The anecdotes and narratives of Krishna's life are generally titled asKrishna Līlā. He is a central figure in theMahabharata, theBhagavata Purana, theBrahma Vaivarta Purana, and theBhagavad Gita, and is mentioned in manyHindu philosophical,theological, andmythological texts.[20] They portray him in various perspectives: as a god-child, a prankster, a model lover, a divine hero, and the universal supreme being.[21] His iconography reflects these legends and shows him in different stages of his life, such as an infant eating butter, a young boy playing aflute, a young boy withRadha or surrounded by female devotees, or a friendly charioteer giving counsel toArjuna.[22]
The name "Krishna" originates from the Sanskrit wordkṛṣṇa, which means "black", "dark" or "dark blue".[35] The waning moon is calledKrishna Paksha, relating to the adjective meaning "darkening".[35] Some Vaishnavas also translate the word as "All-Attractive", though it lacks that meaning in Sanskrit.[36]
As a name ofVishnu, Krishna is listed as the 57th name in theVishnu Sahasranama. Based on his name, Krishna is often depicted inidols as black- or blue-skinned. Krishna is also known by variousother names, epithets, and titles that reflect his many associations and attributes. Among the most common names areMohan "enchanter";Govinda "chief herdsman",[37]Keev "prankster", andGopala "Protector of the 'Go'", which means "soul" or "the cows".[38][39] Some names for Krishna hold regional importance;Jagannatha, found in thePuri Hindu temple, is a popular incarnation inOdisha state and nearby regions ofeastern India.[40][41][42]
Historical and literary sources
The tradition of Krishna appears to be an amalgamation of several independent deities of ancient India, the earliest to be attested beingVāsudeva.[43] Vāsudeva was a hero-god of the tribe of theVrishnis, belonging to theVrishni heroes, whose worship is attested from the 5th–6th century BCE in the writings ofPāṇini, and from the 2nd century BCE in epigraphy with theHeliodorus pillar.[43] At one point in time, it is thought that the tribe of the Vrishnis fused with the tribe of theYadavas, whose own hero-god was named Krishna.[43] Vāsudeva and Krishna fused to become a single deity, which appears in theMahabharata, and they started to be identified withVishnu in theMahabharata and theBhagavad Gita.[43] Around the 4th century CE, another tradition, the cult ofGopala-Krishna of theĀbhīras, the protector of cattle, was also absorbed into the Krishna tradition.[43]
Around 180 BCE, theIndo-Greek kingAgathocles issued some coinage (discovered inAi-Khanoum, Afghanistan) bearing images of deities that are now interpreted as being related toVaisnava imagery in India.[47][48] The deities displayed on the coins appear to beSaṃkarṣaṇa-Balarama with attributes consisting of thegada mace and theplow, and Vāsudeva-Krishna with attributes of theshankha (conch) and thesudarshana chakra wheel.[47][49] According toBopearachchi, theheaddress of the deity is actually a misrepresentation of a shaft with a half-moon parasol on top (chattra).[47]
Inscriptions
Heliodorus Pillar in the Indian state ofMadhya Pradesh, erected about 120BCE. The inscription states that Heliodorus is aBhagvatena, and a couplet in the inscription closely paraphrases a Sanskrit verse from theMahabharata.[50][51]
TheHeliodorus Pillar, a stone pillar with aBrahmi script inscription, was discovered by colonial era archaeologists in Besnagar (Vidisha, in the central Indian state ofMadhya Pradesh). Based on the internal evidence of the inscription, it has been dated to between 125 and 100BCE and is now known afterHeliodorus – anIndo-Greek who served as an ambassador of the Greek kingAntialcidas to a regional Indian king, KasiputraBhagabhadra.[47][50] The Heliodorus pillar inscription is a private religious dedication of Heliodorus to "Vāsudeva", an early deity and another name for Krishna in the Indian tradition. It states that the column was constructed by "theBhagavata Heliodorus" and that it is a "Garuda pillar" (both are Vishnu-Krishna-related terms). Additionally, the inscription includes a Krishna-related verse from chapter11.7 of theMahabharata stating that the path to immortality and heaven is to correctly live a life of three virtues: self-temperance (damah), generosity (cagah ortyaga), and vigilance (apramadah).[50][52][53] The Heliodorus pillar site was fully excavated by archaeologists in the 1960s. The effort revealed the brick foundations of a much larger ancient elliptical temple complex with a sanctum,mandapas, and seven additional pillars.[54][55] The Heliodorus pillar inscriptions and the temple are among the earliest known evidence of Krishna-Vasudeva devotion andVaishnavism in ancient India.[56][47][57]
Balarama and Krishna with their attributes atChilas. TheKharoshthi inscription nearby readsRama [kri]ṣa. 1st century CE.[46]
TheHeliodorus inscription is not isolated evidence. TheHathibada Ghosundi Inscriptions, all located in the state ofRajasthan and dated by modern methodology to the 1stcenturyBCE, mention Saṃkarṣaṇa and Vāsudeva, also mention that the structure was built for their worship in association with the supreme deityNarayana. These four inscriptions are notable for being some of the oldest-knownSanskrit inscriptions.[58]
The inscriptional record forVāsudeva starts in the 2nd century BCE with the coinage of Agathocles and the Heliodorus pillar, but the name of Krishna appears rather later in epigraphy. At theChilas II archaeological site dated to the first half of the 1st-century CE in northwest Pakistan, near the Afghanistan border, are engraved two males, along with many Buddhist images nearby. The larger of the two males held a plough and club in his two hands. The artwork also has an inscription with it inKharosthi script, which has been deciphered by scholars asRama-Krsna, and interpreted as an ancient depiction of the two brothers, Balarama and Krishna.[62][63]
The first known depiction of the life of Krishna himself comes relatively late, witha relief found inMathura, and dated to the 1st–2nd century CE.[64] This fragment seems to showVasudeva, Krishna's father, carrying baby Krishna in a basket across theYamuna.[64] The relief shows at one end a seven-hooded Naga crossing a river, where amakara crocodile is thrashing around, and at the other end a person seemingly holding a basket over his head.[64]
The earliest text containing detailed descriptions of Krishna as a personality is the epicMahabharata, which depicts Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu.[65] Krishna is central to many of the main stories of the epic. The eighteen chapters of the sixth book (Bhishma Parva) of the epic that constitute theBhagavad Gita contain the advice of Krishna toArjuna on the battlefield.
During the ancient times that theBhagavad Gita was composed in, Krishna was widely seen as an avatar of Vishnu rather than an individualdeity, yet he was immensely powerful and almost everything in the universe other than Vishnu was "somehow present in the body of Krishna".[66] Krishna had "no beginning or end", "fill[ed] space", and every god but Vishnu was seen as ultimately him, includingBrahma, "storm gods, sun gods, bright gods", light gods, "and gods of ritual."[66] Other forces also existed in his body, such as "hordes of varied creatures" that included "celestial serpents."[66] He is also "the essence of humanity."[66]
TheHarivamsa, a later appendix to theMahabharata, contains a detailed version of Krishna's childhood and youth.[67]
Other sources
Krishna is celebrated in the Vaishnava tradition in various stages of his life.
TheChandogya Upanishad (verse III.xvii.6) mentions Krishna inKrishnaya Devakiputraya as a student of the sage Ghora of the Angirasa family. Ghora is identified withNeminatha, the twenty-secondtirthankara inJainism, by some scholars.[68] This phrase, which means "To Krishna the son ofDevaki", has been mentioned by scholars such asMax Müller[69] as a potential source of fables and Vedic lore about Krishna in theMahabharata and other ancient literature – only potential because this verse could have been interpolated into the text,[69] or the Krishna Devakiputra, could be different from the deity Krishna.[70] These doubts are supported by the fact that the much later ageSandilya Bhakti Sutras, a treatise on Krishna,[71] cites later age compilations such as theNarayana Upanishad but never cites this verse of the Chandogya Upanishad. Other scholars disagree that the Krishna mentioned along withDevaki in the ancient Upanishad is unrelated to the later Hindu god of theBhagavad Gita fame. For example, Archer states that the coincidence of the two names appearing together in the same Upanishad verse cannot be dismissed easily.[72]
Yāska'sNirukta, an etymological dictionary published around the 6thcenturyBCE, contains a reference to the Shyamantaka jewel in the possession ofAkrura, a motif from the well-known Puranic story about Krishna.[73]Shatapatha Brahmana andAitareya-Aranyaka associate Krishna with his Vrishni origins.[74]
InAshṭādhyāyī, authored by theancient grammarianPāṇini (probably belonged to the 5th or 6thcenturyBCE),Vāsudeva andArjuna, as recipients of worship, are referred to together in the samesutra.[75][76][77]
Megasthenes, a Greek ethnographer and an ambassador ofSeleucus I to the court ofChandragupta Maurya towards the end of 4thcenturyBCE, made reference toHerakles in his famous workIndica. This text is now lost to history, but was quoted in secondary literature by later Greeks such asArrian,Diodorus, andStrabo.[78] According to these texts, Megasthenes mentioned that the Sourasenoi tribe of India, who worshipped Herakles, had two major cities named Methora and Kleisobora, and a navigable river named the Jobares. According toEdwin Bryant, a professor of Indian religions known for his publications on Krishna, "there is little doubt that the Sourasenoi refers to the Shurasenas, a branch of theYadu dynasty to which Krishna belonged".[78] The word Herakles, states Bryant, is likely a Greek phonetic equivalent of Hari-Krishna, as is Methora of Mathura, Kleisobora of Krishnapura, and the Jobares ofJamuna. Later, whenAlexander the Great launched his campaign in the northwestIndian subcontinent, his associates recalled that the soldiers ofPorus were carrying an image of Herakles.[78]
The BuddhistPali canon and the Ghata-Jâtaka (No.454)polemically mention the devotees of Vâsudeva and Baladeva. These texts have many peculiarities and may be a garbled and confused version of the Krishna legends.[79] The texts ofJainism mention these tales as well, also with many peculiarities and different versions, in their legends aboutTirthankaras. This inclusion of Krishna-related legends in ancientBuddhist and Jaina literature suggests that Krishna theology was existent and important in the religious landscape observed by non-Hindu traditions ofancient India.[80][81]
The ancient Sanskrit grammarianPatanjali in hisMahabhashya makes several references to Krishna and his associates found in later Indian texts. In his commentary on Pāṇini's verse 3.1.26, he also uses the wordKamsavadha or the "killing of Kamsa", an important part of the legends surrounding Krishna.[78][82]
Puranas
ManyPuranas tell Krishna's life story or some highlights from it. Two Puranas, theBhagavata Purana and theVishnu Purana, contain the most elaborate telling of Krishna's story,[83] but the life stories of Krishna in these and other texts vary, and contain significant inconsistencies.[84][85] TheBhagavata Purana consists of twelve books subdivided into 332chapters, with a cumulative total of between 16,000 and 18,000 verses depending on the version.[86][87] The tenth book of the text, which contains about 4,000 verses (~25%) and is dedicated to legends about Krishna, has been the most popular and widely studied part of this text.[88][89]
Iconography
The Variation in Iconography Depicting Krishna and the Ras Leela
Krishna is represented in theIndian traditions in many ways, but with some common features.[90] His iconography typically depicts him with black, dark, or blue skin, likeVishnu.[91] However, ancient and medieval reliefs and stone-based arts depict him in the natural color of the material out of which he is formed, both in India and in southeast Asia.[92][93] In some texts, his skin is poetically described as the color ofJambul (Jamun, a purple-colored fruit).[94]
Depiction of Krishna playing the flute inTodai-ji Temple, constructed in 752CE on the order of Emperor Shomu, inNara, Japan
Krishna is often depicted wearing a peacock-featherwreath or crown, and playing thebansuri (Indian flute).[95][96] In this form, he is usually shown standing with one leg bent in front of the other in theTribhanga posture. He is sometimes accompanied by cows or a calf, which symbolise the divine herdsmanGovinda. Alternatively, he is shown as a romantic young boy with thegopis (milkmaids), often making music or playing pranks.[97]
In other icons, he is a part of battlefield scenes of the epicMahabharata. He is shown as a charioteer, notably when he is addressing the Pandava princeArjuna, symbolically reflecting the events that led to theBhagavad Gita – a scripture of Hinduism. In these popular depictions, Krishna appears in the front as the charioteer, either as a counsel listening to Arjuna or as the driver of the chariot while Arjuna aims his arrows in thebattlefield of Kurukshetra.[99][100]
Alternate icons of Krishna show him as a baby (Bala Krishna, the child Krishna), a toddler crawling on his hands and knees, a dancing child, or an innocent-looking child playfully stealing or consuming butter (Makkan Chor),[101] holdingLaddu in his hand (Laddu Gopal)[102][103] or as a cosmic infant sucking his toe while floating on a banyan leaf during thePralaya (the cosmic dissolution) observed by sageMarkandeya.[104] Regional variations in the iconography of Krishna are seen in his different forms, such asJaganatha in Odisha,Vithoba in Maharashtra,[105]Shrinathji in Rajasthan[106] andGuruvayoorappan in Kerala.[107]
Guidelines for the preparation of Krishna icons in design and architecture are described in medieval-era Sanskrit texts on Hindu temple arts such asVaikhanasaagama,Vishnu dharmottara,Brihat samhita, andAgni Purana.[108] Similarly, early medieval-eraTamil texts also contain guidelines for sculpting Krishna and Rukmini. Several statues made according to these guidelines are in the collections of theGovernment Museum, Chennai.[109]
Krishna iconography forms an important element in the figural sculpture on 17th–19th century terracotta temples of Bengal. In many temples, the stories of Krishna are depicted on a long series of narrow panels along the base of the facade. In other temples, the important Krishnalila episodes are depicted on large brick panels above the entrance arches or on the walls surrounding the entrance.[110]
Life and legends
This summary is an account based on literary details from theMahābhārata, theHarivamsa, theBhagavata Purana, and theVishnu Purana. The scenes from the narrative are set in ancient India, mostly in the present states ofUttar Pradesh, Bihar,Rajasthan, Haryana, Delhi, andGujarat. The legends about Krishna's life are calledKrishna charitas (IAST: Kṛṣṇacaritas).[111]
Baby Krishna on a swing, depicted with his foster parentsNanda andYashoda.
In theKrishna Charitas, Krishna is born toDevaki and her husband,Vasudeva, of theYadava clan inMathura.[112][page needed] Devaki's brother is a tyrant namedKamsa. At Devaki's wedding, according to Puranic legends, Kamsa is told by fortune tellers that a child of Devaki would kill him. Sometimes, it is depicted as anakashvani announcing Kamsa's death. Kamsa arranges to kill all of Devaki's children. When Krishna is born, Vasudeva secretly carries the infant Krishna away across the Yamuna, and exchanges him withYashoda's daughter. When Kamsa tries to kill the newborn, the exchanged baby appears as the Hindu goddessYogamaya, warning him that his death has arrived in his kingdom, and then disappears, according to the legends in the Puranas. Krishna grows up withNanda and his wife,Yashoda, near modern-dayMathura.[113][114][115] Two of Krishna's siblings also survive, namelyBalarama andSubhadra, according to these legends.[116] The day of the birth of Krishna is celebrated asKrishna Janmashtami.
Childhood and youth
The legends of Krishna's childhood and youth describe him as a cow-herder, a mischievous boy whose pranks earn him the nicknameMakhan Chor (butter thief), and a protector who steals the hearts of the people in both Gokul and Vrindavana. The texts state, for example, that Krishna lifts theGovardhana hill to protect the inhabitants of Vrindavana fromdevastating rains and floods.[117]
Other legends describe him as an enchanter and playful lover of the gopis (milkmaids) of Vrindavana, especiallyRadha. These metaphor-filled love stories are known as theRasa lila and were romanticized in the poetry ofJayadeva, author of theGita Govinda. They are also central to the development of the Krishnabhakti traditions worshipingRadha Krishna.[118]
Krishna's childhood illustrates the Hindu concept ofLila, playing for fun and enjoyment and not for sport or gain. His interaction with the gopis at the rasa dance orRasa-lila is an example. Krishna plays his flute and the gopis come immediately, from whatever they were doing, to the banks of theYamuna River and join him in singing and dancing. Even those who could not physically be there join him through meditation. He is the spiritual essence and the love-eternal in existence, the gopis metaphorically represent theprakṛti matter and the impermanent body.[119]: 256
ThisLila is a constant theme in the legends of Krishna's childhood and youth. Even when he is battling with a serpent to protect others, he is described in Hindu texts as if he were playing a game.[119]: 255 This quality of playfulness in Krishna is celebrated during festivals as Rasa-Lila andJanmashtami, where Hindus in some regions such asMaharashtra playfully mimic his legends, such as by making human gymnastic pyramids to break openhandis (clay pots) hung high in the air to "steal" butter or buttermilk, spilling it all over the group.[119]: 253–261
Adulthood
Krishna with his consortsRukmini andSatyabhama and his mountGaruda, Tamil Nadu, India, late 12th–13thcentury[120]
Krishna legends then describe his return to Mathura. He overthrows and kills the tyrant king, his maternal uncle Kamsa/Kansa after quelling several assassination attempts by Kamsa. He reinstates Kamsa's father,Ugrasena, as the king of theYadavas and becomes a leading prince at the court.[121] In one version of the Krishna story, as narrated by Shanta Rao, Krishna after Kamsa's death leads the Yadavas to the newly built city ofDwaraka. Thereafter Pandavas rise. Krishna befriendsArjuna and the otherPandava princes of theKuru kingdom. Krishna plays a key role in theMahabharata.[122]
The Bhagavata Purana describeseight wives of Krishna that appear in sequence asRukmini,Satyabhama,Jambavati,Kalindi,Mitravinda,Nagnajiti (also called Satya),Bhadra andLakshmana (also called Madra).[123] This has been interpreted as a metaphor where each of the eight wives signifies a different aspect of him.[124] Vaishnava texts mention all Gopis as wives of Krishna, but this is understood as spiritual symbolism of devotional relationship and Krishna's complete loving devotion to each and everyone devoted to him.[125]
In Krishna-related Hindu traditions, he is most commonly seen withRadha. All of his wives and his lover Radha are considered in the Hindu tradition to be theavatars of the goddessLakshmi, the consort of Vishnu.[126][12]Gopis are considered as Lakshmi's or Radha's manifestations.[12][127]
According to the epic poemMahabharata, Krishna becomes Arjuna's charioteer for theKurukshetra War, but on the condition that he personally will not raise any weapon. Upon arrival at the battlefield and seeing that the enemies are his family, his grandfather, and his cousins and loved ones, Arjuna is moved and says his heart will not allow him to fight and kill others. He would rather renounce the kingdom and put down hisGandiva (Arjuna's bow). Krishna then advises him about the nature of life, ethics, and morality when one is faced with a war between good and evil, the impermanence of matter, the permanence of the soul and the good, duties and responsibilities, the nature of true peace and bliss and the different types of yoga to reach this state of bliss and inner liberation. This conversation between Krishna and Arjuna is presented as a discourse called theBhagavad Gita.[128][129][130]
It is stated in the Indian texts that the legendary Kurukshetra War led to the death of all the hundred sons of Gandhari. After Duryodhana's death, Krishna visitsGandhari to offer his condolences when Gandhari and Dhritarashtra visited Kurukshetra, as stated in Stree Parva. Feeling that Krishna deliberately did not put an end to the war, in a fit of rage and sorrow, Gandhari said, "Thou were indifferent to the Kurus and the Pandavas whilst they slew each other. Therefore, O Govinda, thou shalt be the slayer of thy own kinsmen!" According to theMahabharata, a fight breaks out at a festival among the Yadavas, who end up killing each other. Mistaking the sleeping Krishna for a deer, a hunter named Jara shoots an arrow towards Krishna's foot that fatally injures him. Krishna forgivesJara and dies.[131][7][9] The pilgrimage (tirtha) site ofBhalka in Gujarat marks the location where Krishna is believed to have died. It is also known asDehotsarga, statesDiana L. Eck, a term that literally means the place where Krishna "gave up his body".[7] TheBhagavata Purana in Book 11, Chapter 31 states that after his death, Krishna returned to his transcendent abode directly because of his yogic concentration. Waiting gods such asBrahma andIndra were unable to trace the path Krishna took to leave his human incarnation and return to his abode.[132][133]
Versions and interpretations
Krishna iconography appears in many versions across India. For example (left to right): Srinath, Jagannath, Vithoba.
There are numerous versions of Krishna's life story, of which three are most studied: theHarivamsa, theBhagavata Purana, and theVishnu Purana.[134] They share the basic storyline but vary significantly in their specifics, details, and styles.[135] The most original composition, theHarivamsa is told in a realistic style that describes Krishna's life as a poor herder but weaves in poetic andallusive fantasy. It ends on a triumphal note, not with the death of Krishna.[136] Differing in some details, the fifth book of theVishnu Purana moves away fromHarivamsa realism and embeds Krishna in mystical terms and eulogies.[137] TheVishnu Purana manuscripts exist in many versions.[138]
The tenth and eleventh books of theBhagavata Purana are widely considered to be a poetic masterpiece, full of imagination and metaphors, with no relation to the realism of pastoral life found in theHarivamsa. Krishna's life is presented as a cosmic play (Lila), where his youth is set as a princely life with his foster father Nanda portrayed as a king.[139] Krishna's life is closer to that of a human being inHarivamsa, but is a symbolic universe in theBhagavata Purana, where Krishna is within the universe and beyond it, as well as the universe itself, always.[140] TheBhagavata Purana manuscripts also exist in many versions, in numerous Indian languages.[141][88]
According to Guy Beck, "most scholars of Hinduism and Indian history accept the historicity of Krishna – that he was a real male person, whether human or divine, who lived on Indian soil by at least 1000 BCE and interacted with many other historical persons within the cycles of the epic and puranic histories." Yet, Beck also notes that there is an "enormous number of contradictions and discrepancies surrounding the chronology of Krishna's life as depicted in the Sanskrit canon".[143]
Some scholars believe that, among others, the detailed description of Krishna's peace mission in the 5th Book of the Mahabharata (Udyogaparvan) is likely to be based on real events. The epic's translator J.A.B. van Buitenen in this context assumes “that there was some degree of verisimilitude in the Mahabharata’s depictions of life.”[144]
Philosophy and theology
12th-century art depicting Krishna playing flute with gathered living beings atHoysaleswara temple, Karnataka
A wide range of theological and philosophical ideas are presented through Krishna in Hindu texts. The teachings of theBhagavad Gita can be considered, according toFriedhelm Hardy, as the first Krishnaite system of theology.[24]
TheBhagavata Purana synthesizes an Advaita, Samkhya, and Yoga framework for Krishna, but it does so through loving devotion to Krishna.[159][160][161] Bryant describes the synthesis of ideas in Bhagavata Purana as:
The philosophy of the Bhagavata is a mixture of Vedanta terminology, Samkhyan metaphysics, and devotionalized Yoga praxis. (...) The tenth book promotes Krishna as the highest absolute personal aspect of godhead – the personality behind the termIshvara and the ultimate aspect ofBrahman.
While Sheridan and Pintchman both affirm Bryant's view, the latter adds that the Vedantic view emphasized in the Bhagavata isnon-dualist with a difference. In conventional nondual Vedanta, all reality is interconnected and one, the Bhagavata posits that the reality is interconnected and plural.[162][163]
Across the various theologies and philosophies, the common theme presents Krishna as the essence and symbol of divine love, with human life and love as a reflection of the divine. The longing and love-filled legends of Krishna and the gopis, his playful pranks as a baby,[164] as well as his later dialogues with other figures, are philosophically treated as metaphors for the human longing for the divine and for meaning, and the play between the universals and the human soul.[165][166][167] Krishna'slila is a theology of love-play. According to John Koller, "love is presented not simply as a means to salvation, it is the highest life". Human love is God's love.[168]
Other texts that include Krishna such as theBhagavad Gita have attracted numerousbhasya (commentaries) in the Hindu traditions.[169] Though only a part of the Hindu epicMahabharata, it has functioned as an independent spiritual guide. It allegorically raises the ethical and moral dilemmas of human life through Krishna and Arjuna. It then presents a spectrum of answers, addressing the ideological questions on human freedoms, choices, and responsibilities towards self and others.[169][170] This Krishna dialogue has attracted numerous interpretations, from being a metaphor for inner human struggle that teaches non-violence to being a metaphor for outer human struggle that advocates a rejection of quietism and persecution.[169][170][171]
Madhusudana Sarasvati, known for his contributions to classical Advaita Vedanta, was also a devout follower of Krishna and expressed his devotion in various verses within his works, notably in his Bhagavad Gita commentary, Bhagavad Gita Gudarthadipika. In his works, Krishna is often interpreted as representing nirguna Brahman, leading to a transtheistic understanding of deity, where Krishna symbolizes the nondual Self, embodying Being, Consciousness, and Bliss, and the pure Existence underlying all.[172]
Relief from theChennakeshava Temple of Krishna with flute with humans and cows listening, 1258 CE.
The worship of Krishna is part ofVaishnavism, a major tradition within Hinduism. Krishna is considered a full avatar of Vishnu, or one with Vishnu himself.[173] However, the exact relationship between Krishna and Vishnu is complex and diverse,[174] with Krishna ofKrishnaite sampradayas considered an independent deity and supreme.[24][175] Vaishnavas accept many incarnations of Vishnu, but Krishna is particularly important. Their theologies are generally centered either on Vishnu or an avatar such as Krishna as supreme. The termsKrishnaism and Vishnuism have sometimes been used to distinguish the two, the former implying that Krishna is the transcendent Supreme Being.[176] Some scholars, asFriedhelm Hardy, do not define Krishnaism as a sub-order or offshoot of Vaishnavism, considering it a parallel and no less ancient current of Hinduism.[24]
The deityKrishna-Vasudeva (kṛṣṇa vāsudeva "Krishna, the son ofVasudeva Anakadundubhi") is historically one of the earliest forms of worship inKrishnaism andVaishnavism.[23][73] It is believed to be a significant tradition of the early history of Krishna religion in antiquity.[185] Thereafter, there was an amalgamation of various similar traditions. These include ancientBhagavatism, the cult ofGopala, of "Krishna Govinda" (cow-finding Krishna), ofBalakrishna (baby Krishna) and of "Krishna Gopivallabha[186]" (Krishna the lover).[187][188] According to Andre Couture, theHarivamsa contributed to the synthesis of various figures as aspects of Krishna.[189]
Krishna has been a major part of theBhakti movement. One of the key devotees wasMeera (pictured).
The use of the term bhakti, meaning devotion, is not confined to any one deity. However, Krishna is an important and popular focus of the devotionalism tradition within Hinduism, particularly among theVaishnavaKrishnaite sects.[177][194] Devotees of Krishna subscribe to the concept oflila, meaning 'divine play', as the central principle of the universe. It is a form of bhakti yoga, one of three types of yoga discussed by Krishna in theBhagavad Gita.[178][195][196]
Indian subcontinent
The bhakti movements devoted to Krishna became prominent in southern India in the 7th to 9thcenturies CE. The earliest works included those of theAlvar saints ofTamil Nadu.[197] A major collection of their works is theDivya Prabandham. AlvarAndal's popular collection of songsTiruppavai, in which she conceives of herself as a gopi, is the most famous of the oldest works in this genre.[198][199][200]
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Kerala states have many major Krishna temples, andJanmashtami is one of the widely celebrated festivals in South India.[209]
By 1965, theKrishna-bhakti movement had spread outside India afterBhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada (as instructed by hisguru,Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura) travelled from his homeland in West Bengal to New York City. A year later, in 1966, after gaining many followers, he was able to form theInternational Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), popularly known as the Hare Krishna movement. The purpose of this movement was to write about Krishna in English and to share theGaudiya Vaishnava philosophy with people in the Western world by spreading the teachings ofChaitanya Mahaprabhu. In the biographies of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, the mantra he received when he was givendiksha or initiation inGaya was the six-word verse of theKali-Santarana Upanishad, namely "Hare Krishna Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna Hare Hare; Hare Rama Hare Rama, Rama Rama Hare Hare". In the Gaudiya tradition, it is themaha-mantra, or great mantra, about Krishnabhakti.[210][211] Its chanting was known ashari-nama sankirtana.[212]
Themaha-mantra gained the attention ofGeorge Harrison andJohn Lennon ofthe Beatles fame,[213] and Harrison produced a 1969 recording of the mantra by devotees from the LondonRadha Krishna Temple.[214] Titled "Hare Krishna Mantra", the song reached the top twenty on the UK music charts and was also successful in West Germany and Czechoslovakia.[213][215] The mantra of the Upanishad thus helped bring Bhaktivedanta and ISKCON ideas about Krishna into the West.[213] ISKCON has built many Krishna temples in the West, as well as other locations such as South Africa.[216]
Southeast Asia
Krishna lifts "Govardhan" mountain, a 7th-century artwork from aDa Nang, Vietnam, archaeological site[217][218]
Krishna is found in Southeast Asian history and art, but to a far lesser extent thanShiva,Durga,Nandi,Agastya, andBuddha. In temples (candi) of the archaeological sites in hilly volcanicJava, Indonesia, temple reliefs do not portray his pastoral life or his role as the erotic lover, nor do the historic Javanese Hindu texts.[219] Rather, either his childhood or the life as a king and Arjuna's companion have been more favored. The most elaborate temple arts of Krishna is found in a series ofKrsnayana reliefs in the Prambanan Hindu temple complex nearYogyakarta. These are dated to the 9thcentury CE.[219][220][221] Krishna remained a part of the Javanese cultural and theological fabric through the 14thcentury, as evidenced by the 14th-centuryPenataran reliefs along with those of the Hindu god Rama in east Java, before Islam replaced Buddhism and Hinduism on the island.[222]
The medieval era arts of Vietnam and Cambodia feature Krishna. The earliest surviving sculptures and reliefs are from the 6th and 7thcenturies, and these include Vaishnavism iconography.[217] According to John Guy, the curator and director of Southeast Asian arts at theMetropolitan Museum of Art, the Krishna Govardhana art from 6th/7th-century Vietnam atDanang, and 7th-century Cambodia atPhnom Da cave inAngkor Borei, are some of the most sophisticated of this era.[217]
Krishna's iconography has also been found in Thailand, along with those ofSurya andVishnu. For example, a large number of sculptures and icons have been found in the SiThep and Klangnai sites in thePhetchabun region of northern Thailand. These are dated to about the 7th and 8thcenturies, from both the Funan and Zhenla period archaeological sites.[223]
Indian dance and music theatre traces its origins and techniques to the ancientSama Veda andNatyasastra texts.[224][225] The stories enacted and the numerous choreographic themes are inspired by the legends in Hindu texts, including Krishna-related literature such asHarivamsa andBhagavata Purana.[226]
The Krishna stories have played a key role in the history of Indian theatre, music, and dance, particularly through the tradition ofRasaleela. These are dramatic enactments of Krishna's childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. One common scene involves Krishna playing flute in Rasa Leela, only to be heard by certain gopis (cowherd maidens), which is theologically supposed to represent divine call only heard by certain enlightened beings.[227] Some of the text's legends have inspired secondary theatre literature such as the eroticism inGita Govinda.[228]
Krishna-related literature such as theBhagavata Purana accords a metaphysical significance to the performances and treats them as a religious ritual, infusing daily life with spiritual meaning, thus representing a good, honest, happy life. Similarly, Krishna-inspired performances aim to cleanse the hearts of faithful actors and listeners. Singing, dancing, and performing any part ofKrishna Lila is an act of remembering the dharma in the text, as a form ofpara bhakti (supreme devotion). To remember Krishna at any time and in any art, asserts the text, is to worship the good and the divine.[229]
Classical dance styles such asKathak,Odissi,Manipuri,Kuchipudi andBharatanatyam in particular are known for theirKrishna-related performances.[230]Krisnattam (Krishnattam) traces its origins to Krishna legends, and is linked to another major classical Indian dance form calledKathakali.[231] Bryant summarizes the influence of Krishna stories in theBhagavata Purana as, "[it] has inspired more derivative literature, poetry, drama, dance, theatre and art than any other text in the history of Sanskrit literature, with the possible exception of theRamayana.[26][232]
TheJainism tradition lists 63Śalākāpuruṣa or notable figures which, amongst others, includes the twenty-fourTirthankaras (spiritual teachers) and nine sets of triads. One of these triads is Krishna as theVasudeva,Balarama as theBaladeva, andJarasandha as thePrati-Vasudeva. In each age of the Jain cyclic time is born aVasudeva with an elder brother termed theBaladeva. Between the triads,Baladeva upholds the principle of non-violence, a central idea of Jainism. The villain is thePrati-vasudeva, who attempts to destroy the world. To save the world,Vasudeva-Krishna has to forsake the non-violence principle and kill thePrati-Vasudeva.[249] The stories of these triads can be found in theHarivamsa Purana (8thcentury CE) ofJinasena (not be confused with its namesake, the addendum toMahābhārata) and theTrishashti-shalakapurusha-charita ofHemachandra.[250][251]
The story of Krishna's life in thePuranas of Jainism follows the same general outline as those in the Hindu texts, but in details, they are very different: they include JainTirthankaras as figures in the story, and generally are polemically critical of Krishna, unlike the versions found in theMahabharata, theBhagavata Purana, and theVishnu Purana.[252] For example, Krishna loses battles in the Jain versions, and hisgopis and his clan of Yadavas die in a fire created by an ascetic named Dvaipayana. Similarly, after dying from the hunter Jara's arrow, the Jaina texts state Krishna goes to thethird hell inJain cosmology, while his brother is said to go to thesixth heaven.[253]
Vimalasuri is attributed to be the author of the Jain version of theHarivamsa Purana, but no manuscripts have been found that confirm this. It is likely that later Jain scholars, probably Jinasena of the 8thcentury, wrote a complete version of Krishna legends in the Jain tradition and credited it to the ancient Vimalasuri.[254] Partial and older versions of the Krishna story are available in Jain literature, such as in theAntagata Dasao of theSvetambaraAgama tradition.[254]
In other Jain texts, Krishna is stated to be a cousin of the twenty-secondTirthankara, Neminatha. The Jain texts state that Neminatha taught Krishna all the wisdom that he later gave to Arjuna in theBhagavad Gita. According toJeffery D. Long, a professor of religion known for his publications on Jainism, this connection between Krishna and Neminatha has been a historic reason for Jains to accept, read, and cite theBhagavad Gita as a spiritually important text, celebrate Krishna-related festivals, and intermingle with Hindus as spiritual cousins.[255]
The story of Krishna occurs in theJataka tales inBuddhism.[256] TheVidhurapandita Jataka mentionsMadhura (Sanskrit: Mathura), theGhata Jataka mentions Kamsa, Devagabbha (Sk: Devaki), Upasagara or Vasudeva, Govaddhana (Sk: Govardhana), Baladeva (Balarama), and Kanha or Kesava (Sk: Krishna, Keshava).[257][258]
Like the Jain versions of the Krishna legends, the Buddhist versions such as one inGhata Jataka follow the general outline of the story,[259] but are different from the Hindu versions as well.[257][80] For example, the Buddhist legend describes Devagabbha (Devaki) to have been isolated in a palace built upon a pole after she is born, so no future husband could reach her. Krishna's father similarly is described as a powerful king, but who meets up with Devagabbha anyway, and to whom Kamsa gives away his sister Devagabbha in marriage. The siblings of Krishna are not killed by Kamsa, though he tries. In the Buddhist version of the legend, all of Krishna's siblings grow to maturity.[260]
Krishna and his siblings' capital becomes Dvaravati. The Arjuna and Krishna interaction is missing in the Jataka version. A new legend is included, wherein Krishna laments in uncontrollable sorrow when his son dies, and a Ghatapandita feigns madness to teach Krishna a lesson.[261] The Jataka tale also includes internecine destruction among his siblings after they all get drunk. Krishna also dies in the Buddhist legend by the hand of a hunter named Jara, but while he is traveling to a frontier city. Mistaking Krishna for a pig, Jara throws a spear that fatally pierces his feet, causing Krishna great pain and then his death.[260]
At the end of thisGhata-Jataka discourse, the Buddhist text declares thatSariputta, one of the revered disciples of the Buddha in the Buddhist tradition, was incarnated as Krishna in his previous life to learn lessons on grief from the Buddha in his prior rebirth:
Then he [Master] declared the Truths and identified the Birth: "At that time, Ananda was Rohineyya, Sariputta was Vasudeva [Krishna], the followers of the Buddha were the other persons, and I myself was Ghatapandita."
— Jataka Tale No. 454, Translator: W. H. D. Rouse[262]
While the Buddhist Jataka texts co-opt Krishna-Vasudeva and make him a student of theBuddha in his previous life,[262] the Hindu texts co-opt the Buddha and make him anavatar ofVishnu.[263][264] InChinese Buddhism,Taoism andChinese folk religion, the figure of Krishna has been amalgamated and merged with that ofNalakuvara to influence the formation of the godNezha, who has taken on iconographic characteristics of Krishna such as being presented as a divine god-child and slaying anāga in his youth.[265][266]
Other
Krishna's life is written about in "Krishna Avtar" of theChaubis Avtar, a composition in Dasam Granth traditionally and historically attributed toSikhGuru Gobind Singh.[267]
Ahmadiyya, a 20th-century Islamic movement, consider Krishna as one of their ancient prophets.[271][272][273] Ghulam Ahmad stated that he was himself a prophet in the likeness of prophets such as Krishna, Jesus, and Muhammad,[274] who had come to earth as a latter-day reviver of religion and morality.
^The number of Krishna's children varies from one interpretation to another. According to theBhagavata Purana, Krishna had 10 sons from each of his 8 chief wives (80 sons) and 1 daughter, Charumati, from Rukmini.[9][10]
^Radha is seen as Krishna's lover-consort (although in some beliefs Radha is considered to be Krishna's married consort). On the other hand, Rukmini and others are already married to him. Krishna had eight chief wives, known as Ashtabharyas. Regional texts vary in the identity of Krishna's wives (consorts), some presenting them as Rukmini, some as Radha, all gopis, and some identifying all as different aspects or manifestations of the goddess Lakshmi.[11][12]
^"The firstKṛṣṇaite sampradāya was developed by Nimbārka."[24]
^"Various branches of Radhasoami have argued about the incarnationalism of Satguru (Lane, 1981). Guru Maharaj Ji has accepted it and identifies with Krishna and other incarnations of Vishnu."[268]
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^Swami Sivananda (1964).Sri Krishna. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 4.
^abK. Klostermaier (1997).The Charles Strong Trust Lectures, 1972–1984. Crotty, Robert B. Brill Academic Pub. p. 109.ISBN978-90-04-07863-5.(...) After attaining to fame eternal, he again took up his real nature asBrahman. The most important among Visnu's avataras is undoubtedly Krsna, the black one, also calledSyama. For his worshippers he is not an avatara in the usual sense, but Svayam Bhagavan, the Lord himself.
^abcDiana L. Eck (2012).India: A Sacred Geography. Harmony. pp. 380–381.ISBN978-0-385-53190-0., Quote: "Krishna was shot through the foot, hand, and heart by the single arrow of a hunter named Jara. Krishna was reclining there, so they say, and Jara mistook his reddish foot for a deer and released his arrow. There Krishna died."
^abJohn Stratton Hawley, Donna Marie Wulff (1982).The Divine Consort: Rādhā and the Goddesses of India. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher. p. 12.ISBN978-0-89581-102-8.
^abMahony, W. K. (1987). "Perspectives on Krsna's Various Personalities".History of Religions.26 (3):333–335.doi:10.1086/463085.ISSN0018-2710.JSTOR1062381.S2CID164194548. Quote: "Krsna's various appearances as a divine hero, alluring god child, cosmic prankster, perfect lover, and universal supreme being (...)".
^L. A. Waddell (1914), Besnagar Pillar InscriptionB Re-Interpreted,The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1031–1037
^Puri, B. N. (1968).India in the Time of Patanjali. Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 51: The coins of Rajuvula have been recovered from the Sultanpur District...the Brahmi inscription on the Mora stone slab, now in the Mathura Museum,
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^Sunil Kumar BhattacharyaKrishna-cult in Indian Art. 1996 M. D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.ISBN81-7533-001-5 p. 1
^Hemacandra Abhidhânacintâmani, Ed. Boehtlingk and Rien, p. 128, and Barnett's translation of the Antagada Dasāo, pp.13–15, 67–82.
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^John Stratton Hawley, Donna Marie Wulff (1982).The Divine Consort: Rādhā and the Goddesses of India. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher. p. 12.ISBN978-0-89581-102-8. Quote: "The regional texts vary in the identity of Krishna's wife (consort), some presenting it as Rukmini, some as Radha, some as Svaminiji, some adding allgopis, and some identifying all to be different aspects or manifestation of oneDevi Lakshmi."
^Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita, by Robert N. Minor inBryant 2007, pp. 77–79
^Benjamín Preciado-Solís (1984).The Kṛṣṇa Cycle in the Purāṇas: Themes and Motifs in a Heroic Saga. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 40.ISBN978-0-89581-226-1., Quote: "Within a period of four or five centuries [around the start of the common era], we encounter our major sources of information, all in different versions. The Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, the Visnu Purana, the Ghata Jataka, and the Bala Carita all appear between the first and the fifth century AD, and each of them represents a tradition of a Krsna cycle different from the others".
^Johannes de Kruijf and Ajaya Sahoo (2014),Indian Transnationalism Online: New Perspectives on Diaspora,ISBN978-1-4724-1913-2, p. 105, Quote: "In other words, according to Adi Shankara's argument, the philosophy of Advaita Vedanta stood over and above all other forms of Hinduism and encapsulated them. This then united Hinduism; (...) Another of Adi Shankara's important undertakings which contributed to the unification of Hinduism was his founding of a number of monastic centers."
^Shankara, Student's Encyclopædia Britannica – India (2000), Volume 4, Encyclopædia Britannica (UK) Publishing,ISBN978-0-85229-760-5, p. 379, Quote: "Shankaracharya, philosopher and theologian, most renowned exponent of the Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy, from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived."; David Crystal (2004), The Penguin Encyclopedia, Penguin Books, p. 1353, Quote: "[Shankara] is the most famous exponent of Advaita Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy and the source of the main currents of modern Hindu thought."
^Christophe Jaffrelot (1998),The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India, Columbia University Press,ISBN978-0-231-10335-0, p. 2, Quote: "The main current of Hinduism – if not the only one – which became formalized in a way that approximates to an ecclesiastical structure was that of Shankara".
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1 The list of the "ten avatars" varies regionally. Two substitutions[clarification needed] involve Balarama, Krishna, and Buddha. Krishna is almost always included; in exceptions, he is considered the source of all avatars.
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