| Sierra Leonean Creole | |
|---|---|
| Native to | Sierra Leone |
| Ethnicity | Sierra Leone Creoles Gambian Creoles Krio Fernandinos[1] Nigerian Creoles[2] |
| Speakers | L1: 860,000 (2021)[3] L2: 6.9 million (2021)[3] |
English Creole
| |
| Dialects | |
| Official status | |
Official language in | Sierra Leone |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | kri |
| Glottolog | krio1253 |
| Linguasphere | 52-ABB-bb |
| This article containsIPA phonetic symbols. Without properrendering support, you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbols instead ofUnicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA. | |
TheSierra Leonean Creole orKrio is anEnglish-based creole language that is thelingua franca andde factonational language spoken throughout the West African nation ofSierra Leone. Krio is spoken by 96 percent of the country's population,[4][5] and it unites the different ethnic groups in the country, especially in their trade and social interaction with each other.[6] Krio is the primary language of communication among Sierra Leoneans at home and abroad,[7] and has also heavily influencedSierra Leonean English.[8] The language is native to theSierra Leone Creole people, or Krios, a community of about 104,311[4] descendants of freed slaves from theWest Indies,United States and theBritish Empire, and is spoken as a second language by millions of other Sierra Leoneans belonging tothe country's indigenous tribes. English is Sierra Leone'sofficial language, and Krio, despite its common use throughout the country, has no official status.
The Krio language is an offshoot of the languages and variations of English brought by theNova Scotian Settlers fromNorth America,Maroons fromJamaica, and the numerous liberated African slaves who settled in Sierra Leone.[9]
All freed slaves—theJamaican Maroons,African Americans, andLiberated Africans—influenced Krio, but the Jamaican Maroons,Igbo,Yoruba andAkan Liberated Africans were the most influential. It seems probable that the basic grammatical structure and vowel system of Krio is an offshoot ofJamaican Maroon Creole[10] spoken by the Maroons, as there are well-documented and important direct historical connections between Jamaica and Sierra Leone. The language was also influenced byAfrican American Vernacular English while the majority of the African words in Krio come from theAkan,Yoruba andIgbo.[9][11]
As anEnglish-based creole language, the Sierra Leone Krio is distinct from apidgin as it is a language in its own right,[12][13] with fixed grammatical structures and rules. Krio also draws from otherEuropean languages, likePortuguese andFrench, e.g. the Krio wordgentri/gentree, which means wealth or to acquire wealth, is derived from theOld French word 'gentry', and the Krio wordpikin, which means 'child', indirectly comes from thePortuguese wordpequeno meaning 'small' and often used to mean children in Portuguese.[14][15]
InSierra Leone, the Krio Language is spoken by people with different degrees of fluency, as well as regional changes to the Krio. Many of the speakers of Sierra Leone Krio live in or close to the capital city,Freetown. As of 2007, there were close to 350,000 individuals who spoke Krio as a primary language. Even more individuals were using it as a main language for communication purposes in the country as a whole.[16]
One theory suggests the early roots of Krio go back to theAtlantic slave trade era in the 17th and 18th centuries when an English-based "pidgin" language (West African Pidgin English, also called Guinea Coast Creole English) arose to facilitate the coastal trade between Europeans and Africans. This early pidgin later became the lingua franca of regional trade among West Africans themselves and likely spread up the river systems to the African interior. After the founding of Freetown, this preexisting pidgin was incorporated into the speech of the various groups of freed slaves landed in Sierra Leone between 1787 and about 1855. The pidgin gradually evolved to become a stable language, the native language of descendants of the freed slaves (which are now a distinct ethnic and cultural group, the Creoles), and the lingua franca of Sierra Leone.[17]
Most ethnic and cultural Creoles live in and aroundFreetown, the capital of Sierra Leone, and their community accounts for about 3% to 6% of Sierra Leone's total population (Freetown is the province where the returned slaves from London andNova Scotia settled).[18] However, because of their cultural influence in Sierra Leone, especially during the period of colonial rule, their language is used as the lingua franca among all the ethnic groups in Sierra Leone.
The Sierra Leone Creole people acted as traders and missionaries in other parts of West Africa during the 19th century, and as a result, there are also Krio-speaking communities inThe Gambia,Nigeria,Cameroon,Equatorial Guinea,Senegal, andGuinea.[19] As a result of Sierra Leone Creole migratory patterns, in the Gambia, theGambian Creoles orAku community speak Krio. TheFernando Po Creole English language of Equatorial Guinea is also largely a result of Sierra Leone Creole migrants. A small number of liberated Africans returned to the land of their origins, such as theSaros of Nigeria who not only took their Western names with them but also imported Krio words likesabi intoNigerian Pidgin English.
During the period of colonial rule, Sierra Leoneans (particularly among the upper class) were discouraged from speaking Krio; but afterindependence from the United Kingdom in 1961, writers and educators began promoting its use. In the 1960s,Thomas Decker translated some ofShakespeare's plays into Krio, and composed original poetry in the language. In the 1980s, theNew Testament was translated into Krio. Beginning with the involvement of Lutheran Bible Translators,[20] Krio-language translations of the New Testament andOld Testament were published in 1986 and 2013.
While English is Sierra Leone's official language, theMinistry of Education began using Krio as the medium of instruction in some primary schools in Freetown in the 1990s. Radio stations now broadcast a wide variety of programs in Krio. Sierra Leonean politicians also routinely give public speeches in the language.
Krio is anEnglish-based creole from which descendNigerian Pidgin English andCameroonian Pidgin English andPichinglis. It is also similar to English-based creole languages spoken in the Americas, especiallyJamaican Patois (Jamaican Creole),Sranan Tongo (Surinamese Creole),Bajan Creole andGullah language, but it has its own distinctive character. It also shares somelinguistic similarities with non-English creoles, such as theFrench-based creoles of the Caribbean.
Krio contains sevenmonophthongs in its inventory ofvowels, all of which can be nasalized. Most nasal vowels occur in words derived from English, in cases where an oral vowel precedes a nasalconsonant. The nasal consonant is deleted and the vowel is nasalized.[21]
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Close | i | u | |
| Close-mid | e | o | |
| Open-mid | ɛ | ɔ | |
| Open | a |
Krio has threediphthongs:/ai/,/au/, and/ɔi/.
There are 24phonemes in the consonant inventory of Krio.[21]
| Bilabial | Labiodental | Labial–velar | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosive | voiceless | p | kp | t | k | |||
| voiced | b | ɡb | d | ɡ | ||||
| Fricative | voiceless | f | s | ʃ | ||||
| voiced | v | z | ʒ | ʁ ⟨r⟩ | ||||
| Affricate | voiceless | tʃ | ||||||
| voiced | dʒ | |||||||
| Central | w | j⟨y⟩ | ||||||
| Lateral | l | |||||||
| Nasal | m | n | ɲ | ŋ | ||||
Consonant cluster reduction is a common process in phonology. It is typically applied to lexical items in English containing two or more consonants in a row including an initials. Some examples include:[22]
| Krio word | English meaning |
|---|---|
| plit | 'split' |
| trit | 'street' |
| tret | 'straight' |
| pit | 'spit' |
| prɛd | 'spread' |
| tap | 'stop' |
Replacing a stop for a fricative, known asstopping substitution, is also common in words of English origin. Some examples include:
| Krio word | English meaning |
|---|---|
| dɛm | 'them' |
| brɔda | 'brother' |
| tɛŋki | 'thanks' |
| ebi | 'heavy' |
| dɛbul | 'devil' |
| tit | 'teeth' |
There is also evidence of the influence of West African languages in the presence of thelabial-velarplosives /kp/ and /gb/, as in:
| Krio word | English meaning |
|---|---|
| akpɔlɔ | 'frog' |
| agbo | 'medicinal herb' |
| gbagbati | 'show of force' |
| kpatakpata | 'completely finished' |
Krio is atonal language and makes contrastive use of tone in both African and English words. Examples of minimal pairs of words distinguished by tone patterns are:[23]
| LL (low-low) | LH (low-high) | HL (high-low) | HH (high-high) |
|---|---|---|---|
| ale 'skin-irritating herb' | ale 'go away' | ||
| baba 'a young boy' | baba 'a barber' | baba 'a type of drum' | |
| bebi 'a baby or a doll' | bebi 'girlfriend or attractive young woman' | ||
| brɔda 'elder brother or older male relative' | brɔda 'brother' | ||
| fada 'a Catholic priest' | fada 'father' | fada ‘God’ | |
| kɔntri 'someone from the countryside' | kɔntri 'a country' |
Krio uses theLatin script but withoutQq andXx and with three additional letters from theAfrican reference alphabet,Ɛɛ (open E),Ŋŋ (eng), andƆɔ (open O). Threetones can be distinguished in Krio and are sometimes marked withgrave (à),acute (á), andcircumflex (â) accents over the vowels for low, high, and falling tones respectively but these accents are not employed in normal usage.
The complete alphabet withdigraphs:
| Krio letter or digraph | Example word | English meaning |
|---|---|---|
| A, a | wata | water |
| Aw, aw | naw | now |
| Ay, ay | yay | eye |
| B, b | bin | already |
| Ch, ch | cham | chew |
| D, d | dia | expensive (< dear) |
| E, e | let | late |
| Ɛ, ɛ | ɛp | help |
| F, f | fɔs | first |
| G, g | got | goat |
| H, h | Harry | Harry |
| I, i | titi | little girl, small female child |
| J, j | jomp | jump |
| K, k | kɔntri | country |
| L, l | liv | live (being alive) |
| M, m | muf/muv | to move |
| N, n | nak | knock |
| Ny, ny | nyu | new |
| Ŋ, ŋ | siŋ | sing |
| O, o | wok | to work |
| Ɔ, ɔ | bɔn | born, give birth to |
| Ɔy, ɔy | jɔy | joy, happiness |
| P, p | padi | friend |
| R, r | ren | rain |
| S, s | saf | soft |
| Sh, sh | shem | shame, to be ashamed |
| T, t | tif | steal (< thief) |
| T, t | tranga | difficult, hard |
| U, u | uman | woman |
| V, v | vot | vote |
| W, w | waka | walk |
| Y, y | yala | yellow |
| Z, z | zɛd | the letter 'z' |
| Zh, zh | plɛzhɔ | pleasure |
The particledɛm is appended after a noun to mark the plural, e.g.uman ('woman'):
| singular | plural |
|---|---|
| uman | uman dɛm |
Verbs do not conjugate according to person or number, but reflect their tense. Tense, aspect and mood are marked by one or more tense or aspect markers. The tense markers are 'bin' for the past tense and 'go' for the future, the absence of either shows the present tense. Aspect is shown bydɔn (from English 'done') for perfective andde (cf. English 'there', Yorubadé,dà) for imperfective. Infinitive is marked byfɔ (from English 'for') and conditional by a combination ofbin andgo. Tendency is marked bykin andnɔba/naba.
The verbal paradigm is as follows:
| Krio form | Verb tense |
|---|---|
| fɔ go | infinitive |
| go | present simple (unmarked) |
| de go | present progressive |
| dɔn go | perfect |
| dɔn de go | perfect progressive |
| go go | future simple |
| go de go | future progressive |
| go dɔn go | future perfect |
| go dɔn de go | future perfect progressive |
| bin go | past simple |
| bin de go | past progressive |
| bin dɔn go | past perfect |
| bin dɔn de go | past perfect progressive |
| bin fɔ go | conditional |
| bin fɔ de go | conditional progressive |
| bin fɔ dɔn go | conditional perfect |
| bin fɔ dɔn de go | conditional perfect progressive |
| kin go | tendency |
| nɔ kin go,nɔba go | negative tendency |
Thehortative is marked bylɛ (from English 'let'), e.g.lɛ wi go ('let's go'),lɛ wi tɔk ('let's talk') and theoptative bymek (from English 'make'), e.g.mek yu kiŋdɔm kam ('let your kingdom come'),mek wetin yu want ('let your will be done').
The followinginterrogatives can be used:
| Krio word | English meaning |
|---|---|
| udat | who |
| wetin | what |
| ustɛm | when |
| usai | where |
| wetin-mek | why |
| us | which |
| ɔmɔs | how much/many |
In addition, like many other creoles, a question can be asked simply by intonation.E.g.yu de go? ('are you going?') vs.yu de go. ('you are going'). Additionally the question particlesɛnti andnɔ so/noto so can be used at the start or end of the phrase respectively.
There is no distinction between masculine and feminine in any person and, unlike Standard English, there is a second person plural form. However, there are the hints ofnominative,accusative andgenitive cases.
| Krio word | English meaning |
|---|---|
| a,mi,mi | I, me, my |
| yu | you, your |
| i,in,am,im | he/she/it, him/her/it, his/her/its |
| wi | we, us, our |
| unu,una,ina | you, you, your(plural) |
| dɛm,dɛn | they, them, theirs |
Below are some common words in Krio, showing words from various origins:
| Krio word | English meaning |
|---|---|
| Salon/Salone | Sierra Leone |
| Adu,Kushɛ | Hello, Hi |
| Padi | Friend |
| Titi | Girl |
| Bɔbɔ | Boy |
| Mi | Me |
| Pikin | Child |
| Wɔwɔ | Ugly |
| Yu | You |
| Plaba | Conflict |
| Sɔri,Ɔsh | Sorry |
| Tɔk | Talk |
| Fɔgɛt | Forget |
| Ansa | Answer |
| Mek | Make |
| Bɔku | Many, Too much |
| Uman | Woman |
| Lef | Stop |
| Mɔt | Mouth |
| Kil | Kill |
| Pipul | People |
| Wetin | What |
| Usay/Usai,We | Where |
| Wetin-mek | Why |
| Ustɛm | When |
| Vɛx | Angry |
| Dia | Expensive |
| Waka | Walk |
| Cham | Chew |
| Motoka | Car |
| Sabi | Know |
| Fεt | Fight |
| Wεf | Wife |
| Lεf | Stop |
| Mama | Mother |
| Papa | Father |
| Grani | Grandmother |
| Granpa | Grandfather |
| Tif | Steal |
| Jomp | Jump |
| Chɛr | Rip |
| Dede/Dai | Dead |
| Tata | Bye |
Below are some sample sentences in Krio:
| Krio sentence | English meaning |
|---|---|
| Kushɛ/Kushɛ-o | "Hello", "Hi" |
| Wetin na yu nem? | "What is your name?" |
| Mi nem na Jems. | "My name is James." |
| Usai yu kɔmɔt? | "Where do you come from?" |
| A kɔmɔt Estins. | "I come from Hastings." |
| Us wok yu de du? | "What work do you do?" |
| Mi na ticha. | "I am a teacher." |
| Na us skul yu de tich? | "At what school do you teach?" |
| A de tich na Prins ɔf Wels. | "I teach at Prince of Wales." |
| A gladi fɔ mit yu. | "I am happy to meet you." |
| Misɛf gladi fɔ mit yu. | "I myself am happy to meet you." |
| OK, a de go naw. | "OK, I am going now." |
| Ɔrayt, wi go tok bak. | "Alright, we will talk again." |
Below is a sample of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights in Krio:
| Krio | High Krio (Salontòk) | English |
|---|---|---|
| Atikul Wan | Artikul Wan | Article 1 |
| Ɛvribɔdi bɔn fri ɛn gɛt in yon rayt, nobɔdi nɔ pas in kɔmpin. Wi ɔl ebul fɔ tink ɛn fɛnɔt wetin rayt ɛn rɔŋ. Ɛn pantap dat wi fɔ sabi aw fɔ liv lɛk wan big famili. | Òll mòrtalmandèm bòrn fri èn ekwal pan dignity èn raihtdèm. Dhèm gèt ratio èn kònshèns èn pantap dhat dhèm fòr akt with dhèm kòmpin na bròdharhudim spirit. | All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. |
Krio is used (incorrectly) early in the 2006 filmBlood Diamond between Danny Archer (played byLeonardo DiCaprio) and a character named Commander Zero.
It can be heard in the music video for "Diamonds from Sierra Leone", a song by American rapper Kanye West.
In 2007, work was completed on an unsanctioned, dubbed Krio version ofFranco Zeffirelli's 1977 filmJesus of Nazareth. The dubs were recorded by a team of over 14 native Krio speakers, over a period of 9 months in the Lungi region of Sierra Leone. The film aired on ABC-TV and a limited run of 300 copies were produced, which were mostly sold inLungi and Freetown.[24]
Krio is heard in the English language documentaryWar Don Don. The film's title is in Krio.
The first feature-length documentary entirely spoken in Krio isBoris Gerrets' filmShado’man (2014).[25] It was shot in Freetown at night with a group of homeless disabled people. The film premiered at theIDFA documentary festival[26] in Amsterdam and was seen in festivals around the world includingFESPACO, the biannual Pan-African film festival inOuagadougou.[27][28][29][30][31]
Peter Grant, the protagonist ofBen Aaronovitch'sRivers of London series, is the London-born son of an immigrant from Sierra Leone. While speaking English with other characters, he speaks Krio with his mother. Aaronovitch includes some such conversations in his text, leaving the reader to puzzle out what was said.
Text was copied from this source, which is available under aCreative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
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|---|---|
| National | |
| Other | |
