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Kunrei-shiki (Japanese:訓令式ローマ字,Hepburn:Kunrei-shiki rōmaji;rgh. 'Cabinet-ordered style ofRoman letters'), also known as theMonbusho system (named after the endonym for theMinistry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology) orMEXT system,[1] is aromanization system for transcribing theJapanese language into theLatin alphabet. Its name is renderedKunreisiki in the system itself. It is taught in the Monbushō-approved elementary school curriculum. TheISO has standardizedKunrei-shiki underISO 3602.
Kunrei-shiki is based on the olderNihon-shiki romanization, which was modified for modern standard Japanese. For example, the word かなづかい, romanizedkanadukai inNihon-shiki, is pronouncedkanazukai in modern standard Japanese and is romanized as such inKunrei-shiki. The system competes with the olderHepburn romanization system, which was promoted by theSCAP during the Alliedoccupation of Japan after World War II.
In 1930, theMinistry of Education appointed a board of inquiry to determine the proper romanization system of the Japanese language. This resulted in a cabinet order (訓令kunrei) issued on 21 September 1937[2] that a modified form of theNihon-shiki system would be officially adopted as Kunrei-shiki.[3] The form at the time differs slightly from the modern form.[4] Originally, the system was called theKokutei (国定, government-authorized) system.[3]
The Japanese government gradually introducedKunrei-shiki; which appeared in secondary education, on railway station signboards, on nautical charts, and on the 1:1,000,000 scaleInternational Map of the World;[5] as well as literature and educational material for tourists.[6] Nevertheless, unofficial use ofNihon-shiki and modified Hepburn continued concurrently because of support from individuals.[5]
After Japan's defeat in thePacific War in 1945, GeneralDouglas MacArthur, theSupreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP), issued a directive, dated 3 September 1945, that stated that Modified Hepburn was the method to transcribe Japanese names. Some editorials printed in Japanese newspapers advocated for using only Hepburn.[7]Kunrei-shiki had developed associations with Japanese militarism, and the U.S occupation was reluctant to promote it.[6] Supporters of Hepburn denounced pro-Kunrei-shiki and pro-Nihon-shiki advocates to the SCAP offices[8] by accusing them of being inactive militarists[7] and of collaborating with militarists. Unger said that the nature ofKunrei-shiki led to "pent-up anger" by Hepburn supporters.[8] During the postwar period, several educators and scholars tried to introduce romanized letters as a teaching device and a possible later replacement forkanji. On 9 December 1954, the Japanese government re-confirmedKunrei-shiki as its official system[3] but with slight modifications.[9]Eleanor Jorden, an American linguist, made textbooks with amodified version ofKunrei-shiki, which were used in the 1960s in courses given to U.S diplomats. The use of her books did not change the U.S government's hesitation to useKunrei-shiki.[6]
As of 1974, according to the Geographical Survey Institute (now theGeospatial Information Authority of Japan),Kunrei-shiki was used for topographical maps, and Modified Hepburn was used for geological maps and aeronautical charts.[10]
As of 1978, theNational Diet Library usedKunrei-shiki. TheMinistry of Foreign Affairs, theMinistry of International Trade and Industry, and many other official organizations instead used Hepburn, as didThe Japan Times, theJTB Corporation, and many other private organisations.[3]
Despite the official status ofKunrei-shiki and its use in Japanese elementary schools, Hepburn romanization remained the primary romanization system used in Japanese government and by other groups in Japan.[11]
The system was originally promulgated as Japanese Cabinet Order No. 3 as of 21 September 1937. Since it had been overturned by the SCAP during the occupation of Japan, the Japanese government repealed it and decreed again, as Japanese Cabinet Order No.1 as of 29 December 1954. It mandated the use ofKunrei-shiki in "the written expression of Japanese generally". Specific alternative spellings could be used in international relations and to follow established precedent. SeePermitted Exceptions for details.[1]
Kunrei-shiki has been recognised, along withNihon-shiki, inISO 3602:1989. Documentation—Romanisation of Japanese (kana script) by theISO. It was also recommended by theANSI after it withdrew its own standard,ANSI Z39.11-1972 American National Standard System for the Romanization of Japanese (ModifiedHepburn), in 1994.
In January 2024, theCultural Affairs Agency proposed revising the 1954 Cabinet Order to make Hepburn the standard romanization system of Japan.[12] A draft of changes was published in June 2025.[13]
| Conjugation | Kunrei | Hepburn |
|---|---|---|
| Mizen 1 | tat-a- | tat-a- |
| Mizen 2 | tat-o- | tat-o- |
| Ren'yô | tat-i | tach-i |
| Syûsi/Rentai | tat-u | tats-u |
| Katei | tat-e- | tat-e- |
| Meirei | tat-e | tat-e |
Despite its official recognition, the Japanese commonly choose betweenNihon-shiki,Kunrei-shiki andHepburn systems for any given situation. However, the Japanese government generally uses Hepburn, especially for passports,[14] road signage,[14] and train signage.[15] Most Western publications, as well, and all English-language newspapers use some form of Hepburn.[16]
J. Marshall Unger, the author ofLiteracy and Script Reform in Occupation Japan: Reading between the Lines, said that the Hepburn supporters "understandably" believed that theKunrei-shiki "compromise" was not fair because of the presence of the "un-English-looking spellings" that the Modified Hepburn supporters had opposed.[8] Andrew Horvat, the author ofJapanese Beyond Words: How to Walk and Talk Like a Native Speaker, argued that "by forcing non-native speakers of Japanese with no intentions of learning the language to abide by a system intended for those who have some command of Japanese, the government gave the impression of intolerant language management that would have dire consequences later on."[6] BecauseKunrei-shiki is based onJapanese phonology rather than the actual phonetic realization, it can cause non-native speakers to pronounce words incorrectly. John Hinds, the author ofJapanese: Descriptive Grammar, describes that as "a major disadvantage."[17][page needed]
Additional complications appear with newer kana combinations such asティーム (チーム)team. In Hepburn, they would be distinguished as different sounds and represented astīmu andchīmu respectively. That gives better indications of the English pronunciations. For some Japanese-speakers, however, the soundsティ "ti" and チ "chi" are the same phoneme; both are represented inKunrei-shiki astîmu. Such complications may be confusing to those who do not know Japanese phonology well. Use of an apostrophe (t'îmu), sometimes seen inWāpuro rōmaji, may be a possible solution.
Today, the main users ofKunrei-shiki are native speakers of Japanese, especially within Japan, andlinguists studying Japanese. The main advantage ofKunrei-shiki is that it is better able to illustrateJapanese grammar, as Hepburn gives the impression of certain conjugations being irregular (see table, right).[18][page needed] The most serious problem of Hepburn in this context is that it may change thestem of averb, which is not reflected in the underlyingmorphology of the language. One notable introductory textbook for English-speakers,Eleanor Jorden'sJapanese: The Spoken Language, uses herJSL romanization, a system strongly influenced byKunrei-shiki in its adherence to Japanese phonology, but it is adapted to teaching proper pronunciation of Japanese phonemes.
| gojūon | yōon | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| あ アa | い イi | う ウu | え エe | お オo | (ya) | (yu) | (yo) |
| か カka | き キki | く クku | け ケke | こ コko | きゃ キャkya | きゅ キュkyu | きょ キョkyo |
| さ サsa | し シsi | す スsu | せ セse | そ ソso | しゃ シャsya | しゅ シュsyu | しょ ショsyo |
| た タta | ち チti | つ ツtu | て テte | と トto | ちゃ チャtya | ちゅ チュtyu | ちょ チョtyo |
| な ナna | に ニni | ぬ ヌnu | ね ネne | の ノno | にゃ ニャnya | にゅ ニュnyu | にょ ニョnyo |
| は ハha | ひ ヒhi | ふ フhu | へ ヘhe | ほ ホho | ひゃ ヒャhya | ひゅ ヒュhyu | ひょ ヒョhyo |
| ま マma | み ミmi | む ムmu | め メme | も モmo | みゃ ミャmya | みゅ ミュmyu | みょ ミョmyo |
| や ヤya | (i) | ゆ ユyu | (e) | よ ヨyo | |||
| ら ラra | り リri | る ルru | れ レre | ろ ロro | りゃ リャrya | りゅ リュryu | りょ リョryo |
| わ ワwa | ゐ ヰi | (u) | ゑ ヱe | を ヲo | |||
| ん ンn | |||||||
| voiced sounds (dakuten) | |||||||
| が ガga | ぎ ギgi | ぐ グgu | げ ゲge | ご ゴgo | ぎゃ ギャgya | ぎゅ ギュgyu | ぎょ ギョgyo |
| ざ ザza | じ ジzi | ず ズzu | ぜ ゼze | ぞ ゾzo | じゃ ジャzya | じゅ ジュzyu | じょ ジョzyo |
| だ ダda | ぢ ヂzi | づ ヅzu | で デde | ど ドdo | ぢゃ ヂャzya | ぢゅ ヂュzyu | ぢょ ヂョzyo |
| ば バba | び ビbi | ぶ ブbu | べ ベbe | ぼ ボbo | びゃ ビャbya | びゅ ビュbyu | びょ ビョbyo |
| ぱ パpa | ぴ ピpi | ぷ プpu | ぺ ペpe | ぽ ポpo | ぴゃ ピャpya | ぴゅ ピュpyu | ぴょ ピョpyo |
The Cabinet Order makes an exception to the above chart:
| しゃ sha | し shi | しゅ shu | しょ sho |
| つ tsu | |||
| ちゃ cha | ち chi | ちゅ chu | ちょ cho |
| ふ fu | |||
| じゃ ja | じ ji | じゅ ju | じょ jo |
| ぢ di | づ du | ||
| ぢゃ dya | ぢゅ dyu | ぢょ dyo | |
| くゎ kwa | |||
| ぐゎ gwa | |||
| を wo |
The exceptional clause is not to be confused with other systems of romanization (such asHepburn) and does not specifically relax other requirements, such as marking long vowels.
Thezi ending ofroomazi comes from the Kunreeshiki system promulgated in the 1930s through a cabinet order, orkunree.
As reported at the Second Conference, the writing of geographical names in Roman letters in Japan comes in two types — Kunrei Siki (system adopted under a Cabinet ordinance) and Syûsei Hebon Siki (Modified Hepburn System). Kunrei Siki is used for topographical maps, whereas Syûsei Hebon Siki is in use for aeronautical charts and geological maps.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)The major disadvantage of this system (Kunrei-shiki) is that there is a tendency for nonnative speakers of Japanese to pronounce certain forms incorrectly.
The major advantage of kunrei-shiki is that inflectional endings are seen to be more regular.
