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Korean regional cuisines are characterized by local specialties and distinctive styles withinKorean cuisine. The divisions reflected historical boundaries of theprovinces where these food and culinary traditions were preserved until modern times.
Although Korea has been divided into two nation-states since 1948 (North Korea and South Korea), it was once divided intoeight provinces according to the administrative districts of theJoseon period. The northern region consisted of theHamgyong,Pyongan, andHwanghae Provinces. The central region consisted of theGyeonggi,Chungcheong, andKangwon provinces. TheGyeongsang andJeolla Provinces made up the southern region.[1]
Until the late 19th century transportation networks were not well developed, and each provincial region preserved its own characteristic tastes and cooking methods. Geographic differences are also reflected by the local specialty foodstuffs depending on the climate and types of agriculture, as well as the natural foods available. With the modern development of transportation, and the introduction of foreign foods, Korean regional cuisines have tended to overlap and integrate. However, there are still many unique traditional dishes in Korean regional cuisine that have been handed down through the generations.[2][3]
Pyongan cuisine, based inPyongan Province, is characterized as a continental style due to early Manchurian influence. Dishes are made into large shapes so as to appear abundant.Jobap, a bowl of mixedsteamed rice and millet, is commonly served in place ofssalbap (steamed rice), and foods made with grain flour such as noodle dishes, especiallynaengmyeon (cold buckwheat noodles), andmandu (dumplings) are common Pyongan dishes. The cuisine's taste is generally bland, with fatty foods being enjoyed during winter. The form of a Pyongan meal is realistic and social. Thekimchi, or preserved pickled vegetables, eaten in the region consist mostly ofdongchimi, a water kimchi, which is frequently used as a broth fornaengmyeon.[4]
Representative main dishes includegukbap (a soup with rice),[5]kimchi mari (cold kimchi broth with rice),[6]dakjuk (chicken porridge),Pyongyang naengmyeon (cold buckwheat noodle soup),eobok jaengban (pressed beef served in a brass plate),[7][8]gangnyang guksu (corn noodles in a cold broth),[9]Pyongyang manduguk (Pyongyang style dumpling soup), andgulmandu (small dumpling without a covering).[4][10]
Pyongan stylebanchan, which are small side dishes accompanied by a main dish, include:ttokttoki jaban (seasoned shredded beef),[11]mucheonggom (braisedradish leaves and beef),deopuljang (fermented soybean paste),[12]danggochujangbokkeum (stir-fried dish inchili pepper paste),[13]dwaeji gogijeon (pork pancakes),naengchae (cold salad),Yongpyon gimjang kimchi (Yongbyon style kimchi),gaji kimchi (pickled eggplant),baek kimchi (kimchi without chili pepper), andkkotge jjim (steamedhorse crab).[4]Oi tojangguk (cucumber soybean paste soup), andnaepotang (kimchi andchitterling stew)[14] are representative soups and stews.[4]
Tteok or glutinous rice cakes of the region are given unconventional names and are larger and simpler in form than those of Seoul, such assonggi tteok which is a rice cake made with the inner bark of pine trees,[15]golmi tteok (thimble-shaped rice cake),[16]kkojang tteok (tteok covered with steamed bean crumbles),[17]ppong tteok (tteok steamed with mulberry leaves),[18]nidoraemi (rice cake covered with azuki bean crumbles),[19] andjogae songpyeon (clam-shaped tteok with fillings).[20] Thesonggi insonggi tteok refers to the inner bark of pine trees, and its ground flour is mixed with glutinous rice flour and kneaded. The dough is steamed or filled with ground pine nuts and then pan-fried with sesame oil.Notti is another characteristictteok of Pyongan and Hwanghae provinces, made by pounding asaccharified dough ofhulled millet flour, and pan-frying its pieces with oil.[4]
Pyonganhangwa or traditional confectionery aregwajul (fried honeyed confection)[21] andyeot (candies).Taesik is also a variety of the regionalhangwa, made by mixingjocheong (liquefiedyeot) andmisu (steamed and dried mixed flour made from various grains and beans).[4][22]
Pyongyang, currently the capital of North Korea, was also the capital ofGojoseon, and the provincial capital ofPyongan province until 1946.[23] Therefore, Pyongyang cuisine shares the general culinary tradition of Pyongan province. The most famous local food isPyongyang naengmyeon, also calledmul naengmyeon or just simplynaengmyeon.Naengmyeon literally means "cold noodles," while the affixmul refers to "water" because the dish is served in a cold soup.Naengmyeon consists of thin and chewy buckwheat noodles in cold broth mixed with a meat broth, anddongchimi (watery kimchi) topped with a slice of sweetKorean pear.Pyongyang naengmyeon was originally eaten at homes built withondol (traditionalunderfloor heating) during the cold winter, so is also humorously called"Pyongyang deoldeori" (shivering in Pyongyang). Pyongyang locals sometimes enjoyed it as ahaejangguk which is any type of food eaten as a hangover cure— commonly in the form of a warm soup.[24]
Another representative Pyongyang dish isTaedonggang sungeoguk, meaning "trout soup from theTaedong River". It is made withtrout, which are abundant in the Taedong River, along with black peppercorns and salt.[25] It is served as a courtesy to important guests visiting Pyongyang. Therefore, the question "How good was the taste of the trout soup?" is commonly used to greet people returning from Pyongyang. In addition,Pyongyang onban (literally "warm rice of Pyongyang") is a local specialty. It is a dish made with freshly cooked rice topped with sliced mushrooms and chicken, and a couple ofbindaetteok (pancakes made from ground mung beans and vegetables).[24]
Hamgyong province, consisting ofNorth andSouth Hamgyong Provinces, belongs to the administration of North Korea. It lies in the far northern region of theKorean peninsula, comprising steep mountains and valleys while facing theSea of Japan (East Sea) to the east. Cereal crop farming is developed in the region, so diverse types of high quality cereals such asmillet,barnyard millet,sorghum,soybeans, andmaize are harvested. In contrast with millet, and sorghum harvested in South Korea, those of Hamgyon provinces have a more glutinous texture, and have good, savory tastes. The quality of potatoes and grains is also high, so the starch obtained from the crops is used to make noodles. FreshAlaska pollack and various fish are caught in the adjacent sea.[3]
Although Hamgyong cuisine is not salty, garlic and chili pepper are used heavily as seasonings. The alternative name,dadegi, for chili powder-based sauce originates from the region.Hamhung naengmyeon, a cold noodle dish, is made with the sauce. It originates inHamhung, South Hamgyong province, and is topped withhoe (sliced raw fish) seasoned with hot and spicy sauce. The noodles are mixed with thehoe and sauce, so calledhoe naengmyeon, which is different fromnaengmyeon eaten in the rest of North Korea. However, the taste of North Hamgyong province is plainer and less spicy than that of South Hamgyong province. The shape is large and a continental style, so decoration of dishes is simple and less luxurious. The locals are active, and enjoy wild foods.[26]
Typical main dishes in Hamgyong cuisine include:japgokbap (a bowl of cooked mixed multiple grains),jjinjobap (steamed sorghum),dak bibimbap (mixed rice and vegetables with chicken slices),eollin kongjuk (porridge made with frozen soybeans), andoksusujuk (corn porridge).Garitguk is a beefshort rib soup topped withyukhoe, raw seasoned beef. Along withHamhung naengmyeon,Mul naengmyeon, andgamja guksu (potato noodles) are common noodle dishes.Gamja makgari mandu is a dumpling made with ground potato.[26]
TheRyanggang Province andChagang Provinces of North Korea were formerly part ofHamgyong province andPyongan province until 1954. The two mountainous, landlocked provinces borderChina to the north.[27][28]Indian mustard leaves, calledgat in Korean, are cultivated in place ofNapa cabbage, a main kimchi ingredient, which does not grow well in the region due to poor geographic conditions. Indian mustard leaves have been eaten in spring and autumn as a main vegetable since ancient times, and are used for makinggat kimchi to preserve for winter.Gat kimchi has a refreshing and aromatic flavor, which can be retained without loss of texture for a long time. Therefore,gat kimchi is the most famous food representing the provinces. On the other hand, potatoes are also harvested in abundance, so dishes made with potatoes are diversely developed, with up to 80 distinct potato dishes.[29] Representative potato dishes include:gamja nongmal guksu, a noodle dish made withpotato starch;gamja tteok, a variety oftteok made with ground potato;gamajatang jorim made bybraising potatoes;, andgamja nongmal gangjeong, a fried confectionery made with potato starch.Gamja nongma guksu has a very strong chewy texture because the main ingredient is the potato starch. The noodles are seasoned with chopped green onions, garlic, sesame seeds, soy sauce, and a mixture of sesame seeds and salt. Slices of kimchi, marinated and steamed beef and pork, and shredded cucumbers are added as toppings on the noodles. A broth is served separately.[24][30]
Susutteok is a local specialty of Chagang province, made with locally produced sorghum, glutinous corn, soybeans, sesame seeds, andazuki beans. It is served with kimchi andnamul (sauteed vegetables) collected from the mountains. Various foods made of sorghum can also be found in the province such assusu jijim (sorghum pancakes). In the province, there is a variety of mountain fruits.[31][32]
Hwanghae Province has been divided intoSouth Hwanghae Province andNorth Hwanghae Province since 1954. Thanks to the wideYonbaek andChaenyong plains, Hwanghae province is agranary of North Korea and is known for its good quality cereal production.[33] As the millet seeds produced in the region are thick, and have a good taste, they are eaten as much asbarley is consumed by people of the southern region. The abundant production of cereal crops provides quality feed for livestock, so the quality of meat produced in the region is said to be good. Chicken raised in every household is fleshy and of good quality, and is used for many dishes in Hwanghae cuisine. It is used as an ingredient for wheat noodle dishes, andmandu (dumplings). The coastal area, adjacent to theYellow Sea, produces a lot of salt because the tideland in the area is developed and there is little rainfall.[33] Due to the climate,kimchi in the Hwanghae region has a clear and refreshing taste, so its brine is used as a soup on many occasions.Dongchimi brine is used as a broth fornaengmyeon (cold buckwheat noodle dish), or for mixing with a bowl of chilled rice to make a midnight snack. The Hwanghae people are known for kindheartedness and rustic simplicity, so their cuisine reflects their nature. Hwanghae dishes are savory and simple, with less decoration such as mandu made in a larger size than other regions. The general taste is moderate, similar to that ofChungcheong province.[3]
The most famous Hwanghae dish isHaeju bibimbap, originating inHaeju. It consists of fried rice with chopped pork, variousnamul (sauteed vegetables), and sliced chicken, unlike otherbibimbap varieties.[24] It uses black soy sauce on slightly fried and salted rice instead ofGochujang. Other typical main dishes aressalbap (steamed rice),seariban (three steamed grains),japgokbap (various steamed grains),kimchibap (steamed rice with kimchi), andbijibap (rice withbiji, residue in the preparation of tofu).[3][33]
Gangwon (or Kangwon) cuisine is simple and plain and consists of dishes made with potato, corn, buckwheat, or seafood. Typical main dishes are also based on potatoes and maize with various cooking methods such asChuncheondakgalbi,[34]gangnaengi bap (a bowl of steamed corn and rice),makguksu (buckwheat noodle dish),patguksu (noodles in red bean soup),gamja ongsimi (potato dumpling soup),bangpungjuk (porridge made withGlehnia littoralis),[35]gangnaengi beombeok (mashed boiled corn with grains), andgamja beombeok (mashed boiled potato with grains).[36]
AsKaesong was the capital ofGoryeo for almost 500 years, its culinary culture was highly developed. The luxurious style of Kaesong cuisine is frequently compared with those ofSeoul andJeolla Province.[3] Kaesong cuisine was traditionally treated as part of Gyeonggi cuisine, since Kaesong belonged to Gyeonggi province until theKorean War. However, it was incorporated into the administration of North Korea after the war while Gyeonggi province is administered by South Korea.Bossam kimchi (wrapped kimchi),pyeonsu (summermandu in square shape),[37]sinseollo (royal casserole),seolleongtang (beef tripe soup),chueotang (mudfish soup),joraengi tteokguk (dumpling soup),umegi (tteok covered with syrup), andgyeongdan (ball-shapedtteok) are representative Kaesong dishes.Umegi, also calledKaesong juak, is a holiday food of Kaesong, and known for its delicate style with a sweet and nutty taste. The dish is made by kneading a mixture of rice flour and glutinous rice flour with warm water, then shaping the dough into balls with either one pine nut orjujube, then frying and coating them with syrup.[3][24]
Geographically, Gyeonggi province is located in the central region of the Korean peninsula. Until the Korean War it includedKaesong, the old capital ofGoryeo. Mountain vegetables are obtained from those surrounding Seoul, while fish and seafood are harvested from theYellow Sea, located to the west. In Gyeonggi cuisine,jeotgal (fermented salted seafood) is abundant, and among themjogijeot (made withcroaker) andsaeujeot (made with small shrimp) are often used as ingredients inkimchi. The climate is relatively mild, and various types of cereal crops are harvested, so dishes made with grain crops are especially developed.Ogokbap (steamed five cereal crops), andchalbap (steamed glutinous rice) are enjoyed as main dishes. Although the province borders Seoul, its cuisine is generally simple, and its flavors and use of seasonings are moderate except in Kaesong cuisine. Due to the sophisticated culinary culture, and diverse dishes, Kaesong's cuisine is often compared with Seoul's cuisine andKorean royal court cuisine. Since Gyeonggi province borders the provinces ofGangwon Province,Chungcheong,Hwanghae Province, the cuisine has much in common with the cuisines of these neighboring provinces, including flavors and naming conventions for dishes.[3]
Savory grain dishes are numerous, and includesujebi (dumpling soup), andbeombeok (thick mixed-grain porridge). They are made with either pumpkin, potato, corn, wheat flour, or azuki beans. Noodle soups such asJemul guksu (noodles in soybean paste soup),[38] andmemilkal ssakdugi (knife-cut noodle soup)[39] also have a thick broth and a savory taste along with a soft texture in contrast withnaeongmyeon in the cleardongchimi broth eaten in the northern region.Naengkongguk (soybean soup with dumplings)[40] is also a common dish which is also a local specialty of Chungcheong and Hwanghae provinces.[3]
Cuisine in the capital city ofSeoul is extravagantly presented, and prepared according to strict quality rules.[41] Meals are served in small portions and include many dishes. Their cooking uses many seasonings, but the taste is not overly spicy. Typical main dishes include:seolleongtang (beef soup with rice),gukbap (soup with rice),tteokguk (rice cake soup),heukimjajuk (black sesame porridge),jatjuk (pine nut porridge),memil mandu (dumpling with a buckwheat covering),[42]saengchi mandu (dumpling stuffed withpheasant meat),[43] andpyeonsu (square-shaped mandu with vegetable filling).[44] Among them,seolleongtang is the most widely known Seoul dish, and is also popular nationwide. It is said to be strongly associated with theSeonnongdan shrine in the neighborhood ofJegi-dong,Dongdaemun District,Seoul where the kings of Korea held an annual national ritual to pray for a good harvest. After the ritual everyone gathered to eat a beef soup together, which was made by boiling beef and its tripe in dozens ofgamasots (cauldrons) with water.[3][45][46]
Representative Seoul soups or stews are:sinseollo (royal casserole),gaksaek jeongol (casserole made with various ingredients),[47]yukgaejang (spicy beef soup with rice),Gujeolpan (nine-sectioned plate),galbijjim (braised meat short ribs),tteokjjim (boiledtteok, beef and vegetables),[48]tteokbokki (stir-friedtteok and vegetables), braised dishes insoy sauce such ashonghapcho andjeonbokcho respectively made with mussels and abalone, andgannap (beef liver pancake).[49] Raw dishes such asgaphoe (seasoned raw beeftripe),[50]gulhoe (raw oyster) are also part of Seoul cuisine. Pressed or dried dishes such aspyeonyuk made with ox's tongue orbrisket,[51]jokpyeon (gelatin),eochae (parboiled fish fillet),yukpo (beef jerky),suran (poached egg),sukju namul (sauteed mung bean spouts),mugeun namul bokkeum (sauteed dried various mountain vegetables),hobakseon (steamed stuffed zucchini),gimssam (wraps withgim, seaweed),maedeup jaban (friedkelp in a ribbon shape),[52] arebanchan representing Seoul cuisine.[41]Gujeolpan andsinseollo especially demonstrate the sophisticated style of Seoul cuisine.[3]Dried fish such asgulbi (dried saltedyellow croaker),gwamegi (half-driedPacific herring orPacific saury),amchi (dried saltedbrown croaker) are grilled orpan-fried to makejeon, Korean style pancakes. Seoul cuisine has a lot ofmitbanchan (basic side dishes made for preservation) such asyukpo (beef jerky),jeotgal (salted fermented seafood) andjangajji (pickles). Unique kimchi found in Seoul arejang kimchi (water kimchi seasoned with soy sauce,)[53] andsuk kkakdugi (kimchi made with parboiledradish).[54][55]
During theJoseon period, the villages of Bukchon and Namchon were referred to as"Namju Byukbyeong", which literally means "Namchon for alcoholic beverages, Bukchon fortteok" (rice cakes), becausetteok were made on many occasions in Seoul. There are manytteok made with high-quality ingredients, that take a lot of work to produce, in Seoul cuisine such asdanja. It is usually used as a decoration for othertteok and is shaped into a ball or a square after its dough is pounded and stuffed with a sweetened filling and covered withgomul (powder coating or sliced fruits).[56] Thedanja varieties are made with jujube,Artemisia princeps var. orientalis (sunflower-like plant), chestnut,yuzu (a citrus fruit),Gingko seeds,gotgam (dried persimmon),Coix lacryma-jobi var.ma-yuen (a grain), andseogi (a lichen -Umbilicaria esculenta).[3][41] Other typicaltteok include:duteop tteok covered with azuki bean crumbles,[57]sangchu tteok made withlettuce,[58]gaksaekpyeon made by adding color or flavors,[59]neuti tteok made with young leaves ofZelkova serrata,[60]yaksik made with nuts and jujubes,hwajeon made withflower petals,juak made by pan-frying and honey-glazing,mulhobak tteok made with pumpkin, andsolbangul tteok made withpine cones.
Typicalhangwa or Korean confectioneries areyakgwa,mandugwa,maejakgwa, and various types ofyeotgangjeong anddasik. Bothyakgwa andmaejakgwa are fried pastries made with wheat flour and honey each having a distinctive shape and texture; the former with a flower pattern shape and a soft texture; the latter in a ribbon shape with a crispy texture.Mandugwa is a confectionery made by frying a dumpling filled with sweetened jujube.[61]Yeotgangjeong, or taffy rice cracker, is covered with sesame seeds, peanuts, or ground pine nuts.[62][63]Dasik is a pattern pressed cake eaten when drinking tea, made with black sesame seeds, soybean, pollen powders, chestnut, starch, rice or a mixture of wheat flour and honey.[3][64][65]
Varioushwachae (Koreanpunch) andteas are also part of Seoul cuisine.Hwachae is eaten cold and made with fruits (e.g.omija hwachae), edible flower petals (e.g.jindallae hwachae),tteok (e.g.wonsobyeong), steamed grains (e.g.bori sudan), ortraditional medical ingredients. Examples of fruit teas are:yujacha,mogwacha,omijacha,gugijacha, anddaechucha. On the other hand, typical herbal teas can be made with spices like ginger andcinnamon, herbs such asGinseng radicle,Angelica, or grains such asSenna obtusifolia. Atroyal court,jehotang was considered the best summer drink. This cold drink is made with honey, water, and the powders of dried and roastedPrunus mume fruits,Amomi Semen,Sandalwood Red, andAmomum tsao-ko.Ogwacha, which literally means "five fruits", is made with walnuts, chestnuts, Gingko seeds, jujube, and ginger.[3]
Chungcheong consists of the provinces ofNorth Chungcheong, which is landlocked, andSouth Chungcheong, which faces the Yellow Sea to its west. Although there are many differences between the two provinces' geographical conditions, the locals in both generally engage in agriculture as their primary occupation. TheYedang Plain, in the area adjacent to theBaengma River in South Chungcheong province provides an abundant harvest of grain crops, while the Yellow Sea is a good fishery. During theThree Kingdoms period of Korea (57 BC – 668 AD), barley and millet were the respective main dishes for theSilla kingdom (57 BC–935) and theGoguryeo kingdom (37 BC–668), whereas rice was assumed to have been the main grain for theBaekje kingdom (18 BC–660). Chungcheong province was the home province of Baekje.[3]
The cuisine of the southwestern region ofJeolla, consisting of the provinces ofNorth andSouth Jeolla, is famous for its rich and sumptuous style, comparable with Kaesong's cuisine. While Kaesong cuisine, which retains the tradition of theGoryeo Dynasty, is very conservative, Jeolla cuisine preserves a unique culinary tradition that has been handed fromYangban (noble class) of theJoseon Dynasty. Jeolla region includes the fertileHonam Plain that provides an abundant harvest of rice. TheYellow Sea andEast China Sea which are adjacent to the west and east offer a variety of seafood for the table.[3]
Gyeongsang cuisine is based onGyeongsang Province, consisting of theNorth andSouth Gyeongsang Provinces. The region has a similar climate to that ofJeolla Province because both geographically border two seas—Gyeongsang province borders theSea of Japan (East Sea) to the east, and theEast China Sea to the south. However, the types of fish harvested are different. Fish are regarded as the best foodstuff in Gyeongsang cuisine. Seafood is variously cooked in the cuisine, and especiallyhoe (raw sliced seafood, is considered the best delicacy. Soups made with fresh fish are common in Gyeongsang province, unlike other mountainous andlandlocked regions.Myeolchi jeot (fermented salted anchovies) is the most commonly preparedjeotgal (fermented salted seafood); the number ofjeotgal-type dishes placed on the table for a meal is second only to those prepared inJeolla province. The style of Gyeongsang cuisine is simple with less decoration, while various seasonings are used heavily, so the taste is even more salty and hot and spicy than Jeolla's. Diverse grains can be grown in the province and noodles are the most enjoyed dish among the foods made with grains. The locals prefer noodles with a soft texture made by mixing raw soybean powder, cut by a kitchen knife.[3]Andong, a city that was once the center of Korea'sConfucianist traditions, has a wide variety of local delicacies. Along withAndong jjimdak,[66] it is the birthplace ofheotjesabap (fakejesa food),[67]Andong soju,[68]saltedmackerel,[69] and a spicy variety ofsikhye (a fermented rice drink).[69]
Jeju Island is the southernmost and largest island isolated from theKorean peninsula. Due to its lack of fresh water, paddy farming is only done on a small scale on the island. The cultivation ofcereal crops such asmillet,barnyard millet, buckwheat, and barley is the main feature of the island's agriculture. As a result, the traditional Jeju meal generally consists ofjapgokbap, a bowl of steamed multiple grains as a main dish, with salted dried fish calledjaban[70][71] asbanchan (side dishes), and a soup based ondoenjang (soybean paste) such asbaechuguk made withnapa cabbage,kongnipguk made with soybean leaves, ormuguk made withradish. Jeju dishes are made with simple ingredients, and the taste is generally salty. Raw seafood calledhoe is commonly consumed as a part of the meal. The warm weather affects Jeju's cuisine in thatgimjang, preparing kimchi in late autumn for winter consumption, is not necessary there unlike in the other provinces. Only a small amount of kimchi is pickled by Jeju's locals. Representative main dishes in Jeju cuisine are porridge made with fish, seafood, seaweeds, or mushrooms. Examples includejeonbokjuk made withabalone,okdomjuk made withred tilefish,[72]gejuk made with crabs,gingijuk made with small crabs calledbangge (Helice tridens),[73]maeyeoksae juk made with youngwakame,[74] andchogijuk made withshiitake.[75]
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