Kosovo formed the core territory of theDardani, anIllyrian people, attested in classical sources from the 4th century BCE. The Dardani established theKingdom of Dardania, with its political and cultural center likely located near present-dayLipjan (ancientUlpiana). The kingdom was incorporated into theRoman Empire in the 1st century BCE; later, in the 3rd century CE, it was transformed into a separateRoman province. During theByzantine period, the region was eventually organised as part of the Theme of Dardania and remained under imperial control, facingSlavic migrations in the 6th and 7th centuries CE. Control shifted between the Byzantines and theFirst Bulgarian Empire. In the 13th century, Kosovo became integral to theSerbian medieval state and the establishment of theSerbian Patriarchate.Ottoman expansion in the Balkans in the late 14th and 15th centuries led to the decline andfall of the Serbian Empire; theBattle of Kosovo of 1389, in which a Serbian-led coalition of various ethnicities fought against the Ottoman Empire, is considered one of the defining moments.
The entire territory that corresponds to today's country is commonly referred to in English simply asKosovo and inAlbanian asKosova (definite form) orKosovë (indefinite form,pronounced[kɔˈsɔvə]). In Serbia, a formal distinction is made between the eastern and western parts of the country; the termKosovo (Косово) is used for the eastern part of Kosovo centred on the historicalKosovo Field, while the western part of the territory of Kosovo is calledMetohija (Albanian:Dukagjin). Thus, in Serbian, the entire area of Kosovo is referred to asKosovo and Metohija.[23]
An alternative name forWestern Kosovo is Dukagjini or Dukagjini plateau (Albanian:Rrafshi i Dukagjinit), having been in use since the 15th–16th century as part of theSanjak ofDukakin with its capitalPeja, and is named after the medieval AlbanianDukagjini family.[24]
Modern usage
Some Albanians also prefer to refer to Kosovo asDardania, the name of an ancient kingdom and laterRoman province which covered the territory of modern-day Kosovo. The name is derived from the ancient tribe of theDardani, which is considered to be related to the Proto-Albanian termdardā, which means "pear" (Modern Albanian:dardhë).[21][25] The former Kosovo PresidentIbrahim Rugova was an enthusiastic backer of a "Dardanian" identity, and the Kosovar presidential flag and seal refer to this national identity. However, the name "Kosova" remains more widely used among the Albanian population. The flag of Dardania remains in use as the officialPresidential seal and standard and is heavily featured in the institution of the presidency of the country.
The official conventional long name, as defined by theconstitution, isRepublic of Kosovo.[26] Additionally, as a result of anarrangement agreed between Pristina and Belgrade in talks mediated by the European Union, Kosovo has participated in some international forums and organisations under the title "Kosovo*" with a footnote stating, "This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line withUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1244 and theInternational Court of Justice Opinion on the Kosovo declaration of independence." This arrangement, which has been dubbed the "asterisk agreement", was agreed in an 11-point arrangement on 24 February 2012.[27]
The strategic position including the abundantnatural resources were favourable for the development of human settlements in Kosovo, as is highlighted by the hundreds of archaeological sites identified throughout its territory.[28]
NeolithicGoddess on the Throne is one of the most significant archaeological artefacts of Kosovo and has been adopted as the symbol ofPristina.
Since 2000, the increase in archaeological expeditions has revealed many previously unknown sites. The earliest documented traces in Kosovo are associated to theStone Age; namely, indications that cave dwellings might have existed, such as Radivojce Cave near the source of theDrin River, Grnčar Cave inViti municipality and the Dema and Karamakaz Caves in themunicipality of Peja.
The earliest archaeological evidence of organised settlement in Kosovo belongs to theNeolithicStarčevo andVinča cultures.[29]Vlashnjë andRunik are important sites of theNeolithic era with the rock art paintings at Mrrizi i Kobajës nearVlashnjë being the first find of prehistoric art in Kosovo.[30] Amongst the finds of excavations in Neolithic Runik is a baked-clayocarina, which is the first musical instrument recorded in Kosovo.[29]
The first archaeological expedition in Kosovo was organised by the Austro-Hungarian army duringWorld War I in theIllyriantumuli burial grounds of Nepërbishti within thedistrict of Prizren.[28]
The beginning of theBronze Age coincides with the presence oftumuli burial grounds in western Kosovo, like the site ofRomajë.[28]
TheDardani were the most importantPaleo-Balkan tribe in the region of Kosovo. A wide area which consists of Kosovo, parts of Northern Macedonia and eastern Serbia was namedDardania after them in classical antiquity, reaching to theThraco-Illyrian contact zone in the east. In archaeological research, Illyrian names are predominant in western Dardania, while Thracian names are mostly found in eastern Dardania.
Thracian names are absent in western Dardania, while some Illyrian names appear in the eastern parts. Thus, their identification as either anIllyrian orThracian tribe has been a subject of debate, the ethnolinguistic relationship between the two groups being largely uncertain and debated itself as well. The correspondence of Illyrian names, including those of the ruling elite, in Dardania with those of the southern Illyrians suggests a thracianisation of parts of Dardania.[31] The Dardani retained an individuality and continued to maintain social independence after Roman conquest, playing an important role in the formation of new groupings in the Roman era.[32]
During Roman rule, Kosovo was part of two provinces, with its western region inPraevalitana and the vast majority of its modern territory belonging toDardania. Praevalitana and the rest of Illyria was conquered by theRoman Republic in 168 BC. On the other hand, Dardania maintained its independence until the year 28 BC, when the Romans, underAugustus, annexed it into their Republic.[33][34] Dardania eventually became a part of theMoesia province.[35] During the reign ofDiocletian, Dardania became a fullRoman province and the entirety of Kosovo's modern territory became a part of theDiocese of Moesia, and then during the second half of the 4th century, it became part of thePraetorian prefecture of Illyricum.[36]: 548
The ruins of AncientUlpiana, situated southeast ofPristina. The city, built byTrajan, was an important political, cultural, and financial centre of the Roman province of Dardania
During Roman rule, a series of settlements developed in the area, mainly close to mines and to the major roads. The most important of the settlements wasUlpiana,[37] which is located near modern-dayGračanica. It was established in the 1st century AD, possibly developing from a concentratedDardanianoppidum, and then was upgraded to the status of aRomanmunicipium at the beginning of the 2nd century during the rule ofTrajan.[38][39] Ulpiana became especially important during the rule ofJustinian I, after the Emperor rebuilt the city after it had been destroyed by an earthquake and renamed it toIustinianna Secunda.[40][41]
Other important towns that developed in the area during Roman rule wereVendenis, located in modern-dayPodujevë;Viciana, possibly nearVushtrri; andMunicipium Dardanorum, an important mining town inLeposavić. Other archeological sites includeÇifllak in Western Kosovo,Dresnik inKlina,Pestova in Vushtrri,Vërban inViti, Poslishte betweenVërmica andPrizren, Paldenica nearHani i Elezit, as well asNerodimë e Poshtme and Nikadin nearFerizaj. The one thing all the settlements have in common is that they are located either near roads, such as ViaLissus-Naissus, or near the mines ofNorth Kosovo and eastern Kosovo. Most of the settlements are archaeological sites that have been discovered recently and are being excavated.
It is also known that the region wasChristianised during Roman rule, though little is known regarding Christianity in the Balkans in the three first centuries AD.[42] The first clear mention of Christians in literature is the case of Bishop Dacus of Macedonia, from Dardania, who was present at theFirst Council of Nicaea (325).[43] It is also known that Dardania had aDiocese in the 4th century, and its seat was placed in Ulpiana, which remained theepiscopal centre of Dardania until the establishment ofJustiniana Prima in 535 AD.[44][39] The first known bishop of Ulpiana is Machedonius, who was a member of the council ofSerdika. Other known bishops were Paulus (synod ofConstantinople in 553 AD), and Gregentius, who was sent byJustin I toEthiopia andYemen to ease problems among different Christian groups there.[44]
Middle Ages
In the next centuries, Kosovo was a frontier province of theRoman, and laterByzantine Empire, and as a result it changed hands frequently. The region was exposed to an increasing number of raids from the 4th century CE onward, culminating with theSlavic migrations of the 6th and 7th centuries. Toponymic evidence suggests thatAlbanian was probably spoken in Kosovo prior to the Slavic settlement of the region.[45][46] The overwhelming presence of towns and municipalities in Kosovo with Slavic in their toponymy suggests that the Slavic migrations either assimilated or drove out population groups already living in Kosovo.[47]
Toponyms suggest that the Slav presence in Kosovo and southernmost part of theMorava Valley may have been quite weak in the first one or two centuries of Slav settlement as, unlike some other areas of the Balkans, such as Bosnia, Northern Serbia and theDalmatian hinterlands where old toponyms were completely swept aside, the names of some important old towns and toponyms of mountains survived in the region, includingNish,Shkup,Sharr,Lipjan andShtip. A pre-Slavic population in this territory served as a border zone between the early Serbs and Bulgarians which created a division between the Serbo-Croat language and the Bulgarian-Macedonian one.[48] A transitional dialect, theTorlak dialect, is considered to have developed later when the Serbo-Croat speakers expanded into the region in the late medieval period and came in contact with Bulgarian speakers.[49] The Torlak dialect is also considered to have Albanian andRomanian influence.[50] Expansion of Slavs into the region is thought to have led to the spread of theVlachs (Romanian and Aromanian) into other areas of the Balkans.[50] Only in the ninth century can the expansion of a strong Slav (or quasi-Slav) power into this region be observed. The Bulgarians that pushed westwards across modern Macedonia and eastern Serbia, until by the 850's had taken over Kosovo and were pressing on the border ofSerbian Principality. At the same time, southern and central Albania became settled by Bulgarian speakers too and Serb tribes were expanding intoNorthern Albania.[48]
TheFirst Bulgarian Empire acquired Kosovo by the mid-9th century, but Byzantine control wasrestored by the late 10th century. In 1072, the leaders of the BulgarianUprising of Georgi Voiteh traveled from their centre inSkopje to Prizren and held a meeting in which they invitedMihailo Vojislavljević ofDuklja to send them assistance. Mihailo sent his son,Constantine Bodin with 300 of his soldiers. After they met, the Bulgarian magnates proclaimed him "Emperor of the Bulgarians".[51]Demetrios Chomatenos is the last Byzantine archbishop ofOhrid to include Prizren in his jurisdiction until 1219.[52]Stefan Nemanja had seized the area along theWhite Drin in 1185 to 1195 and the ecclesiastical split of Prizren from the Patriarchate in 1219 was the final act of establishingNemanjić rule.Konstantin Jireček concluded, from the correspondence of archbishop Demetrios of Ohrid from 1216 to 1236, that Dardania was increasingly populated by Albanians and the expansion started fromGjakova andPrizren area, prior to the Slavic expansion.[53]
During the 13th and 14th centuries, Kosovo was a political, cultural and religious centre of theSerbian Kingdom.[54] In the late 13th century, the seat of theSerbian Archbishopric was moved toPeja, and rulers centred themselves betweenPrizren andSkopje,[55] during which time thousands of Christian monasteries and feudal-style forts and castles were erected,[56] withStefan Dušan usingPrizren Fortress as one of his temporary courts for a time. When the Serbian Empire fragmented into a conglomeration of principalities in 1371, Kosovo became the hereditary land of theHouse of Branković.[54][57] During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, parts of Kosovo, the easternmost area located near Pristina, were part of thePrincipality of Dukagjini, which was later incorporated into an anti-Ottoman federation of all Albanian principalities, theLeague of Lezhë.[58]
In 1330, Serbian kingStefan Dečanski explicitly mentioned the presence of Albanians and the Albanian names of villages in Kosovo, in particular in the districts of Prizren and that ofSkopje. Achrysobull of the Serbian Tsar Stefan Dušan that was given to the Monastery of Saint Mihail and Gavril in Prizren between the years of 1348-1353 states the presence of Albanians in the vicinity of Prizren, theDukagjin Plain and in the villages ofDrenica. Within this chrysobull, nine Albanian stock-breeding villages within the vicinity of Prizren are mentioned explicitly; entire Albanian villages were gifted by Serbian kings, particularly Stefan Dušan as presents to Serb monasteries within Prizren,Deçan andTetova.[59] In one of Nemanjas charter, 170Vlachs are mentioned in the area of Prizren. When Dečanski founded his monastery of Dečani in 1330, he referred to ‘villages and katuns of Vlachs and Albanians’ in the area of the white Drin.[60] Vlachs and Albanians had to carry salt and provide serf labour for the monastery.[61]
In 1389, as theOttoman Empire expanded northwards through the Balkans, Ottoman forces under SultanMurad I met with a Christian coalition led byMoravian Serbia underPrince Lazar in theBattle of Kosovo. Both sides suffered heavy losses and the battle was a stalemate and it was even reported as a Christian victory at first, but Serbian manpower was depleted andde facto Serbian rulers could not raise another equal force to the Ottoman army.[63][64][65][66]
Different parts of Kosovo were ruled directly or indirectly by the Ottomans in this early period. The medieval town ofNovo Brdo was under Lazar's son,Stefan who became a loyal Ottoman vassal and instigated the downfall ofVuk Branković who eventually joined the Hungarian anti-Ottoman coalition and was defeated in 1395–96. A small part of Vuk's land with the villages of Pristina and Vushtrri was given to his sons to hold as Ottoman vassals for a brief period.[67]
During this period,Islam was introduced to the region. The Ottomans appeared to have a more deliberate approach to converting the Roman Catholic population who were mostly Albanians (and were most of the converts to Islam) in comparison with the mostly Serbian adherents of Eastern Orthodoxy, as they viewed the former less favourably due to its allegiance to Rome, a competing regional power.[68] Travelling Kosovo in the 1660s, Ottoman travellerEvliya Celebi included Western and Central Kosovo and the Llapi area in north-east Kosovo as part of Albania.[69]
In 1690, Kosovo AlbanianPjetër Bogdani led a revolt against the Ottoman Empire in Kosovo.[70] Sources from 1690 refer to 20,000 Albanians in Kosovo having turned their weapons against the Turks.[71] Following theGreat Turkish War, a number ofSerbs migrated northwards to Habsburg territories near theDanube andSava rivers led by Serbian PatriarchArsenije III Crnojević.[72] There were also some Christian and Muslim Albanians who departed.[73] Afterwards, the Ottomans encouraged the migration of Albanians into Kosovo. The larger, eastern part of Kosovo remained overwhelmingly Serb Orthodox, with a Catholic Albanian, and later Muslim Albanian, presence growing from the west by the 16th century.[72]
Rise of nationalism
The city ofPrizren was the cultural and intellectual centre of Kosovo during the Ottoman period in the Middle Ages and is now the historic capital of Kosovo.
In the 19th century, there was anawakening ofethnic nationalism throughout the Balkans. The underlying ethnic tensions became part of a broader struggle of Christian Serbs against Muslim Albanians.[64] The ethnicAlbanian nationalism movement was centred in Kosovo. In 1878 theLeague of Prizren (Lidhja e Prizrenit) was formed, a political organisation that sought to unify all the Albanians of the Ottoman Empire in a common struggle for autonomy and greater cultural rights,[74] although they generally desired the continuation of the Ottoman Empire.[75] The League was dis-established in 1881 but enabled the awakening of anational identity among Albanians,[76] whose ambitions competed with those of the Serbs, theKingdom of Serbia wishing to incorporate this land that had formerly been within its empire.
In the spring of 1912, Albanians under the lead ofHasan Prishtinarevolted against the Ottoman Empire. The rebels were joined by a wave of Albanians in theOttoman army ranks, who deserted the army, refusing to fight their own kin. The rebels defeated the Ottomans and the latter were forced to accept all fourteen demands of the rebels, which foresaw an effective autonomy for the Albanians living in the Empire.[87] However, this autonomy never materialised, and the revolt created serious weaknesses in the Ottoman ranks, luringMontenegro,Serbia,Bulgaria, andGreece into declaring war on the Ottoman Empire and starting theFirst Balkan War.
Serbian authorities promoted creating new Serb settlements in Kosovo as well as the assimilation of Albanians into Serbian society, causing a mass exodus of Albanians from Kosovo.[93] The figures of Albanians forcefully expelled from Kosovo range between 60,000 and 239,807, while Malcolm mentions 100,000–120,000. In combination with the politics of extermination and expulsion, there was also a process of assimilation through religious conversion of Albanian Muslims and Albanian Catholics into the Serbian Orthodox religion which took place as early as 1912. These politics seem to have been inspired by the nationalist ideologies ofIlija Garašanin andJovan Cvijić.[94]
German soldiers set fire to a Serbian village nearMitrovica, circa 1941
A new administration system on 26 April 1922 split Kosovo among three districts (oblast) of the Kingdom: Kosovo,Raška and Zeta. In 1929, the country was transformed into theKingdom of Yugoslavia and the territories of Kosovo were reorganised among theBanate of Zeta, theBanate of Morava and theBanate of Vardar. In order to change theethnic composition of Kosovo, between 1912 and 1941 alarge-scale Serbian colonisation of Kosovo was undertaken by the Belgrade government. Kosovar Albanians' right to receive education in their own languagewas denied alongside other non-Slavic or unrecognised Slavic nations of Yugoslavia, as the kingdom only recognised the Slavic Croat, Serb, and Slovene nations as constituent nations of Yugoslavia. Other Slavs had to identify as one of the three official Slavic nations and non-Slav nations deemed as minorities.[93]
Albanians and otherMuslims were forced to emigrate, mainly with the land reform which struck Albanian landowners in 1919, but also with direct violent measures.[95][96] In 1935 and 1938, two agreements between the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and Turkey were signed on the expatriation of 240,000 Albanians to Turkey, but the expatriation did not occur due to the outbreak ofWorld War II.[97]
After theAxis invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941, most of Kosovo was assigned to Italian-controlled Albania, and the rest was controlled by Germany and Bulgaria. A three-dimensional conflict ensued, involving inter-ethnic, ideological, and international affiliations.[98] Albanian collaborators persecuted Serb and Montenegrin settlers.[99] Estimates differ, but most authors estimate that between 3,000 and 10,000 Serbs and Montenegrinsdied in Kosovo during the Second World War. Another 30,000 to 40,000, or as high as 100,000, Serbs and Montenegrins, mainly settlers, were deported to Serbia in order toAlbanianise Kosovo.[98][100] A decree from Yugoslav leaderJosip Broz Tito, followed by a new law in August 1945 disallowed the return of colonists who had taken land from Albanian peasants.[101] During the war years, some Serbs and Montenegrins were sent to concentration camps in Pristina and Mitrovica.[100] Nonetheless, these conflicts were relatively low-level compared with other areas of Yugoslavia during the war years. Two Serb historians also estimate that 12,000 Albanians died.[98] An official investigation conducted by the Yugoslav government in 1964 recorded nearly 8,000 war-related fatalities in Kosovo between 1941 and 1945, 5,489 of them Serb or Montenegrin and 2,177 Albanian.[102] Some sources note that up to 72,000 individuals were encouraged to settle or resettle into Kosovo from Albania by the short-lived Italian administration.[103][100] As the regime collapsed, this was never materialised with historians and contemporary references emphasising that a large-scale migration of Albanians from Albania to Kosovo is not recorded in Axis documents.[104]
The flag of the Albanian minority of Kosovo in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
The existing province took shape in 1945 as theAutonomous Region of Kosovo and Metohija, with a final demarcation in 1959.[105][106] Until 1945, the only entity bearing the name of Kosovo in the late modern period had been the Vilayet of Kosovo, a political unit created by the Ottoman Empire in 1877. However, those borders were different.[107]
Tensions between ethnic Albanians and the Yugoslav government were significant, not only due to ethnic tensions but also due to political ideological concerns, especially regarding relations with neighbouring Albania.[108] Harsh repressive measures were imposed on Kosovo Albanians due to suspicions that there were sympathisers of theStalinist regime ofEnver Hoxha of Albania.[108] In 1956, a show trial in Pristina was held in which multiple Albanian Communists of Kosovo were convicted of being infiltrators from Albania and given long prison sentences.[108] High-ranking Serbian communist officialAleksandar Ranković sought to secure the position of the Serbs in Kosovo and gave them dominance in Kosovo'snomenklatura.[109]
Islam in Kosovo at this time was repressed and both Albanians and Muslim Slavs were encouraged to declare themselves to be Turkish and emigrate to Turkey.[108] At the same time Serbs and Montenegrins dominated the government, security forces, and industrial employment in Kosovo.[108] Albanians resented these conditions and protested against them in the late 1960s, calling the actions taken by authorities in Kosovo colonialist, and demanding that Kosovo be made a republic, or declaring support for Albania.[108]
After the ouster of Ranković in 1966, the agenda of pro-decentralisation reformers in Yugoslavia succeeded in the late 1960s in attaining substantial decentralisation of powers, creating substantial autonomy in Kosovo andVojvodina, and recognising a Muslim Yugoslav nationality.[109] As a result of these reforms, there was a massive overhaul of Kosovo's nomenklatura and police, that shifted from being Serb-dominated to ethnic Albanian-dominated through firing Serbs in large scale.[109] Further concessions were made to the ethnic Albanians of Kosovo in response to unrest, including the creation of theUniversity of Pristina as anAlbanian language institution.[109] These changes created widespread fear among Serbs that they were being madesecond-class citizens in Yugoslavia.[109] By the1974 Yugoslav Constitution, Kosovo was granted major autonomy, allowing it to have its own administration, assembly, and judiciary; as well as having a membership in the collective presidency and the Yugoslav parliament, in which it held veto power.[108]
In the aftermath of the 1974 constitution, concerns over the rise of Albanian nationalism in Kosovo rose with the widespread celebrations in 1978 of the 100th anniversary of the founding of theLeague of Prizren.[108] Albanians felt that their status as a "minority" in Yugoslavia had made them second-class citizens in comparison with the "nations" of Yugoslavia and demanded that Kosovo be aconstituent republic, alongside the other republics of Yugoslavia.[108]Protests by Albanians in 1981 over the status of Kosovo resulted in Yugoslav territorial defence units being brought into Kosovo and a state of emergency being declared resulting in violence and the protests being crushed.[108] In the aftermath of the 1981 protests, purges took place in the Communist Party, and rights that had been recently granted to Albanians were rescinded – including ending the provision of Albanian professors and Albanian language textbooks in the education system.[108]
While Albanians in the region had the highest birth rates in Europe, other areas of Yugoslavia including Serbia had low birth rates. Increased urbanisation and economic development led to higher settlements of Albanian workers into Serb-majority areas, as Serbs departed in response to the economic climate for more favourable real estate conditions in Serbia.[110] While there was tension, charges of "genocide" and planned harassment have been discredited as a pretext to revoke Kosovo's autonomy. For example, in 1986 the Serbian Orthodox Church published an official claim that Kosovo Serbs were being subjected to an Albanian program of 'genocide'.[111] Though these charges were disproved by police statistics,[111][page needed] they received wide attention in the Serbian press which led to further ethnic tensions and eventual removal of Kosovo's status.
Beginning in March 1981, Kosovar Albanian students of the University of Pristina organised protests seeking to make Kosovo a republic within Yugoslavia and demanding their human rights.[112] The protests were brutally suppressed by the police and army, with many protesters arrested.[113] During the 1980s, ethnic tensions continued with frequent violent outbreaks against Yugoslav state authorities, resulting in a further increase in emigration of Kosovo Serbs and other ethnic groups.[114][115] The Yugoslav leadership tried to suppress protests of Kosovo Serbs seeking protection from ethnic discrimination and violence.[116]
Ibrahim Rugova advocated for the rights of Kosovar Albanians and their self-determination
Inter-ethnic tensions continued to worsen in Kosovo throughout the 1980s. In 1989, Serbian PresidentSlobodan Milošević, employing a mix of intimidation and political maneuvering, drastically reduced Kosovo's special autonomous status within Serbia and started cultural oppression of the ethnic Albanian population.[117] Kosovar Albanians responded with anon-violent separatist movement, employing widespreadcivil disobedience and creation of parallel structures ineducation, medical care, and taxation, with the ultimate goal of achieving theindependence of Kosovo.[118]
In July 1990, Kosovo Albanians proclaimed the existence of theRepublic of Kosova, and declared it a sovereign and independent state in September 1992.[119] In May 1992,Ibrahim Rugova was elected its president.[120] During its lifetime, the Republic of Kosova was only officiallyrecognised by Albania. By the mid-1990s, the Kosovo Albanian population was growing restless, as the status of Kosovo was not resolved as part of theDayton Agreement of November 1995, which ended theBosnian War. By 1996, theKosovo Liberation Army (KLA), an ethnic Albanian guerrillaparamilitary group that sought the separation of Kosovo and the eventual creation of aGreater Albania,[121] had prevailed over the Rugova's non-violent resistance movement and launched attacks against the Yugoslav Army and Serbian police in Kosovo, resulting in theKosovo War.[117][122]
By 1998, international pressure compelled Yugoslavia to sign a ceasefire and partially withdraw its security forces. Events were to be monitored byOrganization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) observers according to an agreement negotiated byRichard Holbrooke. The ceasefire did not hold and fighting resumed in December 1998, culminating in theRačak massacre, which attracted further international attention to the conflict.[117] Within weeks, a multilateral international conference was convened and by March had prepared a draft agreement known as theRambouillet Accords, calling for the restoration ofautonomy for Kosovo and the deployment ofNATOpeacekeeping forces. The Yugoslav delegation found the terms unacceptable and refused to sign the draft. Between 24 March and 10 June 1999,NATO intervened by bombing Yugoslavia, aiming to force Milošević to withdraw his forces from Kosovo,[123] though NATO could not appeal to any particular motion of theSecurity Council of the United Nations to help legitimise its intervention. Combined with continued skirmishes between Albanian guerrillas and Yugoslav forces the conflict resulted in a further massive displacement of population in Kosovo.[124]
Kosovar Albanian soldiers holding pictures in memory of the men who were killed or went missing in theKrusha massacresPhotograph of Kosovo Albanian refugees during the Kosovo War, presented as evidence at the trial ofSlobodan Milošević
During the conflict, between 848,000 and 863,000 ethnic Albanians fled or were forcefully driven from Kosovo and an additional 590,000 were internally displaced.[125][126] Some sources claim that thisethnic cleansing of Albanians was part of a plan known asOperation Horseshoe, described as "Milosevic's final solution to the Kosovo problem".[127][128][129][130] However, the existence and implementation of this plan has not been proven.[131][132]
During the war, over 90,000 Serbian and other non-Albanian refugees fled the province. In September 1998, Serbian police collected 34 bodies of people believed to have been seized and murdered by the KLA, among them some ethnic Albanians, at Lake Radonjić near Glođane (Gllogjan) in what became known as theLake Radonjić massacre, the most serious atrocity by the KLA during the conflict.[133][134] By June, Milošević agreed to a foreign military presence in Kosovo and the withdrawal of his troops. In the days after the Yugoslav Army withdrew, over 80,000 Serb and other non-Albanian civilians (almost half of 200,000 estimated to live in Kosovo) were expelled from Kosovo, and many of the remaining civilians were victims of abuse.[135][136][137][138][139] After the Kosovo and otherYugoslav Wars, Serbia became home to the highest number of refugees andIDPs (including Kosovo Serbs) in Europe.[140][141][142]
"Heroinat" (Heroines) monument inPristina. It is dedicated to women victims of sexual violence perpetrated by Serbian forces, during the Kosovo War, of which the vast majority were Albanian women[143]
TheInternational Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) prosecuted crimes committed during the Kosovo War. Nine senior Yugoslav officials, including Milošević, were indicted forcrimes against humanity andwar crimes committed between January and June 1999. Six of the defendants were convicted, one was acquitted, one died before his trial could commence, and one (Milošević) died before his trial could conclude.[144] Six KLA members were charged with crimes against humanity and war crimes by the ICTY following the war, and one was convicted.[145][146][147][148]
In total around 10,317 civilians were killed during the war, of whom 8,676 were Albanians, 1,196 Serbs and 445 Roma and others in addition to 3,218 killed members of armed formations.[149]
US PresidentBill Clinton with Albanian children during his visit to Kosovo, June 1999
On 10 June 1999, the UN Security Council passedUN Security Council Resolution 1244, which placed Kosovo under transitional UN administration (UNMIK) and authorisedKosovo Force (KFOR), a NATO-led peacekeeping force. Resolution 1244 provided that Kosovo would have autonomy within the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and affirmed theterritorial integrity of Yugoslavia, which has been legally succeeded by the Republic of Serbia.[150]
Estimates of the number of Serbs who left when Serbian forces left Kosovo vary from 65,000[151] to 250,000.[152] Within post-conflict Kosovo Albanian society, calls for retaliation for previous violence done by Serb forces during the war circulated through public culture.[153] Widespread attacks against Serbian cultural sites commenced following the conflict and the return of hundreds of thousands of Kosovo Albanian refugees to their homes.[154] In 2004, prolonged negotiations over Kosovo's future status, sociopolitical problems and nationalist sentiments resulted in theKosovo unrest.[155][156] 11 Albanians and 16 Serbs were killed, 900 people (including peacekeepers) were injured, and several houses, public buildings and churches were damaged or destroyed.
International negotiations began in 2006 to determine the final status of Kosovo, as envisaged underUN Security Council Resolution 1244. The UN-backed talks, led by UNSpecial EnvoyMartti Ahtisaari, began in February 2006. Whilst progress was made on technical matters, both parties remained diametrically opposed on the question of status itself.[157]
In February 2007, Ahtisaari delivered a draft status settlement proposal to leaders in Belgrade and Pristina, the basis for a draftUN Security Council Resolution which proposed 'supervised independence' for the province. A draft resolution, backed by theUnited States, theUnited Kingdom and other European members of theSecurity Council, was presented and rewritten four times to try to accommodate Russian concerns that such a resolution would undermine the principle of state sovereignty.[158]
Russia, which holds a veto in the Security Council as one of five permanent members, had stated that it would not support any resolution which was not acceptable to both Belgrade and Kosovo Albanians.[159] Whilst most observers had, at the beginning of the talks, anticipated independence as the most likely outcome, others have suggested that a rapid resolution might not be preferable.[160]
After many weeks of discussions at the UN, the United States, United Kingdom and other European members of the Security Council formally 'discarded' a draft resolution backingAhtisaari's proposal on 20 July 2007, having failed to secure Russian backing. Beginning in August, a "Troika" consisting of negotiators from the European Union (Wolfgang Ischinger), the United States (Frank G. Wisner) and Russia (Alexander Botsan-Kharchenko) launched a new effort to reach a status outcome acceptable to both Belgrade and Pristina. Despite Russian disapproval, the U.S., the United Kingdom, and France appeared likely to recognise Kosovar independence.[161] A declaration of independence by Kosovar Albanian leaders was postponed until the end of theSerbian presidential elections (4 February 2008). A significant portion of politicians in both the EU and the US had feared that a premature declaration could boost support in Serbia for the nationalist candidate,Tomislav Nikolić.[162]
In November 2001, theOrganization for Security and Co-operation in Europe supervised thefirst elections for theAssembly of Kosovo.[163] After that election, Kosovo's political parties formed an all-party unity coalition and electedIbrahim Rugova as president andBajram Rexhepi (PDK) as prime minister.[164] After Kosovo-wide elections in October 2004, the LDK and AAK formed a new governing coalition that did not include PDK and Ora. This coalition agreement resulted inRamush Haradinaj (AAK) becoming prime minister, while Ibrahim Rugova retained the position of president. PDK and Ora were critical of the coalition agreement and have since frequently accused that government of corruption.[165]
Parliamentary elections were held on 17 November 2007. After early results,Hashim Thaçi who was on course to gain 35 per cent of the vote, claimed victory for PDK, theDemocratic Party of Kosovo, and stated his intention to declare independence. Thaçi formed a coalition with presidentFatmir Sejdiu'sDemocratic League which was in second place with 22 per cent of the vote.[166] The turnout at the election was particularly low. Most members of the Serb minority refused to vote.[167]
Kosovo declared independence fromSerbia on 17 February 2008.[168] As of 29 October 2025, 117 UN states recognised its independence, including all of its immediate neighbours, with the exception of Serbia;[169] 10 states have subsequently withdrawn that recognition.[170][171] Of the UN Security Council members, while the US, UK and France do recognise Kosovo's independence, Russia and China do not.[172] Since declaring independence, it has become a member of international institutions such as theInternational Monetary Fund andWorld Bank,[173][174] though not of the United Nations.
The Serb minority of Kosovo, which largely opposed the declaration of independence, formed theCommunity Assembly of Kosovo and Metohija in response. The creation of the assembly was condemned by Kosovo's President Fatmir Sejdiu, while UNMIK has said the assembly is not a serious issue because it will not have an operative role.[175]On 8 October 2008, the UN General Assembly resolved, on a proposal by Serbia, to ask theInternational Court of Justice to render an advisory opinion on the legality of Kosovo's declaration of independence. The advisory opinion, which is not binding over decisions by states to recognise or not recognise Kosovo, was rendered on 22 July 2010, holding that Kosovo's declaration of independence was not in violation either of general principles ofinternational law, which do not prohibit unilateral declarations of independence, nor of specific international law – in particular UNSCR 1244 – which did not define the final status process nor reserve the outcome to a decision of the Security Council.[176]
Some rapprochement between the two governments took place on 19 April 2013 as both parties reached theBrussels Agreement, an agreement brokered by the EU that allowed the Serb minority in Kosovo to have its own police force and court of appeals.[177] The agreement is yet to be ratified by either parliament.[178] Presidents of Serbia and Kosovo organised two meetings, inBrussels on 27 February 2023 andOhrid on 18 March 2023, to create and agree upon an 11-point agreement on implementing a European Union-backed deal to normalise ties between the two countries, which includes recognising "each other's documents such as passports and license plates".[179]
A number of protests and demonstrations took place in Kosovo between2021 and2023, some of which involved weapons and resulted in deaths on both sides. Amongst the injured were 30 NATO peacekeepers. The main reason behind the 2022–23 demonstrations ended on 1 January 2024 when each country recognised each other's vehicle registration plates.[citation needed]
Defined in a total area of 10,887 square kilometres (4,203 square miles), Kosovo islandlocked and located in the centre ofSoutheast Europe. It lies between latitudes42° and43° N, and longitudes20° and22° E.[180] The northernmost point is Bellobërda at 43° 14' 06" northern latitude; the southernmost isRestelicë at 41° 56' 40" northern latitude; the westernmost point isBogë at 20° 3' 23" eastern longitude; and the easternmost point isDesivojca at 21° 44' 21" eastern longitude. The highest point of Kosovo isVelika Rudoka at 2,660 metres (8,730 ft),[181][182][183][184] and the lowest is where theWhite Drin leaves Kosovo flowing into Albania at 297 metres (974 ft).
Most of the borders of Kosovo are dominated by mountainous and high terrain. The most noticeabletopographical features are theAccursed Mountains and theŠar Mountains. The Accursed Mountains are a geological continuation of theDinaric Alps. The mountains run laterally through the west along the border withAlbania andMontenegro. The southeast is predominantly the Šar Mountains, which constitute the border withNorth Macedonia. Besides the mountain ranges, Kosovo's territory consists mostly of two major plains, theKosovo Plain in the east and theMetohija Plain in the west.
Kosovo's hydrological resources are relatively small; there are few lakes in Kosovo, the largest of which areBatllava,Badovc,Gazivoda, andRadoniq.[185][186] In addition to these, Kosovo also does havekarst springs,thermal and mineral water springs.[187] The longest river of Kosovo is theWhite Drin that flows for 122 km (76 mi) in Kosovo but other significant rivers areSitnica,Lepenc,Ibar, andLlapi. Sitnica, a tributary of Ibar, is the largest river lying completely within Kosovo's territory. TheNerodime River represents Europe's only instance of ariver bifurcation flowing into theBlack Sea andAegean Sea.
The coldest areas are in the mountainous region to the west and southeast, where an Alpine climate is prevalent. The warmest areas are mostly in the extreme southern areas close to the border with Albania, where a Mediterranean climate is the norm. Mean monthly temperature ranges between 0 °C (32 °F) (in January) and 22 °C (72 °F) (in July). Mean annual precipitation ranges from 600 to 1,300 mm (24 to 51 in) per year, and is well distributed year-round.
To the northeast, theKosovo Plain andIbar Valley are drier with total precipitation of about 600 millimetres (24 inches) per year and more influenced by continental air masses, with colder winters and very hot summers. In the southwest, climatic area ofMetohija receives more Mediterranean influences with warmer summers, somewhat higher precipitation (700 mm (28 in)) and heavy snowfalls in the winter. The mountainous areas of theAccursed Mountains in the west,Šar Mountains on the south andKopaonik in the north experiences alpine climate, with high precipitation (900 to 1,300 mm (35 to 51 in) per year), short and fresh summers, and cold winters.[190] The average annual temperature of Kosovo is 9.5 °C (49.1 °F). The warmest month is July with average temperature of 19.2 °C (66.6 °F), and the coldest is January with −1.3 °C (29.7 °F). ExceptPrizren andIstog, all other meteorological stations in January recorded average temperatures under 0 °C (32 °F).[191]
As of 2010, there were 1,800 recordedvascular plant species, with an expected actual number of 2,500 species.[196][197] The diversity is the result of the complex interaction of geology and hydrology creating a wide variety of habitat conditions for flora growth. Although, Kosovo represents only 2.3% of the entire surface area of theBalkans, in terms of vegetation it has 25% of the Balkan flora and about 18% of the European flora.[196] The fauna is composed of a wide range of species.[194]: 14 The mountainous west and southeast provide a great habitat for severalrare orendangered species, includingbrown bears,lynxes,wild cats,wolves,foxes,wild goats,roebucks, anddeers.[198] A total of 255 species ofbirds have been recorded, with raptors such as thegolden eagle,eastern imperial eagle, andlesser kestrel living principally in the mountains of Kosovo.
The judiciary is composed of the Supreme Court and subordinate courts, aConstitutional Court, and independent prosecutorial institutions. There also exist multiple independent institutions defined by the constitution and law, as well as local governments. All citizens are equal before the law andgender equality is ensured by the constitution.[202][203] The Constitutional Framework guarantees a minimum of ten seats in the 120-member Assembly for Serbs, and ten for other minorities, and also guarantees Serbs and other minorities places in the Government.
Thepresident serves as thehead of state and represents the unity of the people of Kosovo, and is elected every five years by theAssembly in asecret ballot by a two-thirds majority of all deputies. The head of state is invested primarily with representative responsibilities and powers. The president has the power to return draft legislation to the parliament for reconsideration and has a role in foreign affairs and certain official appointments.[204] Theprime minister serves as thehead of government elected by the parliament. Ministers are nominated by the prime minister, and then confirmed by the parliament. The head of government exercises executive power of the territory.
Corruption is a major problem and an obstacle to the development of democracy in the country. Those in the judiciary appointed by the government to fight corruption are often government associates. Moreover, prominent politicians and party operatives who commit offences are not prosecuted due to the lack of laws and political will. Organised crime also poses a threat to the economy due to the practices of bribery, extortion and racketeering.[205]
Foreign relations with Albania are unique in that both countries share the same language and culture. TheAlbanian language is one of theofficial languages of Kosovo.Albania has an embassy in the capitalPristina and Kosovo an embassy inTirana. In 1992, Albania was the only country whose parliament voted to recognise theRepublic of Kosova.Albania was also one of the first countries to officially announce its recognition of the Republic of Kosovo in February 2008.
As of 1 January 2024, Kosovo nationals are exempt from visa requirements for stays of up to 90 days within any 180-day period in theSchengen Area.[213]
TheKosovo Security Force (KSF) is the national security force of Kosovo commissioned with the task of preserving and safeguarding the country's territorial integrity, national sovereignty and the security interests of its population.[214] Functioning under the president of Kosovo as thecommander-in-chief, the security force adheres to the principle of non-discrimination, guaranteeing equal protection for its personnel regardless of gender or ethnicity.[214][215] Kosovo's notable challenges are identified in the realms of persistent conflicts and societal safety and security, both of which are intertwined with the country's diplomatic ties to neighbouring countries and its domestic social and political stability.[216]
In 2008, under the leadership of NATO, the Kosovo Force (KFOR) and theKosovo Protection Corps (KPC) undertook preparations for the formation of the Kosovo Security Force. A significant milestone occurred in 2014 when the government officially announced its decision to establish a Ministry of Defence by 2019, with the aim of transforming the existing Kosovo Security Force into the Kosovo Armed Forces. This transformation would entail aligning the armed forces with the high standards expected of NATO members, reflecting Kosovo's aspiration to join the alliance in the future.[221] Subsequently, in December 2018, the government enacted legislation to redefine the mandate of the Kosovo Security Force, effecting its transformation into an army. Concurrently, the establishment of a Ministry of Defence was set in motion, further solidifying these developments and ensuring the necessary infrastructure and oversight for the newly formed armed forces.[222]
In 2023, the Kosovo Security Force had over 5,000 active members, using vehicles and weapons acquired from a number of NATO countries. KFOR continues to operate in Kosovo under its UN mandate.[223]
TheKosovo Police is the main law enforcement agency in Kosovo
Thejudicial system of Kosovo follows acivil law framework and comprises regular civil and criminal courts, alongside administrative courts. Administered by thejudicial council in Pristina, the system includes the supreme court as the highest judicial authority, aconstitutional court and an independent prosecutorial institution.[224] Following the independence of Kosovo in 2008, theKosovo Police assumed the primary law enforcement responsibilities within the country.
Covering a broad range of issues related to the status of Kosovo, theAhtisaari Plan introduced two forms of international supervision for Kosovo following its independence, including theInternational Civilian Office (ICO) and theEuropean Union Rule of Law Mission to Kosovo (EULEX).[225] The ICO monitored plan implementation and possessed veto powers, while EULEX focused on developing judicial systems and had arrest and prosecution authority. These bodies were granted powers under Kosovo's declaration of independence and constitution.[226][227]
The legal status of the ICO depended upon the de facto situation and Kosovo legislation, with oversight provided by theInternational Steering Group (ISG) comprising states that recognised Kosovo. Serbia and non-recognising states did not acknowledge the ICO. Despite initial opposition, EULEX gained acceptance from Serbia and the UN Security Council in 2008. It operated under the UNMIK mandate with operational independence. The ICO concluded operations in 2012 after fulfilling obligations, while EULEX continues to operate within Kosovo and international law.[227] Its role has been extended, primarily focusing on monitoring with reduced responsibilities.[228]
The Global Safety Report byGallup, which assesses personal security worldwide through the Law and Order Index Scores for 2023, includes Kosovo among the top ten countries globally in terms of perceived safety and law enforcement effectiveness.[229][230]
Relations betweenKosovo Albanians andKosovo Serbs have been hostile since the rise of nationalism in the Balkans during the 19th century.[238] During Communism in Yugoslavia, the ethnic Albanians and Serbs were strongly irreconcilable, with sociological studies during the Tito-era indicating that ethnic Albanians and Serbs rarely accepted each other as neighbours or friends and few held inter-ethnic marriages.[239] Ethnic prejudices, stereotypes and mutual distrust between ethnic Albanians and Serbs have remained common for decades.[239] The level of intolerance and separation between both communities during the Tito-period was reported by sociologists to be worse than that of Croat and Serb communities in Yugoslavia, which also had tensions but held some closer relations between each other.[239]
Despite their planned integration into Kosovar society and their recognition in the Kosovar constitution, theRomani,Ashkali, and Egyptian communities continue to face many difficulties, such as segregation and discrimination in housing, education, health, employment and social welfare.[240] Many camps around Kosovo continue to house thousands ofinternally displaced people, all of whom are from minority groups and communities.[241] Because many of the Roma are believed to have sided with the Serbs during the conflict, taking part in the widespread looting and destruction of Albanian property,Minority Rights Group International report that Romani people encounter hostility by Albanians outside their local areas.[242] A 2020 research report funded by the EU shows that there is a limited scale of trust and overall contact between the major ethnic groups in Kosovo.[243]
According to theWorld Happiness Report 2024, which evaluates the happiness levels of citizens in various countries, Kosovo is currently ranked 29th among a total of 143 nations assessed, compared with neighbours Serbia ranked 37th, Montenegro 76th, North Macedonia 84th and Albania 87th.[244]
Distribution of ethnic groups within Kosovo, as of the 2011 census[246]
Kosovo is a fairly ethnicallyhomogeneous country. In 2024,Albanians constituted around 92% of the population of Kosovo, followed by ethnicSerbs (2.3%),Bosniaks (1.7%),Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians (1.7%),Turks (1.2%),Romani (<1%), and theGorani (<1%).[247] Ethnic Serbs are concentrated inthe north of the country, as well as inother municipalities in the east of the country, such asGračanica andŠtrpce. Turks form a local majority in the municipality ofMamusha, just north of Prizren, while the Bosniaks are mainly located within Prizren itself. The Gorani are concentrated in the southernmost tip of the country, inDragash. The Romani are spread across the entire country.
In Kosovo,Albanian andSerbian are the official languages at the national level, but Albanian is the predominant language in Kosovo, spoken by over 92% of the population.[234][1][248] Itsstandard written form is a blend of the two main dialects,Gheg andTosk, although the spoken form predominantly is the Gheg dialect.Turkish holds official language status in the Municipality ofPrizren, regardless of the size of the Turkish-speaking population. At themunicipal level, Turkish,Bosnian, andRomani may also be granted official status when a linguistic community constitutes at least 5% of the local population. This multilingual policy aims to protect the rights of minority language speakers and also promote inclusion of the communities.[249][250]
In the 2024 census, 93.5% of the population of Kosovo wereSunni Muslims, 2.3% wereEastern Orthodox and 1.8%Roman Catholics.[254] Additionally, 0.5% of population reported affiliation with other religions, 0.5% stated they have no religious belief, and 1.5% chose not to disclose their religious affiliation. Protestants, although recognised as a religious group in Kosovo by the government, were not represented in the census.[234]
Islam is the most widely practiced religion in Kosovo and was introduced in theMiddle Ages by theOttomans. Today, Kosovo has the second-highest number of Muslims as a percentage of its population in Europe after Turkey.[255] The majority of the Muslim population of Kosovo are ethnicAlbanians,Turks, and Slavs such asGorani andBosniaks.[256]
Members of theRoman Catholic Church are predominantly Albanians while ethnic Serbs mainly belong to theEastern Orthodox Church. In 2008, Protestant pastorArtur Krasniqi, primate of the Kosovo Protestant Evangelical Church, claimed that "as many as 15,000" Kosovar Albanians had converted to Protestantism since 1985.[257]
In general, Kosovo Albanians define theirethnicity by language and not by religion, while religion reflects a distinguishing identity feature among Kosovo Serbs.[258]
Education for primary, secondary, and tertiary levels is predominantly public and supported by the state, run by theMinistry of Education. Education takes place in two main stages: primary and secondary education, and higher education.
The primary and secondary education is subdivided into four stages: preschool education, primary and low secondary education, high secondary education and special education. Preschool education is for children from the ages of one to five. Primary and secondary education is obligatory for everyone. It is provided by gymnasiums and vocational schools and also available in languages of recognised minorities in Kosovo, where classes are held inAlbanian, Serbian,Bosnian,Turkish andCroatian. The first phase (primary education) includes grades one to five, and the second phase (low secondary education) grades six to nine. The third phase (high secondary education) consists of general education but also professional education, which is focused on different fields. It lasts four years. However, pupils are offered possibilities of applying for higher or university studies. According to theMinistry of Education, children who are not able to get a general education are able to get a special education (fifth phase).[259]Higher education can be received in universities and other higher-education institutes. These educational institutions offer studies forBachelor,Master andPhD degrees. The students may choose full-time or part-time studies.
Students from Kosovo performed very poorly on severalPISA tests, and this result has sparked debates about the education system.[260][261]
In the past, Kosovo's capabilities to develop a modernhealth care system were limited.[262] LowGDP during 1990 worsened the situation even more. However, the establishment of Faculty of Medicine in theUniversity of Pristina marked a significant development in health care. This was also followed by launching different health clinics which enabled better conditions for professional development.[262]
The health care system in Kosovo is now more developed, and is organised into three sectors:primary, secondary and tertiary health care.[263] Primary health care inPristina is organised into thirteen family medicine centres[264] and fifteen ambulatory care units.[264] Secondary health care is decentralised in seven regional hospitals. Pristina does not have any regional hospital and instead uses University Clinical Centre of Kosovo for health care services.University Clinical Centre of Kosovo provides its health care services in twelve clinics,[265] where 642 doctors are employed.[266] At a lower level, home services are provided for several vulnerable groups which are not able to reach health care premises.[267] Kosovo health care services are now focused on patient safety, quality control and assisted health.[268]
Kosovo has the fifth-largestlignite reserves in the world.
Theeconomy of Kosovo is a transitional economy. It suffered from the combined results of political upheaval, the Serbian dismissal of Kosovo employees and the followingYugoslav Wars. Despite declining foreign assistance, the GDP has mostly grown since its declaration of independence. This was despite the2008 financial crisis and the subsequentEuropean debt crisis. Additionally, theinflation rate has been low. Most economic development has taken place in the trade, retail and construction sectors. Kosovo is highly dependent on remittances from thediaspora,foreign direct investment, and other capital inflows.[269] In 2018, theInternational Monetary Fund reported that approximately one-sixth of the population lived below the poverty line and one-third of the working age population was unemployed, the highest rate in Europe.[270]
Kosovo is dominated by the services sector, accounting for 54% of GDP and employing approximately 56.6% of the population.[277] The industry accounted for 37.3% ofGDP and employs roughly 24.8% of the labour force.[277] There are several reasons for the stagnation, ranging from consecutive occupations, political turmoil and theWar in Kosovo in 1999.[278] While agriculture accounts for only 6.6% of GDP, albeit an increase of 0.5 percentage points from 2019, it forms 18.7% of Kosovo's workforce, the highest proportion of agricultural employment in the region afterAlbania.[277]
Since 2019, thePort of Durrës in Albania on theAdriatic Sea is facilitating customs processes for cargo heading to Kosovo.[279][280] A dedicated customs office for Kosovo also operates within the port facilities.[281]
Kosovo has large reserves oflead,zinc,silver,nickel,cobalt,copper,iron andbauxite.[282] The nation has the fifth-largestlignite reserves in the world and the third in Europe.[283] The Directorate for Mines and Minerals and theWorld Bank estimated that Kosovo had €13.5 billion worth of minerals in 2005.[284] The primary sector is based on small to medium-sized family-owned dispersed units.[285] 53% of the nation's area is agricultural land, 41% forest and forestry land, and 6% for others.[286]
Wine has historically been produced in Kosovo. The main heartland of Kosovo's wine industry is inRahovec. The main cultivars includePinot noir,Merlot, andChardonnay. Kosovo exports wines to Germany and the United States.[287] The four state-owned wine production facilities were not as much "wineries" as they were "wine factories". Only the Rahovec facility that held approximately 36% of the total vineyard area had the capacity of around 50 million litres annually. The major share of the wine production was intended for exports. At its peak in 1989, the exports from theRahovec facility amounted to 40 million litres and were mainly distributed to the German market.[288]
Theelectricity sector in Kosovo is considered one of the sectors with the greatest potential of development.[289] Kosovo's electricity sector is highly dependent on coal-fired power plants, which use the abundant lignite, so efforts are being made to diversify electricity generation with more renewables sources, such aswind farms in Bajgora and Kitka.[290][291]
In December 2019, Kosovo and Albania's energy transmission operators signed an agreement to establish a joint energy bloc between the two countries.[292] This would allow Albania and Kosovo to exchange energy reserves, which was expected to result in €4 million in savings per year for Kosovo.[293]
Kosovo also has lakes likeBatllava that serves as a popular destination for watersports, camping, and swimming.[295] Other lakes include Ujmani,Liqenati,Zemra.[295]
Road transportation of passengers and freight is the most common form of transportation in Kosovo. There are two main motorways in Kosovo: theR7 connecting Kosovo withAlbania and theR6 connectingPristina to the North Macedonian border atHani i Elezit. The construction of theR7.1 Motorway began in 2017.
The nation hosts two airports,Pristina International Airport andGjakova Airport. Pristina International Airport is located southwest ofPristina. It is Kosovo's only international airport and the only port of entry for air travelers to Kosovo. In 2024, the Pristina International Airport handled a total of 4,082,481 passengers.[298] Gjakova Airport was built by theKosovo Force (KFOR) following theKosovo War, next to an existing airfield used for agricultural purposes, and was used mainly for military and humanitarian flights. The local and national government plans to offerGjakova Airport for operation under a public-private partnership with the aim of turning it into a civilian and commercial airport.[301]
Kosovo ranks 99th out of 180 countries in the 2025World Press Freedom Index report compiled by theReporters Without Borders, with a score of 52.73 indicating difficult conditions.[302] Media in Kosovo consists of radio, television, newspapers, and internet web sites, with most surviving from advertising and subscriptions. As according to IREX there are 92 radio stations and 22 television stations.[303]
The architecture of Kosovo dates back to theNeolithic,Bronze andMiddle Ages. It has been influenced by the presence of different civilisations and religions as evidenced by the structures which have survived to this day.
Kosovo is home to manymonasteries and churches from the 13th and 14th centuries that represent theSerbian Orthodox legacy. Architectural heritage from theOttoman Period includes mosques andhamams from the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. Other historical architectural structures of interest includekullas from the 18th and 19th centuries, as well as a number of bridges, urban centres and fortresses. While somevernacular buildings are not considered important in their own right, taken together they are of considerable interest. During the1999 conflict in Kosovo, many buildings that represent this heritage were destroyed or damaged.[304][305] In the Dukagjini region, at least 500 kullas were attacked, and most of them destroyed or otherwise damaged.[306]
International exposure of Kosovan art was limited in the 1990s due toSlobodan Milošević's regime and the difficult circumstances during the struggle for independence.[309]
A baked-clayocarina found in the village ofRunik is considered to be the oldest musical instrument found in Kosovo and one of the oldest ocarinas ever found in Europe.[311] TheRunik ocarina is thought to be at least 8,000 years old.[312]
Albanian epic poetry, found in Kosovo andNorthern Albania, is sung while accompanied by alahutë orçifteli. Kosovar music is influenced by Turkish music due to the almost 500-year span of Ottoman rule in Kosovo though Kosovar folklore has preserved its originality and exemplary.[313] Archaeological research tells how old this tradition is and how it was developed in parallel with other traditional music in the Balkans. Roots dating to the 5th century BC have been found in paintings on stones of singers with instruments. (There is a famous portrait of "Pani" holding an instrument similar to a flute).[314]
Rita Ora (left) andDua Lipa (right) are both singers that come from Kosovo
Serbian music from Kosovo presents a mixture of traditional music, which is part of the wider Balkan tradition, with its own distinctive sound, and various Western and Turkish influences.[313] Serb songs from Kosovo were an inspiration for 12th song wreath by composerStevan Mokranjac. Most of Serbian music from Kosovo was dominated by church music, with its own share of sung epic poetry.[313] Serbian national instrumentGusle is also used in Kosovo.[317]
Bekim Fehmiu was the first Eastern European actor to star inHollywood during the Cold War
The film industry of Kosovo dates from the 1970s. In 1969, the parliament of Kosovo establishedKosovafilm, a state institution for the production, distribution and showing of films. Its initial director was the actor Abdurrahman Shala, followed by writer and noted poetAzem Shkreli, under whose direction the most successful films were produced. Subsequent directors of Kosovafilm were Xhevar Qorraj, Ekrem Kryeziu and Gani Mehmetaj. After producing seventeen feature films, numerous short films and documentaries, the institution was taken over by the Serbian authorities in 1990 and dissolved. Kosovafilm was reestablished afterYugoslav withdrawal from the region in June 1999 and has since been endeavoring to revive the film industry in Kosovo.
Dokufest, an international documentary and short film festival, is the largest film event in Kosovo. The festival is held each August inPrizren, and attracts numerous international and regional artists. Films are screened twice a day in three open-air cinemas as well as in two regular cinemas. In addition to its films, the festival is also well known for lively nights after the screening. Various events happen within the scope of the festival: workshops, DokuPhoto exhibitions, festival camping, concerts, which altogether turn the city into a charming place to be. In 2010, Dokufest was voted as one of the 25 best international documentary festivals.[318]
International actors of Albanian origin from Kosovo includeArta Dobroshi,James Biberi,Faruk Begolli andBekim Fehmiu. ThePrishtina International Film Festival is the largest film festival, held annually in Pristina, in Kosovo that screens prominent international cinema productions in the Balkan region and beyond, and draws attention to the Kosovar film industry.
^"Municipal language compliance in Kosovo". OSCE Minsk Group.Archived from the original on 5 March 2021. Retrieved17 February 2021.Turkish language is currently official in Prizren and Mamuşa/Mamushë/Mamuša municipalities. In 2007 and 2008, the municipalities of Gjilan/Gnjilane, southern Mitrovicë/Mitrovica, Prishtinë/Priština and Vushtrri/Vučitrn also recognised Turkish as a language in official use.
^abc*Total – pg.32; Ethnic – pg.44; Religion – pg.46*"ReKos 2024"(PDF).www.ask.rks-gov.net (in Albanian).Kosovo Agency of Statistics (ASK). 19 December 2024. Retrieved20 December 2024.
^"Kosovo profile".BBC. 28 June 2023.Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved12 September 2023.
^abBerisha, Milot (2012)."Archaeological Guide of Kosovo"(PDF). Ministry of Culture of Kosovo. pp. 17–18.Archived(PDF) from the original on 17 April 2019. Retrieved20 September 2020.
^See van Wijk, 'Taalkunde gegevens'; quotation from p. 71. The modern dialect of Serbo-Croat which borders Macedonian and Bulgarian territory, the 'Timok-Prizren' dialect, does have some transitional features; but research has shown that it picked them up only after the medieval expansion of the Serbian state into Kosovo and the Morava valley, which brought its speakers into closer contact with Bulgarian (ibid., pp. 62, 71)
^Iseni, Bashkim (25 January 2008).La question nationale en Europe du Sud-Est : genèse, émergence et développement de l'indentité nationale albanaise au Kosovo et en Macédoine. Bern: P. Lang. p. 77.ISBN978-3039113200.
^Wilkinson, Henry Robert (1955). "Jugoslav Kosmet: The evolution of a frontier province and its landscape". Transactions and Papers (Institute of British Geographers). 21 (21): 183. JSTOR 621279. "The monastery at Dečani stands on a terrace commanding passes into High Albania. When Stefan Uros III founded it in 1330, he gave it many villages in the plain and catuns of Vlachs and Albanians between the Lim and the Beli Drim. Vlachs and Albanians had to carry salt for the monastery and provide it with serf labour."
^Humphreys 2013, p. 46: "Both armies – and this is a fact that is ignored by the hagiographic telling – contained soldiers of various origins; Bosnians, Albanians, Hungarians, Greeks, Bulgars, perhaps even Catalans (on the Ottoman side)."
^Somel, S.A. (2010).The A to Z of the Ottoman Empire. The A to Z Guide Series. Scarecrow Press. p. 36.ISBN978-1-4617-3176-4.Archived from the original on 28 November 2023. Retrieved10 May 2024.The coalition consisted of Serbians, Bosnians, Croatians, Hungarians, Wallachians, Bulgarians, and Albanians.
^George Gawlrych,The Crescent and the Eagle, (Palgrave/Macmillan, London, 2006),ISBN1-84511-287-3
^Frantz, Eva Anne (2009). "Violence and its Impact on Loyalty and Identity Formation in Late Ottoman Kosovo: Muslims and Christians in a Period of Reform and Transformation".Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs.29 (4):460–461.doi:10.1080/13602000903411366.S2CID143499467.
^Müller, Dietmar (2009). "Orientalism and Nation: Jews and Muslims as Alterity in Southeastern Europe in the Age of Nation-States, 1878–1941".East Central Europe.36 (1): 70.doi:10.1163/187633009x411485.
^Pllana, Emin (1985). "Les raisons de la manière de l'exode des refugies albanais du territoire du sandjak de Nish a Kosove (1878–1878) [The reasons for the manner of the exodus of Albanian refugees from the territory of the Sanjak of Niš to Kosovo (1878–1878)] ".Studia Albanica.1: 189–190.
^Rizaj, Skënder (1981). "Nënte Dokumente angleze mbi Lidhjen Shqiptare të Prizrenit (1878–1880) [Nine English documents about the League of Prizren (1878–1880)]".Gjurmine Albanologjike (Seria e Shkencave Historike).10: 198.
^Şimşir, Bilal N, (1968).Rumeli'den Türk göçleri. Emigrations turques des Balkans [Turkish emigrations from the Balkans]. Vol I. Belgeler-Documents. p. 737.
^Elsie, Robert (2010).Historical Dictionary of Kosovo. Scarecrow Press. p. xxxii.ISBN978-0-333-66612-8.
^Stefanović, Djordje (2005). "Seeing the Albanians through Serbian eyes: The Inventors of the Tradition of Intolerance and their Critics, 1804–1939."European History Quarterly.35. (3): 470.
^abSchabnel, Albrecht; Thakur, Ramesh (eds). Kosovo and the Challenge of Humanitarian Intervention: Selective Indignation,Collective action, and International Citizenship. New York: The United Nations University, 2001. p. 20.
^Daskalovski, Židas. Claims to Kosovo: Nationalism andSelf-determination. In: Florian Bieber & Zidas Daskalovski (eds.),Understanding the War in Kosovo. L.: Frank Cass, 2003.ISBN0-7146-5391-8. pp. 13–30.
^Ramet, Sabrina P. The Kingdom of God or the Kingdom of Ends: Kosovo in Serbian Perception. In Mary Buckley & Sally N. Cummings (eds.),Kosovo: Perceptions of War and Its Aftermath. L. – N.Y.: Continuum Press, 2002.ISBN0-8264-5670-7. pp. 30–46.
^Flere, Sergej; Klanjšek, Rudi (2019).The Rise and Fall of Socialist Yugoslavia: Elite Nationalism and the Collapse of a Federation. United Kingdom: Lexington Books. p. 29.ISBN978-1-4985-4197-8.
^Shehu, Bekim (14 December 2018)."Kosova bëhet me ushtri".Deutsche Welle (in Albanian).Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved13 September 2020.
^Schabnel, Albrecht; Thakur (ed), Ramesh (ed).Kosovo and the Challenge of Humanitarian Intervention: Selective Indignation, Collective Action, and International Citizenship, New York: The United Nations University, 2001. p. 20.
^abcSchabnel, Albrecht; Thakur (ed), Ramesh (ed), 2001. p. 24.
^"Religion in Kosovo".crisisgroup.org. International Crisis Group. 31 July 2001.Archived from the original on 14 February 2024. Retrieved14 February 2024.
^"Kosovo".Reporters Without Borders. 8 November 2025. Retrieved8 November 2025.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
^"Kosovo"(PDF). Media Sustainability Index 2012 (Report). 2012. pp. 74–85. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 6 May 2014.
^"Prioritized Intervention List".Regional Programme for Cultural and Natural Heritage in South-east Europe: 8. 23 January 2009.Archived from the original on 2 March 2014. Retrieved2 March 2014.
Humphreys, Brendan (2013).The Battle Backwards A Comparative Study of the Battle of Kosovo Polje (1389) and the Munich Agreement (1938) as Political Myths (PhD).University of Helsinki.ISBN978-952-10-9085-1.
.png)
_-_by_Pudelek..jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
_(53838014719)_(cropped).jpg)
.JPG)
