Hušnjakovo brdo (Croatian) | |
 Hušnjakovo Hill finding site | |
  Shown within Krapina-Zagorje County Show map of Krapina-Zagorje County Krapina Neanderthal site (Croatia) Show map of Croatia Krapina Neanderthal site (Europe) Show map of Europe | |
| Location | Western part ofKrapina |
|---|---|
| Region | Krapina-Zagorje County, Croatia |
| Coordinates | 46°9′53″N15°51′49″E / 46.16472°N 15.86361°E /46.16472; 15.86361 |
| History | |
| Periods | Palaeolithic |
| Cultures | Mousterian |
| Associated with | Neanderthals |
| Site notes | |
| Excavation dates | 1970 |
| Archaeologists | Dragutin Gorjanović-Kramberger |
| Management | Krapina Neanderthal Museum |
| Public access | Yes |
| Website | https://mkn.mhz.hr/ |
Krapina Neanderthal site, also known asHušnjakovo Hill (Croatian:Hušnjakovo brdo) is aPaleolithic archaeological site located nearKrapina,Croatia.
At the turn of the 20th century,Dragutin Gorjanović-Kramberger recovered faunal remains as well as stone tools and human remains at the site. Krapina represents the largest known recovery of human skeletal remains from any Upper Pleistocene site.
The site was first discovered byDragutin Gorjanović-Kramberger, who excavated the site between 1899 and 1905 and subsequently published two monographs, which were the first publications on theNeanderthals found here. The prehistoric site itself is located in a collapsedcave, nestled in asandstone bluff overlooking the Krapinica River inHrvatsko Zagorje.[1]
More recently, it was determined that the site was about 120–130 kyr.[2] Researchers determined its date by usingESR andU-series dating. The methods were also used for determining the age of the artifacts and human remains found in the site.
The Krapina museum's main goal was to recognize the lives of the Neanderthal and give insight on evolution. The museum was also known for its fossils as well as the reconstructions.[3]
The first museum near this site was opened on May 10, 1952. Called the Heritage Museum of Krapina, it showcased the total history of the area, beginning with select prehistoric Neanderthal finds, and up to theYugoslav Partisans. By 1966, two more exhibitions were added: the family pictures of Dr. Ljudevit and theethnography exhibition. During this time, there was no museum dedicated specially to theNeanderthals.[4]
The idea of a specialized museum was first brought forward in 1999. As the adaptation and renovation of already existing structures appeared to be more expensive than building a new one, the idea of making a new one from the ground up was accepted. As such, by 2002. work on the new museum began.[5]
The new museum was completed in 2010. It was built into a small hill, with the majority of the building front being made of glass. The entrance to the building opens up into a large oval atrium of grey concrete, the opposite of which is a broad screen which continuously plays documentary films on Krapina Neanderthals. The passage up to the second floor is of a circular shape, with museum pieces being placed in the open space, as well as along the painted walls.[6]
1191 lithic artifacts were discovered during the century of research at the site, and were found in all ten geologic levels as defined by Gorjanović-Kramberger.Stone tools are most common in levels 3 and 8, which are the levels in which thehominidfossils were found as well.[1]
According to the Middle Paleolithic typology set out byFrançois Bordes, the Krapina lithic assemblage can be categorized asMousterian, with a mix of various tool classes. The assemblage is dominated byside-scrapers, comprising more than half of all stone tool finds, which would classify it as Charentian Mousterian. Upper Paleolithic finds are rare, as areLevallois blanks. Six rock types were used in production of stone tools:volcanic tuff, silicified tuff,cherts,quartz aggregates,opals orchalcedonies, and rocks of effusive origin. Tuffs and silicified tuffs were used most often (65%), while cherts compromise ~23% of the artifacts.[1]
Gorjanović-Kramberger was first to propose the possible existence ofcannibalism among the Krapina Neanderthals, in 1901. He based this assumption on three factors: mixing of animals and human skeletal remains, breaking of long bones (in order to access themarrow), and the fact that not a single skull was found in a non-broken state. The idea of possible cannibalism was supported by a number of subsequent scientists, such asMirko Malez, H. Ulrich and K. Tomić Karlović.[7]
The extreme fragmentation and the occasional burning traces and cranial fragments suggested that Krapina Neanderthals committed cannibalism. Percussion marks on split tibia fragments, opened marrow channels inhumerus,radius,ulna andfemur point to marrow extraction. Additionally, breakage patterns and blow marks onskull fragments specify perimortem skull fracturing for removing the brain. In 1985, anthropologist Trinkaus hypothesized that the skulls were broken because of sediment pressure and movement, and the pieces were separated postdepositionally. He attributes the scattered and incoherent parts of the skeleton to the collapse of rocks, the activities of other mammals, man-made activities like the construction of hearths near the buried skeletons and sedimentary settling of the deposits and so on. Another anthropologist, Russell, hypothesized in 1987 that the remains of the Krapina hominid were defleshed in preparation for the secondary burial.[8][9][10][11]
Others have seen the damage on bones as a result of asecondary burial or other ritual actions, which may have included cannibalism. As such, the meat may have been exposed to nature for animals, or it could have been removed using sharp stone tools.[7] In fact, incisions on certain individuals aren't consistent with eitherscalping, cannibalism, defleshing or any other post-mortem activity. They may have been the result of symbolic marking as a part of a yet unknown Neanderthal ritual. As such, the question of whether Krapina Neanderthals engaged in cannibalism remains open.[10]
Remains of 11 individuals exhibited signs of injuries that healed during their lifetimes, which wouldn't have been possible without the care of the community.[12]
Krapina 3 was a skull recovered by Gorjanović-Kramberger, which he initially identified as Cranium C. When discovered, the skull was missing the left side. The cranium is said to be of an adult woman.[9]
Eightwhite-tailed eagle talons and one footphalanx were found at the site, and were dated byuranium–thorium dating to 130 000BP. All of them contain evidence of modification onmedial and lateral edges, in form of cut marks, nicks and polishing. They don't have any drilled holes, which suggests that the talons were worn after being tied around their proximal margins. Pigments ofochre and black pigment were found on the surface. Traces of animal fiber were also found, implying one or more of the talons were bound into an assemblage.[17]
After Gorjanović-Kramberger recovered the talons from the site he cataloged and sent them to be identified by Lambrecht. Lambrecht identified the talons from a white-tailed eagle. In the same site they were able to recover twenty-nine different bird species. Among those birds, the majority were eagles and owls. While analyzing the talons they saw that they were the only ones with changes made by someone.[18]
In the sandy deposits of the cave about nine hundred specimens of fossilised human bones were found - the fossil remains belonged to several dozen different individuals, of different sex, from 2 to 40 years of age. According to anthropologist Herbert Ullrich, calculating the minimum number of individuals (MNI) for Krapina is an arduous task, because of the fractured or fragmented condition of the bones and incomplete data for the precise stratigraphic location of most fragments. The majority of the Krapina human remains are split and scattered bones with no associated elements: there are nomandible with matchingcranium, nofemur with matchingtibia, nohumerus with matchingulna, etc. Approximate MNI estimates vary significantly: 10 to 75-82 (teeth only), but the most credible minimum published the number of individuals is 23–35.[8][9]
Some scientists believe around 80 individuals are represented, and that the fossils found here were accumulated in a relatively short period of time 130 thousand yearsBP.[19] Others place the number of individuals as low as 27.[20]
Krapina's Neanderthal remains represent the largest and most complete hominid collection known, with almost all parts of the human skeleton being found at the site.[21]
Around 80 individuals are represented by craniodental remains. Based on reconstruction of the fragmented remains through 3D modeling, an average cranial capacity was set between 1326–1359 cm3,[19] which is slightly larger than among anatomically modern humans.[22] Several children cranial remains were found in Krapina as well, whose reconstruction shows that Krapina Neanderthals show an identical pattern of secondaryaltriciality as modern humans do, although they had a more primitive speed of brain growth.[23] The Krapina Neanderthals exhibit a morphology of theoccipital bone common to most other Neanderthals.[24]
Thecochlear labyrinth volume was successfully reconstructed for the Krapina Neanderthals as well. The volume is similar to those found in modern humans, which suggests Krapina Neanderthals had a range of audible frequencies similar to them as well.[25]
Three samples of thefirst cervical vertebra were found among the Krapina Neanderthal sample. Two of the three samples presented anatomical variations, which differs from the anatomically modern humans. As such, the Krapina sample, taken in conjunction with first cervical vertebra found atSidrón Cave, seems to confirm such anatomical variation in Neanderthals. Prevalence of different anatomical variants in hominids has been linked with several diseases, low genetic diversity andinbreeding.[26]
Some Neanderthalanterior teeth show traces of unusual and excessive gross wear, which is usually indicative of non-dietary tooth use. The most common explanation for such tooth wear is the "stuff and cut" scenario, according to which teeth are used as a "third hand" for grasping materials that required additional processing with tools. Examples of such use isanimal hide preparation,basketry tasks, wood softening, as well as tool production and retouching.[27] Chipping found on both anterior andposterior teeth further confirms the theory that Krapina Neanderthal's used their teeth for non-masticatory tasks. Such chipping has been found in sub-adult dental remains as well.[28]
KDP 20, also known as Krapina Dental Person 20, is represented by four mandibular teeth. All four of these teeth show various traces of grooving andenamel scratching, which implies that the Neanderthal attempted to alleviate tooth pain through a direct, mechanical approach.[29]