goddess during the Early Dynastic Period (31250-2613 BC) in Nubia and consort of Anhur, she is often depicted as a reclining lioness with three sticks jutting out from behind her. She is also identified as the "Distant Goddess."[33] |
| Menhit | The solar and protective goddess of Nubian origin is often depicted as a reclining lioness. In one version of the "Distant Goddess" motif, the Eye of Re is said to either become or give birth to Menhit.[33] |
| Miket | (also calledMekhit) The Meroitic lion goddess of war of Nubian origin was often associated with the moon and is often depicted as a roaring lionness.[4][33] Some sources identify her as the subject of the "Distant Goddess" motif, instead of Mehit. In one legend, the Eye of Ra flees from Egypt. Her counterpart,Ra, sends another god to track her down in Nubia, where she transforms into a lioness. When she is returned to Ra, she either becomes or gives birth to Menhit. Afterwards, she's said to have become the consort of Anhur.[33] |
| Sebiumeker | (also calledSabomakal) The Meroitic lion protector god possibly had origins as a supreme god in pre-dynastic Nubia, where he was associated with procreation and fertility.[33] He later became a war and hunter lion-head god of the desert who was often paired with Arensnuphis. Their images were often positioned over the entrances of temples, emphasizing their roles as guardians. In human form, he was also depicted "wearing a shortkilt, the double crown of Egypt, and the divine beard."[4][33][44] |
| Satis | A ram-headed goddess of divine protection that was associated with the water.[4] She was also depicted as a woman wearing the White Crown of Upper Egypt with antelope horns.[33] She was also reverenced as a war, hunting and fertility goddess.[45] Her first temple was built during theNaqada III period at Elephantine, where she was linked to theinundation of the Nile. She was also a part of the Elephantine triad with Anaka and Khenmu.[4][33] During the Middle Kingdom, Mentuhotep II also constructed a temple in her honor.[4] She is associated with the Eye of Ra and "Distant Goddess" motif.[33] |
| Wusa | (also calledIsis)[46] The "Mistress of Kush" and "Mistress of Heaven, Earth, and the Underworld," she was an all-embracing mother and protector goddess. She was absorbed into the image of indigenous, Nubian mother goddesses and became a representation of the Queen Mothers and Kandakes of Kush.[47] Her Nubian cult was centered at Philae, but she also had temples located throughout the kingdom. She was also referred to asWeret-Kekau, which translates to "The Great Magic" and was associated with Nubian oracles and magic.[47][48] As part of indigenous, Nubian custom, Kushites took pilgrimages to her Temple at Philae.[47] |
