Krishnaism is a term used in scholarly circles to describe large group of independentHindu traditions—sampradayas related toVaishnavism—that center on the devotion toKrishna asSvayam Bhagavan,Ishvara,Para Brahman, who is the source of all reality, not simply anavatar ofVishnu.[1][note 1] This is its difference from such Vaishnavite groupings asSri Vaishnavism,Sadh Vaishnavism,Ramaism,Radhaism, Sitaism etc.[3] There is also a personal Krishnaism, that is devotion toKrishna outside of any tradition and community, as in the case of the saint-poetMirabai.[3] Leading scholars do not define Krishnaism as a suborder or offshoot of Vaishnavism, considering it at least a parallel and no less ancient current of Hinduism.[3][4]
The teachings of theBhagavad Gita can be considered as the first Krishnaite system oftheology. Krishnaism originated in the late centuriesBCE from the followers of the heroicVāsudeva Krishna, which amalgamated several centuries later, in the early centuries CE, with the worshipers of the "divine child"Bala Krishna and theGopala-Krishna traditions of monotheisticBhagavatism. These non-Vedic traditions inMahabharata canon affiliate itself with ritualisticVedism in order to become acceptable to theorthodox establishment. Krishnaism becomes associated withbhakti movement andbhakti yoga in the Medieval period.
Krishnaism is a non-Vedic tradition in origin, but it further developed its appeal towards orthodox believers through the syncretism of these traditions with theMahabharata epic. In particular Krishnaism incorporated more or less superficially the Vedic supreme deity Vishnu, who appears in theRigveda.[note 3] Krishnaism further becomes associated withbhakti yoga in the Medieval period.
Vāsudeva-Krishna on a coin ofAgathocles of Bactria, circa 190–180 BCE.[9][10] This is "the earliest unambiguous image" of the deity.[11]
Krishnaite theology and cult originate in the first millennium BCE in theNorthern India. The theology of theBhagavad Gita (around 3rd–2nd centuries BCE) was the first Krishnaite theological system, if, according toFriedhelm Hardy, to read Gita as itself and not in the light of theMahabharata frame with Vishnu-focussed doctrine.[3] The fully developed concept of Krishna as anavatara of Vishnu emerged around the 4th or 5th century CE to reconcile earlier Krishna traditions with Vaishnava theology. Earlier texts portray Krishna as divine, but not yet clearly defined as avatara of an unmanifest Vishnu.[3] As Krishna says:
Wheneverdharma is suffering a decline, I emit myself [into the physical world]
Early Krishnaism already flourished several centuries BCE with the cult of the heroicVāsudeva Krishna in and around the region ofMathura,[3][12][13][14] which, several centuries later, was amalgamated with the cult of the "divine child" Bala Krishna and the Gopala traditions.[12][15] While Vishnu is attested already in theRigveda as a minor deity, the development of Krishnaism appears to take place via the worship of Vasudeva in the final centuries BCE. But, in accordance withDandekar, the "Vasudevism" marks the beginning of Vaishnavism in whole.In other words, Krishnaism, according to Dandekar, is not an offshoot of Vaishnavism, but, on the contrary, the cult of Vishnu and his avatars is the later transformation of Krishnaism-Bhagavatism.[note 4] This earliest phase was established in the time ofPāṇini (4th century BCE) who, in hisAstadhyayi, explained the wordvasudevaka as abhakta (devotee) of Vasudeva.[16][17][18][19] At that time, Vāsudeva was already considered as a demi-God, as he appears in Pāṇini's writings in conjunction withArjuna as an object of worship, since Pāṇini explains that avāsudevaka is a devotee (bhakta) of Vāsudeva.[17][20][21]
A branch which flourished with the decline ofVedism was centred on Krishna, the deified tribal hero and religious leader of the Yadavas.[22] Worship of Krishna, the deified tribal hero and religious leader of the Yadavas, took denominational form as thePancaratra and earlier asBhagavata religions. This tradition has at a later stage merged with the tradition ofNarayana.[7]
By the time of its incorporation into theMahabharata canon during the early centuries CE, Krishnaism began to affiliate itself withVedism in order to become acceptable to orthodoxy, in particular aligning itself with Rigvedic Vishnu.[6] At this stage that Vishnu of theRig Veda was assimilated into Krishnaism and became the equivalent of the Supreme God.[22] The appearance of Krishna as one of theAvatars of Vishnu dates to the period of theSanskrit epics in the early centuries CE. The Bhagavad Gita was incorporated into the Mahabharata as a key text for Krishnaism.[24]
Early medieval traditions. Southern and Eastern India
By theEarly Middle Ages, Krishnaism had risen to a major current of Vaishnavism.[6]
According toFriedhelm Hardy,[note 5] there is evidence of early "southern Krishnaism," despite the tendency to allocate the Krishna-traditions to the Northern traditions.[25]South Indian texts show close parallel with the Sanskrit traditions of Krishna and his gopi companions, so ubiquitous in later North Indian text and imagery.[27] Early writings inDravidian culture such asManimekalai and theCilappatikaram present Krishna,his brother, and favourite female companions in the similar terms.[27] Hardy argues that the Sanskrit Bhagavata Purana is essentially a Sanskrit "translation" of the bhakti of the Tamilalvars.[28]
Devotion to southern Indian Mal (Tirumal) may be an early form of Krishnaism, since Mal appears as a divine figure, largely like Krishna with some elements of Vishnu.[29] The alvars, whose name can be translated "sages" or "saints", were devotees of Mal. Their poems show a pronounced orientation to the Vaishnava, and often Krishna, side of Mal. But they do not make the distinction between Krishna and Vishnu on the basis of the concept of the avatars.[29] Yet, according to Hardy the term "Mayonism" should be used instead of "Krishnaism" when referring to Mal or Mayon.[25]
Vaishnavism in the 8th century came into contact with theAdvaita doctrine ofAdi Shankara.Adi Shankara, using the earlierVishnu Purana as a support, interpreted Vasudeva as the "supreme self" or Vishnu, who dwell everywhere and in all things.[36]
At this period emerged one of key texts for Krishnaites, theBhagavata Purana, that promotesbhakti (devotion) to Krishna.[37] In it one reads:
Another notable bouquet of glory of Krishna was the poems in Sanskrit, possibly byBilvamangala fromKerala, theBalagopala Stuti ("The Childhood of Krishna")[38] and theShree Krishna Karnamrutam (also calledLilasuka, "Playful parrot"), that later became a favorite text of the Bengali acharyaChaitanya Mahaprabhu.[3][39]
Holy statue ofNimbarkacharya, a founder of the first Bhakti-era Krishnaite sampradaya.
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, believed to be an expansion of Krishna in the mood of Radha.
This is the most important period, as it was at this time that Krishnaism acquired the form in which its traditions exist today. Thebhakti movement of the high and later Middle Ages Hinduism emerges in the 9th or 10th century, and is based (its Krishnaite form) on theBhagavata Purana,Narada Bhakti Sutra, and other scriptures. In North and East India, Krishnaism gave rise to various Medieval movements.[40] Early Bhakti Krishnaite pioneers include aTelugu-origin philosopherNimbarkacharya (12th or 13th century CE), the founder of the first Bhakti-era KrishnaiteNimbarka Sampradaya (a.k.a. Kumara sampradaya),[41] and his anOdisha-born friend, poetJayadeva, author ofGita Govinda.[42][43][44] Both promotedRadha Krishna to be the supreme lord while the ten incarnations are his forms.[41][45] Nimbarka more than any other acharyas, gave Radha a place as a deity.[46]
Since 15th century inBengal andAssam flourishedTantric variety of Krishnaism—Vaishnava-Sahajiya linked to the Bengali poetChandidas, as well as related to itBauls—whereKrishna is the inner divine aspect of man andRadha is the aspect of woman.[47] Chandidas'Shrikrishna Kirtana, a poem on Krishna and Radha, depicts them as divine couple, but in human love.[48]
In the WesternIndian state ofMaharashtra, saint poets of theWarkari tradition such asDnyaneshwar,Namdev,Janabai,Eknath, andTukaram promoted the worship ofVithoba, a local form of Krishna, from the late of the 13thcentury until the late 18thcentury.[54] Before the Warkari sampradaya, Krishna devotion (Pancha-Krishna, i.e. five Krishnas) became well established in Maharashtra due to the rise ofMahanubhava Panth founded by the 13th-centuryGujarati acharyaChakradhara.[55] Both schools, Warkari and Mahanubhava, venerated Krishna and his wifeRukmini (Rakhumai).[3]
ThePranami Sampradaya (Pranami Panth) emerged in the 17th century inGujarat, based on the Krishna-focussed syncretist Hindu-Islamic teachings of aSindh-born Devchandra Maharaj (1581–1655) and his famous successor, Mahamati Prannath (1618–1694).[57]
During the 18th century inKolkata, there existed the Sakhībhāvakas community, whose members wore female dress in order to identify themselves with thegopis, companions of Radha.[3]
In non-Indo-AryanManipur region, after a short period ofRamaism penetration, Gaudiya Vaishnavism spread, especially from the beginning of the second quarter of the 18th century (Manipuri Vaishnavism, the lineage ofNatottama Thakura).[58]
At the beginning of the 20th century the first attempts at establishing a Krishnaite mission in the West began. A pioneer of American mission was Baba Premananda Bharati (1858–1914) from the circle ofPrabhu Jagadbandhu.[60] Baba Bharati founded the short-lived "Krishna Samaj" society inNew York City in 1902 and built a temple inLos Angeles.[61][62] He was an author of the first full-length treatment of Gaudiya Vaishnavism in English,Sree Krishna—the Lord of Love (New York, 1904);[63] The author sent the book to Russian writerLeo Tolstoy, who was intrigued and used the text for composition his notableA Letter to a Hindu.[64] Baba Bharati's followers later formed several organisations in US, including now the now-defunct Order of Living Service and the AUM Temple of Universal Truth.[62]
Krishnaite authors continue to create major theological and poetic works. For instance, theShri Radhacharita Mahakavyam—the 1980s epic poem ofKalika Prasad Shukla, which focuses on devotion to Krishna as the universal lover is—"one of the rare, high-quality works in Sanskrit in the twentieth century."[65]
The term "Krishnaism" has been used to describe the schools, related toVaishnavism, but focused on Krishna, while "Vishnuism/Vaishnavism" may be used for traditions focusing onVishnu in which Krishna is an avatar, rather than a transcended Supreme Being.[68][69] At the same time,Friedhelm Hardy does not at all define Krishnaism as a suborder or offshoot of Vaishnavism, considering it a parallel and no less ancient current of Hinduism.[3] And, in accordance withDandekar, the "Vasudevism" (the Vasudeva cult) is the beginning stage of Vaishnavism, hence, Krishnaism was basis for later Vaishnavism.[note 7] Vishnuism believes in Vishnu as the supreme being, manifested himself as Krishna, thence Krishnaites assert Krishna to beSvayam Bhagavan (lit.'Sanskrit:'The Fortunate and Blessed One Himself'),Ishvara, thePara Brahman in human form,[70][note 8][note 9][note 10][74] that manifested himself as Vishnu. As such Krishnaism is believed to be one of the early attempts to make philosophical Hinduism appealing to the masses.[75] In common language the term Krishnaism is not often used, as many prefer a wider term "Vaishnavism", which appeared to relate to Vishnu, more specifically asVishnu-ism. In outdated literature, there is a broad understanding of Krishnaism as any cult of Krishna, including as a subordinate avatar. Thus, Krishnaism was subdivided into three categories: (1) exclusive worship of Krishna as supreme god or as incarnation of Vishnu; (2) exclusive worship ofRadha as originalshakti of Krishna or Vishnu; and (3) worship ofRadha Krishna conjointly.[76]
Various forms of Krishna depicted in lithographs printed in 1895 from Chorebagan Art Studio,Calcutta. These are Balakrishna (top), Radha-Krishna (middle) & Gopala-Krishna (bottom)
Vaishnavism is amonotheistic religion, centered on the devotion of Vishnu and his avatars. It is sometimes described as a "polymorphic monotheism", since there are many forms of one original deity, with Vishnu taking many forms. In Krishnaism this deity is Krishna—often together with his consortRadha as deityRadha Krishna[78]—sometimes referred as intimate deity — as compared with the numerous four-armed forms ofNarayana or Vishnu.[79]
Krishna is also worshiped across many other traditions of Hinduism. Krishna is often described as having the appearance of a dark-skinned person and is depicted as a young cowherd boy playing aflute or as a youthful prince giving philosophical direction and guidance, as in theBhagavad Gita.[80]
Krishna and the stories associated with him appear across a broad spectrum of different Hinduphilosophical and theological traditions, where it is believed thatGod appears to his devoted worshippers in many different forms, depending on their particular desires. These forms include the differentavataras of Krishna described in traditional Vaishnavite texts, but they are not limited to these. Indeed, it is said that the different expansions of theSvayam bhagavan are uncountable and they cannot be fully described in the finite scriptures of any one religious community.[81][82] Many of theHindu scriptures sometimes differ in details reflecting the concerns of a particular tradition, while some core features of the view on Krishna are shared by all.[83]
All of the above-mentioned incarnations are either plenary portions or portions of the plenary portions of the Lord, but Sri Krishna is the original Personality of Godhead (Svayam Bhagavan).[100]
Not all commentators on the Bhagavata Purana stress this verse, however a majority of Krishna-centered and contemporary commentaries highlight this verse as a significant statement.[101]Jiva Goswami has called itParibhasa-sutra, the "thesis statement" upon which the entire book or even theology is based.[102][103]
In another place of the Bhagavata Purana (10.83.5–43) those who are named as wives of Krishna all explain to Uraupadi how the 'Lord himself' (Svayam Bhagavan, Bhagavata Purana 10.83.7) came to marry them. As they relate these episodes, several of the wives speak of themselves as Krishna's devotees.[104] In the tenth canto the Bhagavata Purana describessvayam bhagavans Krishna's childhood pastimes as that of a much-loved child raised by cowherds inVrindavan, near to theYamuna River. The young Krishna enjoys numerous pleasures, such as thieving balls of butter or playing in the forest with his cowherd friends. He also endures episodes of carefree bravery protecting the town from demons. More importantly, however, he steals the hearts of the cowherd girls (Gopis). Through his magical ways, he multiplies himself to give each the attention needed to allow her to be so much in love with Krishna that she feels at one with him and only desires to serve him. This love, represented by the grief they feel when Krishna is called away on a heroic mission and their intense longing for him, is presented as models of the way of extreme devotion (bhakti) to the Supreme Lord.[105]
Edwin F. Bryant describes the synthesis of ideas in Bhagavata Purana 10th Book as:
The tenth book promotes Krishna as the highest absolute personal aspect of godhead — the personality behind the termIshvara and the ultimate aspect ofBrahman.[106]
Other common scriptures
Brahma Vaivarta Purana is one of major Puranas, that centers around Krishna and Radha, identifying Krishna as the Supreme Being and asserting that all deities such as Vishnu,Shiva,Brahma,Ganesha are incarnations of Him;[3]
O woman with desire, place on this patch of flower-strewn floor your lotus foot, And let your foot through beauty win, To me who am the Lord of All, O be attached, now always yours. O follow me, my little Radha.
Padma Purana deals a big part with Krishnaism, which is mostly the same as the theme of Brahma Vaivarta Purana, mainly Krishna's greatness begins at the later half of the fifth Canto.[107]
Garga Samhita is a detailed Vaishnavite scripture written by sage Garga on the life events ofRadha Krishna. It is the earliest text available which associates the festival ofHoli with them.[108][109][110]
Jiva Gosvami'sBhajan Kutir atRadha-kunda. Jiva GoswamisSandarbhas summarize Vedic sources of Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition's accretion of the concept Krishna to be the supreme Lord, based on paribhasa-sutra of Bhagavata Purana.[111]
A wide range of theological and philosophical ideas are presented through Krishna in Krishnaite texts. The teachings of theBhagavad Gita can be considered as the first Krishnaite system of theology in terms ofBhakti yoga.[3]
TheBhagavata Purana synthesizes anVedanta,Samkhya, and devotionalized Yoga praxis framework for Krishna but one that proceeds through loving devotion to Krishna.[106]
The acharya-founders of the remaining Krishnaite sampradayas did not create new schools of philosophy, following the old ones or nor attaching importance to philosophical speculations. Thus, the philosophical base of theWarkari andMahanubhava traditions is theDvaitin, andEkasarana Dharma is theAdvaitin. And theRadha-vallabha Sampradaya prefers to remain unaffiliation with any philosophical positions and declines to produce theological and philosophical commentaries, basing on purebhakti, divine love.[115]
A characteristic part of spiritual practice, in almost all traditions of Krishnaism, is akirtan, a collective musical performance with chanting of the glories of God.
The MarathiVarkari saintNamdev used the kirtan form of singing to praise the glory ofVithoba (Krishna). Marathi kirtan is typically performed by one or two main performers, called "kirtankar", accompanied byharmonium andtabla. It involves singing, acting, dancing, and story-telling. Thenaradiya kirtan popular in Maharashtra is performed by a single kirtankar, and contains the poetry of saints of Maharashtra such asDnyaneshwar,Eknath, Namdev andTukaram.[118]
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu popularized adolescent the love between Radha and Krishna based extatic publicsan-kirtan in Bengal, with Hare Krishna mantra other songs and dances, wherein the love between Radha and Krishna was symbolized as the love between one's soul and God.[119]
Sankardev in Assam helped establishsatras (temples and monasteries) withkirtan-ghar (also callednamghar), for singing and dramatic performance of Krishna-related theology.[121]
Vrindavan, Uttar Pradesh, is often considered to be a holy place by majority of traditions of Krishnaism. It's a center of Krishna worship and the area includes places likeGovardhana andGokula associated with Krishna from time immemorial. Many millions ofbhaktas or devotees of Krishna visit these places of pilgrimage every year and participate in a number of festivals that relate to the scenes from Krishna's life on Earth.[96][123][124]
On the other hand,Goloka is considered the eternal abode of Krishna,Svayam Bhagavan according to some Krishnaite schools, including Gaudiya Vaishnavism. The scriptural basis for this is taken inBrahma Samhita and Bhagavata Purana.[125]
TheDwarkadhish Temple (Dwarka, Jujarat) and theJagannath Temple (Puri, Odisha) are particularly significant in Krishnaism, and are regarded have been two of the four major pilgrimage destinations for most Hindus as theChar Dham pilgrimage sites.[34]
There are adherents of Krishnaism in all strata of Indian society, but a tendency has been revealed, for example, Bengal Gaudiya Vaishnavas belong to the lower middle castes, while the upper castes as well as lowest castes and tribes areShaktas.[126]
^"The termKṛṣṇaism, then, can be used to summarize a large group of independent systems of beliefs and devotion that developed over more than two thousand years ..."[2]
^"Present day Krishna worship is an amalgam of various elements. According to historical testimonies Krishna-Vāsudeva worship already flourished in and around Mathura several centuries before Christ. A second important element is the cult of Krishna Govinda. Still later is the worship of Bala-Krishna, the Divine Child Krishna — a quite prominent feature of modern Krishnaism. The last element seems to have been Krishna Gopijanavallabha, Krishna the lover of the Gopis, among whom Radha occupies a special position. In some books Krishna is presented as the founder and first teacher of the Bhagavata religion."[6]
^"Non-Vedic in origin and development, Kṛṣṇaism now sought affiliation with Vedism so that it could become acceptable to the still not inconsiderable orthodox elements among the people. That is how Viṣṇu of the Ṛgveda came to be assimilated—more or less superficially—into Kṛṣṇaism."[8]
^"The origin of Vaiṣṇavism as a theistic sect can by no means be traced back to the Ṛgvedic god Viṣṇu. In fact, Vaiṣṇavism is in no sense Vedic in origin. (...) Strangely, the available evidence shows that the worship of Vāsudeva, and not that of Viṣṇu, marks the beginning of what we today understand by Vaiṣṇavism. This Vāsudevism, which represents the earliest known phase of Vaiṣṇavism, must already have become stabilized in the days of Pāṇini (sixth to fifth centuries bce)."[4]
^Friedhelm Hardy in hisViraha-bhakti analyses the history of Krishnaism, specifically all pre-11th-century sources starting with the stories of Krishna and thegopi, andMayon mysticism of the VaishnavaTamil saints, SangamTamil literature andAlvars' Krishna-centered devotion in therasa of the emotional union and the dating and history of theBhagavata Purana.[25][26]
^"Radha Vallabh Sampradaya is conditionally Krishnaite, representing such current asRadhaism, due to the worship of Radha as the supreme deity, where Krishna is only her most intimate servant.[3][67]
^"The origin of Vaiṣṇavism as a theistic sect can by no means be traced back to the Ṛgvedic god Viṣṇu. In fact, Vaiṣṇavism is in no sense Vedic in origin. (...) Strangely, the available evidence shows that the worship of Vāsudeva, and not that of Viṣṇu, marks the beginning of what we today understand by Vaiṣṇavism. This Vāsudevism, which represents the earliest known phase of Vaiṣṇavism, must already have become stabilized in the days of Pāṇini (sixth to fifth centuries bce)."[4]
^"(...) After attaining to fame eternal, he again took up his real nature asBrahman. The most important among Visnu's avataras is undoubtedly Krsna, the black one, also calledSyama. For his worshippers he is not an avatara in the usual sense, but Svayam Bhagavan, the Lord himself."[71]
^"On the touch-stone of this definition of the final and positive characteristic of Sri Krsna as the Highest Divinity as Svayam-rupa Bhagavan."[72]
^"The Bengal School identifies the Bhagavat with Krishna depicted in the Shrimad-Bhagavata and presents him as its highest personal God."[73]
^"It becomes clear that the personality of Bhagvan Krishna subordinates to itself the titles and identities of Vishnu, Narayana, Purusha, Ishvara, Hari, Vasudeva, Janardana etc. The pervasive theme, then, of theBhagavata Puran is the identification of Bhagavan with Krishna."[77]
^"..Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana, certainly the most popular religious books in the whole of India. Not only was Krsnaism influenced by the identification of Krsna with Vishnu, but also Vaishnavism as a whole was partly transformed and reinvented in the light of the popular and powerful Krishna religion. Bhagavatism may have brought an element of cosmic religion into Krishna worship; Krishna has certainly brought a strongly human element into Bhagavatism. ... The center of Krishna-worship has been for a long time Brajbhumi, the district of Mathura that embraces also Vrindavana, Govardhana, and Gokula, associated with Krishna from the time immemorial. Many millions of Krishnabhaktas visit these places ever year and participate in the numerous festivals that reenact scenes from Krshnas life on Earth."[96]
^"John M. Robertson wrote a learned treatise entitled "Christ and Krishna", and in that work he argued that there was no direct contact between Krishnaism and Christianity; but that both sects were derived from an earlier common source."[133]
^"The affixvun comes in the sense of "this is his object of veneration" after the words 'Vâsudeva' and 'Arjuna'", giving Vâsudevaka and Arjunaka. Source: Aṣṭādhyāyī 2.0Panini 4-3-98
^ab"Vaishnava". philtar.ucsm.ac.uk. Archived fromthe original on 12 February 2012. Retrieved22 May 2008.
^Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar, Ramchandra Narayan Dandekar (1976).Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar as an Indologist: A Symposium. India: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. pp. 38–40.
^Indian Philosophy & Culture. Vol. 20. Institute of Oriental Philosophy (Vrindāvan, India), Institute of Oriental Philosophy, Vaishnava Research Institute, contributors. The Institute. 1975. p. 148.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
^"Sri Krishna". www.stephen-knapp.com. Retrieved30 April 2008.
^Dhanurdhara Swami (2000).Waves of Devotion. Bhagavat Books.ISBN0-9703581-0-5.
^"Waves of Devotion". www.wavesofdevotion.com. Archived fromthe original on 29 September 2011. Retrieved4 May 2008. InHari-namamr†a-vyakarana, Jiva Gosvami defines paribhasa-sutra asaniyame niyama-karini paribhasa: "Aparibhasa-sutra implies a rule or theme where it is not explicitly stated." In other words, it gives the context in which to understand a series of apparently unrelated statements in a book.
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