Korea[a] is apeninsular region inEast Asia consisting of theKorean Peninsula,[b]Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since theend of World War II in Asia in 1945, it has been politicallydivided at or near the38th parallel betweenNorth Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea; DPRK) andSouth Korea (Republic of Korea; ROK). Both countries proclaimed independence in 1948, and the two countries fought theKorean War from 1950 to 1953. The region is bordered byChina to the north andRussia to the northeast, across theAmnok (Yalu) andDuman (Tumen) rivers, and is separated fromJapan to the southeast by theKorea Strait.
Known human habitation of the Korean peninsula dates to 40,000 BC.[3] The kingdom ofGojoseon, which according to tradition was founded in 2333 BC, fell to theHan dynasty in 108 BC. It was followed by theThree Kingdoms period, in which Korea was divided intoGoguryeo,Baekje, andSilla. In 668 AD, Silla conquered Baekje and Goguryeo with the aid of theTang dynasty, formingUnified Silla;Balhae succeeded Goguryeo in the north. In the late 9th century, Unified Silla collapsed into three states, beginning theLater Three Kingdoms period. In 918, Goguryeo was resurrected asGoryeo, which achieved what has been called a "true national unification" by Korean historians, as it unified both the Later Three Kingdoms and the ruling class of Balhae after its fall.[4] Goryeo, whose name developed into the modernexonym "Korea", was highly cultured and saw the invention of the firstmetal movable type. During the 13th century,Goryeo became a vassal state of theMongol Empire. Goryeo overthrew Mongol rule before falling to a coup led by GeneralYi Seong-gye, who established theJoseon dynasty in 1392. The first 200 years of Joseon were marked by peace; theHangul, the Korean alphabet was created andConfucianism became influential. This ended withJapanese andQing invasions, which brought devastation to Joseon and led to Korean isolationism. After the invasions, an isolated Joseon experienced another nearly 200-year period of peace and prosperity, along with cultural and technological development. In the final years of the 19th century,Japan forced Joseon to open up and Joseon experienced turmoil such as theKapsin Coup,Donghak Peasant Revolution, and theassassination of Empress Myeongseong. In 1895, Japan defeatedChina in theFirst Sino-Japanese War and China lost suzerainty over Korea and Korea was placed under further Japanese influence. In 1897, the centuries old Joseon was replaced by theKorean Empire with the Joseon's last king,Gojong, becoming the Emperor of the Korean Empire. Japan's further victory in the 1904–1905Russo-Japanese War, expelled Russian influence in Korea and Manchuria. In 1905,the Korean Empire became a protectorate of the Empire of Japan. In 1910,the Empire of Japanofficially annexed the Korean peninsula.
Korea under Japanese rule was marked by industrialization and modernization, economic exploitation, and brutal suppression of theKorean independence movement, as reflected in the 1919March First Movement. The Japanese suppressed Korean culture, and during World War II forcefully mobilized millions of Koreans to support its war effort. In 1945,Japan surrendered to the Allies, and theSoviet Union andUnited States agreed to divide Korea into two military occupation zones divided by the 38th parallel, with the Soviet zone in the north and American zone in the south. The division was meant to be temporary, with plans for Korea to be reunited under a single government. In 1948, the DPRK and ROK were established with the backing of each power, and ongoing tensions led to the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950, which came to involveU.S.-led United Nations andcommunist Chinese forces. The war ended in stalemate in 1953, but without a peace treaty.A demilitarized zone was created between the countries, approximating the original partition.
"Korea" is the modern spelling of "Corea", a name attested in English as early as 1614.[5][6] "Corea" is derived from the name of the ancient kingdom ofGoryeo.[citation needed] Korea wastransliterated asCauli inThe Travels of Marco Polo,[7] of theChinese高麗 (MC:Kawlej,[8]mod.Gāolì). This was theHanja for the Korean kingdom ofGoryeo (Korean: 고려;MR: Koryŏ), which ruled most of the Korean peninsula during the 12th century. Korea's introduction to the West resulted from trade and contact with merchants from Arabic lands,[9] with some records dating back as far as the 9th century.[10] Goryeo's name was a continuation ofGoguryeo (Koguryŏ) the northernmost of theThree Kingdoms of Korea, which was officially known as Goryeo beginning in the 5th century.[11] The original name was a combination of the adjectives "high" and "lofty" with the name of a localYemaek tribe, whose original name is thought to have been either "Guru" (溝樓, 'Walled City', inferred from some toponyms in Chinese historical documents) or "Gauri" (가우리, 'Center'). With expanding British and American trade following theopening of Korea in the late 19th century, the spelling "Korea" appeared and gradually grew in popularity.[5] The name Korea is now commonly used in English contexts by both North and South Korea.
In South Korea, Korea as a whole is referred to asHanguk (한국;lit. country of theHan,[haːnɡuk]). The name referencesSamhan, referring to theThree Kingdoms of Korea, not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula.[12][13] Although written in Hanja as韓,幹, or刊, thisHan has no relation to the Chinese place names or peoples who used those characters but was aphonetic transcription (OC:*Gar,MC:Han[8] orGan) of a native Korean word that seems to have had the meaning "big" or "great", particularly in reference to leaders. It has been tentatively linked with the titlekhan used by the nomads ofManchuria andCentral Asia.
In North Korea, Korea as a whole is referred to asJoseon (조선;lit. [land of the] Morning Calm,[tɕosʰʌn]).Joseon is the modern Korean pronunciation of the Hanja朝鮮, which is also the basis of the word for Korea as a whole inJapan (朝鮮,Chōsen),China (朝鮮;Cháoxiǎn), andVietnam (Triều Tiên). "GreatJoseon" was the name of the kingdom ruled by theJoseon dynasty from 1392 until their declaration of the short-livedGreat Korean Empire in 1897.King Taejo had named them for the earlierGojoseon (고조선), who ruled northern Korea from its legendaryprehistory until their conquest in 108 BCE by China'sHan Empire. TheGo- in Gojoseon is the Hanja word古 and simply means "ancient" or "old"; it is a modern usage to distinguish the ancient Joseon from the later dynasty. It is unclear whetherJoseon was atranscription of a native Korean name (OC*T[r]awser,MCTrjewsjen)[8] or a partial translation into Chinese of the Korean capitalAsadal (아사달),[14] whose meaning has been reconstructed as "Morning Land" or "Mountain".
The Korean Academy claimed ancient hominid fossils originating from about 100,000 BCE in the lava at a stone city site in Korea. Fluorescent and high-magnetic analyses indicate the volcanic fossils may be from as early as 300,000 BCE.[15] The best preserved Korean pottery goes back to thePaleolithic times around 10,000 BCE and theNeolithic period begins around 6000 BCE.
Beginning around 300 BC, theJaponic-speakingYayoi people from the Korean Peninsula entered the Japanese islands and displaced or intermingled with the originalJōmon inhabitants.[16] The linguistic homeland of Proto-Koreans is located somewhere in Southern Siberia / Manchuria, such as theLiao river area or the Amur region. Proto-Koreans arrived in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula at around 300 BC, replacing and assimilating Japonic-speakers and likely causing theYayoi migration.[17]
According to Korean legend,Dangun, a descendant ofHeaven, establishedGojoseon in 2333 BCE. In 108 BCE, theHan dynasty defeated Gojoseon and installedfour commanderies in the northern Korean peninsula. Three of the commanderies fell or retreated westward within a few decades, but theLelang Commandery remained as a center of cultural and economic exchange with successive Chinese dynasties for four centuries. By 313,Goguryeo annexed all of the Chinese commanderies.
The Proto–Three Kingdoms period, sometimes called the Multiple States Period, is the earlier part of what is commonly called theThree Kingdoms Period, following the fall ofGojoseon but beforeGoguryeo,Baekje, andSilla fully developed into kingdoms.
This time period saw numerous states spring up from the former territories of Gojoseon, which encompassed northern Korea and southernManchuria. With the fall of Gojoseon, southern Korea entered theSamhan period.
Located in the southern part of Korea, Samhan referred to the three confederacies ofMahan,Jinhan, andByeonhan. Mahan was the largest and consisted of 54 states.Byeonhan andJinhan both consisted of twelve states, bringing a total of 78 states within theSamhan. These three confederacies eventually developed intoBaekje,Silla, andGaya.
Goguryeo was a highly militaristic state,[19][20] and a large empire in East Asia,[21][22][23][24] reaching its zenith in the 5th century when its territories expanded to encompass most of Manchuria to the north, parts ofInner Mongolia to the west,[25] parts of Russia to the east,[26] and the Seoul region to the south.[27] Goguryeo experienced a golden age underGwanggaeto the Great and his sonJangsu,[28][29][30][31] who both subdued Baekje and Silla during their times, achieving a brief unification of theThree Kingdoms of Korea and becoming the most dominant power on the Korean Peninsula.[32][33] In addition to contesting for control of the Korean Peninsula, Goguryeo had manymilitary conflicts with various Chinese dynasties,[34][self-published source?] most notably theGoguryeo–Sui War, in which Goguryeo defeated a huge force said to number over a million men.[35][36][37][38][39] In 642, the powerful generalYŏn Kaesomun led a coup and gained complete control over Goguryeo. In response, EmperorTang Taizong of China led acampaign against Goguryeo, in which the Gorguryeo forces were decimated by the Tang at theBattle of Mount Jupil. Taizong was later defeated at theBattle of Ansi and withdrew his forces from Goguryeo.[40][41][self-published source?] After the death of Tang Taizong, his son EmperorTang Gaozong allied with the Korean kingdom of Silla and invaded Goguryeo again, but were forced to withdraw in 662.[42][43] However, Yŏn Kaesomun died of a natural cause in 666 and Goguryeo was thrown into chaos and weakened by a succession struggle among his sons and younger brother, with his eldest son defecting toTang and his younger brother defecting to Silla.[44][45] The Tang-Silla alliance conquered Goguryeo in 668. After the collapse of Goguryeo, Tang and Silla ended their alliance and fought over control of the Korean Peninsula. Silla succeeded in gaining control over most of the Korean Peninsula, while Tang gained control over Goguryeo's northern territories. However, 30 years after the fall of Goguryeo, a Goguryeo general by the name ofDae Joyeong founded the Korean-Mohe state ofBalhae and successfully expelled the Tang presence from much of the former Goguryeo territories.
The southwestern Korean kingdom ofBaekje was founded around modern-daySeoul by aGoguryeo prince, a son of thefounder of Goguryeo.[46][47][self-published source?][48] Baekje absorbed all of theMahan states and subjugated most of the western Korean peninsula (including the modern provinces ofGyeonggi,Chungcheong, andJeolla, as well as parts ofHwanghae andGangwon) to a centralised government; during the expansion of its territory, Baekje acquired Chinese culture and technology through maritime contacts with theSouthern Dynasties. Baekje was a great maritime power;[49] its nautical skill, which made it thePhoenicia of East Asia, was instrumental in the dissemination of Buddhism throughout East Asia and continental culture to Japan.[50][51] Historic evidence suggests that Japanese culture, art, and language were influenced by the kingdom of Baekje and Korea itself;[24][52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][excessive citations] Baekje also played an important role in transmitting advanced Chinese culture to the Japanese archipelago. Baekje was once a great military power on the Korean Peninsula, most notably in the 4th century during the rule ofGeunchogo when its influence extended across the sea toLiaoxi andShandong in China, taking advantage of the weakened state ofFormer Qin, andKyushu in the Japanese archipelago;[63] however, Baekje was critically defeated by Gwanggaeto the Great and declined.[64]
Although later records claim thatSilla was the oldest of theThree Kingdoms of Korea, it is now believed to have been the last kingdom to develop. By the 2nd century, Silla existed as a large state in the southeast, occupying and influencing its neighbouring city-states. In 562, Silla annexed theGaya confederacy, which was located between Baekje and Silla. The Three Kingdoms of Korea often warred with each other and Silla was often dominated by Baekje and Goguryeo. Silla was the smallest and weakest of the three, but it used cunning diplomatic means to make opportunistic pacts and alliances with the more powerful Korean kingdoms, and eventually Tang China, to its great advantage.[65][66] In 660, KingMuyeol ordered his armies to attackBaekje. GeneralKim Yu-shin, aided byTang forces, conquered Baekje after defeating GeneralGyebaek at theBattle of Hwangsanbeol. In 661, Silla and Tang attacked Goguryeo but were repelled. KingMunmu, son of Muyeol and nephew of General Kim Yu-shin, launched another campaign in 667 and Goguryeo fell in the following year.
Beginning in the 6th century,Silla's power gradually extended across the Korean Peninsula. Silla first annexed the adjacentGaya confederacy in 562. By the 640s, Silla formed an alliance with theTang dynasty of China to conquerBaekje and laterGoguryeo. After conquering Baekje and Goguryeo, Silla repulsed Tang China from the Korean peninsula in 676. Even though Silla unified most of the Korean Peninsula, most of the Goguryeo territories to the north of the Korean Peninsula were ruled byBalhae. Former Goguryeo general[67][68] or chief of Sumo Mohe[69][70][71]Dae Jo-yeong led a group of Goguryeo andMohe refugees to theJilin and founded the kingdom ofBalhae, 30 years after the collapse of Goguryeo, as the successor to Goguryeo. At its height, Balhae's territories extended from southernManchuria down to the northern Korean peninsula. Balhae was called the "Prosperous Country in the East".[72]
Later Silla fell apart in the late 9th century, giving way to the tumultuousLater Three Kingdoms period (892–935), and Balhae was destroyed by theKhitans in 926.Goryeo unified the Later Three Kingdoms and received thelast crown prince and much of the ruling class of Balhae, thus bringing about a unification of the two successor nations ofGoguryeo.[99]
Goryeo was founded in 918 and replaced Silla as the ruling dynasty of Korea. Goryeo's land was at first what is now South Korea and about 1/3 of North Korea, but later on managed to recover most of the Korean peninsula. Momentarily, Goryeo advanced to parts ofJiandao while conquering theJurchens, but returned the territories due to the harsh climate and difficulties in defending them. The name "Goryeo" (高麗) is a short form of "Goguryeo" (高句麗) and was first used during the time of KingJangsu. Goryeo regarded itself as the successor of Goguryeo, hence its name and efforts to recover the former territories of Goguryeo.[100][101][102][103]Wang Geon, the founder of Goryeo, was of Goguryeo descent and traced his ancestry to a noble Goguryeo clan.[104] He madeKaesong, his hometown, the capital.
During this period, laws were codified and a civil service system was introduced.Buddhism flourished and spread throughout the peninsula. The development ofceladon industries flourished in the 12th and 13th centuries. The publication of theTripitaka Koreana onto more than 80,000 wooden blocks and the invention of the world's first metalmovable type in the 13th century attest to Goryeo's cultural achievements.[105][106][107][108][109][110]
Goryeo in 1374
Goryeo had to defend frequently against attacks by nomadic empires, especially theKhitans and theMongols. Goryeo had a hostile relationship with the Khitans, because theKhitan Empire had destroyedBalhae, also a successor state of Goguryeo. In 993, the Khitans, who had established theLiao dynasty in 907,invaded Goryeo, demanding that it make amity with them. Goryeo sent the diplomatSŏ Hŭi to negotiate, who successfully persuaded the Khitans to let Goryeo expand to the banks of theAmnok (Yalu) River, citing that in the past the land belonged to Goguryeo, the predecessor of Goryeo.[111] During theGoryeo–Khitan War, the Khitan Empire invaded Korea twice more in1009 and1018, but was defeated.
After defeating the Khitan Empire, which was the most powerful empire of its time,[112][113] Goryeo experienced a golden age that lasted a century, during which theTripitaka Koreana was completed, and there were great developments in printing and publishing, promoting learning and dispersing knowledge on philosophy, literature, religion, and science; by 1100, there were 12 universities that produced famous scholars and scientists.[114][115]
Goryeo wasinvaded by the Mongols in seven major campaigns from the 1230s until the 1270s, but was never conquered.[116] Exhausted after decades of fighting, Goryeo sent itscrown prince to theYuan capital to swear allegiance to the Mongols;Kublai Khan accepted, and married one of his daughters to the Korean crown prince,[116] and the dynastic line of Goryeo continued to surviveunder the overlordship of the Mongol Yuan dynasty as a semi-autonomous vassal state and compulsory ally. The two nations became intertwined for 80 years as all subsequent Korean kings married Mongol princesses,[116] and thelast empress of the Yuan dynasty was a Korean princess.[117]
In the 1350s,King Gongmin was free at last to reform the Goryeo government when the Yuan dynasty began to crumble. Gongmin had various problems that needed to be dealt with, which included the removal of pro-Mongol aristocrats and military officials, the question of land holding, and quelling the growing animosity between the Buddhists andConfucian scholars. During this tumultuous period, Goryeo momentarily conqueredLiaoyang in 1356, repulsed two largeinvasions by the Red Turbans in 1359 and 1360, and defeated the final attempt by the Yuan to dominate Goryeo when GeneralCh'oe Yŏng defeated a Mongoltumen in 1364. During the 1380s, Goryeo turned its attention to theWokou threat and usednaval artillery created byCh'oe Mu-sŏn to annihilate hundreds of pirate ships.
In 1392, the generalYi Seong-gye overthrew theGoryeo dynasty after he staged a coup and defeated GeneralCh'oe Yŏng. Yi Seong-gye named his new dynastyJoseon and moved the capital fromKaesong toHanseong (formerly Hanyang; modern-daySeoul) and built theGyeongbokgung palace.[118] In 1394, he adoptedConfucianism as the country's official ideology, resulting in much loss of power and wealth by theBuddhists. The prevailing philosophy of the Joseon dynasty wasNeo-Confucianism, which was epitomized by theseonbi class, scholars who passed up positions of wealth and power to lead lives of study and integrity.
Joseon was a nominal tributary state ofChina but exercised full sovereignty,[119][120] and maintained the highest position among China's tributary states,[121][122] which also included countries such as theRyukyu Kingdom, Vietnam, Burma, Brunei, Laos, Thailand,[123][124][125] and the Philippines, among others.[126][127] In addition, Joseon received tribute from Jurchens and Japanese until the 17th century,[128][129][130] and had a small enclave in the Ryukyu Kingdom that engaged in trade with Siam and Java.[131]
During the 15th and 16th centuries, Joseon enjoyed many benevolent rulers who promoted education and science.[132] Most notable among them wasSejong the Great (r. 1418–50), who personally created and promulgatedHangul, the Korean alphabet.[133] This golden age[132] saw great cultural and scientific advancements,[134] including in printing,meteorological observation, astronomy, calendar science,ceramics, military technology, geography, cartography, medicine, and agricultural technology, some of which were unrivaled elsewhere.[135] Joseon implemented a class system that consisted ofyangban the noble class,jungin the middle class,yangin the common class, andcheonin the lowest class, which included occupations such as butchers, tanners, shamans, entertainers, andnobi, the equivalent of slaves, bondservants, orserfs.[136][137]
In 1592 and again in 1597, theJapanese invaded Korea; the Korean military at the time was unprepared and untrained, due to two centuries of peace on theKorean Peninsula.[138]Toyotomi Hideyoshi intended to conquer China and India[139] through the Korean Peninsula, but was defeated by strong resistance from theRighteous Army, the naval superiority of AdmiralYi Sun-sin and histurtle ships, and assistance fromWanli Emperor ofMing China. However, Joseon experienced great destruction, including a tremendous loss of cultural sites such as temples and palaces to Japanese pillaging, and the Japanese brought back to Japan an estimated 100,000–200,000noses cut from Korean victims.[140] Less than 30 years after the Japanese invasions, theManchus took advantage of Joseon's war-weakened state andinvaded in 1627 and 1637, and then went on toconquer the destabilized Ming dynasty.
After normalising relations with the newQing dynasty, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace. KingsYeongjo andJeongjo led a new renaissance of the Joseon dynasty during the 18th century.[141][142]
In the 19th century, the royal in-law families gained control of the government, leading to mass corruption and weakening of the state, with severe poverty and peasant rebellions spreading throughout the country. Furthermore, the Joseon government adopted a strict isolationist policy, earning the nickname "thehermit kingdom", but ultimately failed to protect itself againstimperialism and was forced to open its borders, beginning an era leading intoJapanese imperial rule.
The earliest surviving depiction of the Korean flag was printed in a US Navy bookFlags of Maritime Nations in July 1889.
Beginning in 1871,Japan began to exert more influence in Korea, forcing it out of China's traditional sphere of influence. As a result of theFirst Sino-Japanese War (1894–95), theQing dynasty had to give up such a position according to Article 1 of theTreaty of Shimonoseki, which was concluded between China and Japan in 1895. That same year,Empress Myeongseong of Korea was assassinated by Japanese agents.[143]
In 1897, theJoseon dynasty proclaimed theKorean Empire (1897–1910).King Gojong became emperor. During this brief period, Korea had some success in modernising the military, economy, real property laws, education system, and various industries.Russia, Japan,France, and the United States all invested in the country and sought to influence it politically.
In 1910, an already militarily occupied Korea was a forced party to theJapan–Korea Annexation Treaty. The treaty was signed byLee Wan-Yong, who was given the General Power of Attorney by the Emperor. However, the Emperor is said to have not actually ratified the treaty according to Yi Tae-jin.[144] There is a long dispute whether this treaty was legal or illegal due to its signing under duress, threat of force and bribes.
Over five million Koreans were conscripted for labour beginning in 1939,[149] and tens of thousands of men were forced into Japan's military.[150] Nearly 400,000 Korean labourers died.[151] Approximately 200,000 girls and women,[152] mostly from China and Korea, were forced into sexual slavery for the Japanese military.[153] In 1993, Japanese Chief Cabinet SecretaryYohei Kono acknowledged the terrible injustices faced by these euphemistically named "comfort women".[154][155]
During the Japanese annexation, the Korean language was suppressed in an effort to eradicate indigenous Korean national identity. Koreans were forced to take Japanese surnames, known asSōshi-kaimei.[156] TraditionalKorean culture suffered heavy losses, as numerous Korean cultural artefacts were destroyed[157] or taken to Japan.[158] One such artefact is rumored to be a sacredKorean mask (tal), still up on display in a Japanese museum. To this day, valuable Korean artefacts can often be found in Japanese museums or among private collections.[159] One investigation by the South Korean government identified 75,311 cultural assets that were taken from Korea, 34,369 in Japan and 17,803 in the United States. However, experts estimate that over 100,000 artefacts actually remain in Japan.[158][160] Japanese officials considered returning Korean cultural properties, but to date[158] this has not occurred.[160] Both Koreas and Japan still dispute the ownership of theDokdo islets, located east of the Korean Peninsula.[161]
There was significant emigration to the overseas territories of theEmpire of Japan during the Japanese occupation period, includingKorea.[162] By the end of World War II, there were over 850,000 Japanese settlers in Korea.[163] After World War II, most of theseoverseas Japanese repatriated to Japan.[164] Migrants who remainedsquatted ininformal settlements.[165]
The aftermath of World War II left Korea partitioned along the 38th parallel on 2 September 1945, with the north under Soviet occupation and the south under US occupation supported by other allied states. Consequently, North Korea, a Soviet-style socialist republic was established in the north, and South Korea, a Western-style regime,was established in the south.
Since the 1960s, the South Korean economy has grown enormously and the economic structure was radically transformed. In 1957, South Korea had a lowerper capita GDP thanGhana,[166] and by 2008 it was 17 times as high as Ghana's.[c]
According toR. J. Rummel,forced labour, executions, and concentration camps were responsible for over one million deaths in North Korea from 1948 to 1987;[168] others have estimated 400,000 deaths in concentration camps alone.[169] Estimates based on the most recent North Korean census suggest that 240,000 to 420,000 people died as a result of the1990s famine and that there were 600,000 to 850,000 unnatural deaths in North Korea from 1993 to 2008.[170] In South Korea, as guerrilla activities expanded, the South Korean government used strong measures against peasants, such as forcefully moving their families from guerrilla areas. According to one estimate, these measures resulted in 36,000 people killed, 11,000 people wounded, and 432,000 people displaced.[171]
The Korean War broke out when Soviet-backed North Korea invaded South Korea. Despite massive swings in territorial gain back and forth, in the end neither side gained much territory as a result. The Korean Peninsula remained divided, theKorean Demilitarized Zone being thede facto border between the two states.
In June 1950 North Korea invaded the South, using Soviet tanks and weaponry. During theKorean War (1950–53) more than 1.2 million people died and the three years of fighting throughout the nation effectively destroyed most cities.[172] The war ended with anarmistice agreement at approximately theMilitary Demarcation Line, but the two governments are officially still at war.
Kim and Moon shaking hands over thedemarcation line on 27 April 2018
In 2018, the leaders of North Korea and South Korea officially signed thePanmunjom Declaration, announcing that they will work to end the conflict.[173]
In November 2020, South Korea and China agreed to work together to mend South Korea's relationship with North Korea. During a meeting betweenPresident Moon and China's foreign minister,Wang Yi, Moon expressed his gratitude to China for its role in helping to foster peace in the Korean Peninsula. Moon was quoted telling Wang during their meeting that "[the South Korean] government will not stop efforts to put an end (formally) to war on the Korean Peninsula and achieve complete denuclearization and permanent peace together with the international community, including China."[174]
Satellite image of KoreaA view ofSeoraksanDaedongyeojido – this 1861 map of Korea represents the peak of pre-modern mapmaking in the region.Jeju Island seashore
The southern and western parts of the peninsula have well-developed plains, while the eastern and northern parts are mountainous. The highest mountain in Korea isMount Paektu (2,744 m), through which runs the border with China. The southern extension of Mount Paektu is a highland calledGaema Heights. This highland was mainly raised during theCenozoicorogeny and partly covered by volcanic matter. To the south of Gaema Gowon, successive high mountains are located along the eastern coast of the peninsula. This mountain range is namedBaekdu-daegan. Some significant mountains includeSobaeksan (1,439 m),Mount Kumgang (1,638 m),Seoraksan (1,708 m),Taebaeksan (1,567 m), andJirisan (1,915 m). There are several lower, secondary mountain series whose direction is almost perpendicular to that of Baekdu-daegan. They are developed along the tectonic line ofMesozoic orogeny and their directions are basically northwest.
Unlike most ancient mountains on the mainland, many important islands in Korea were formed by volcanic activity in the Cenozoic orogeny. Jeju Island, situated off the southern coast, is a large volcanic island whose main mountain,Mount Halla or Hallasan (1,950 m), is the highest in South Korea. Ulleung Island is a volcanic island in the Sea of Japan, the composition of which is morefelsic than Jeju. The volcanic islands tend to be younger, the more westward.
Because the mountainous region is mostly on the eastern part of the peninsula, the mainrivers tend to flow westwards. Two exceptions are the southward-flowingNakdong River andSeomjin River. Important rivers running westward include the Amnok River, theChongchon River, theTaedong River, theHan River, theGeum River, and theYeongsan River. These rivers have vast flood plains and provide an ideal environment forwet-rice cultivation.
The southern and southwestern coastlines of the peninsula form a well-developedria coastline, known asDadohae-jin in Korean. This convoluted coastline provides mild seas, and the resulting calm environment allows for safe navigation, fishing, andseaweed farming. In addition to the complex coastline, the western coast of the Korean Peninsula has an extremely hightidal amplitude (atIncheon, around the middle of the western coast, the tide can get as high as 9 m). Vast tidal flats have been developing on the south and west coastlines.
Climate
Korea has a temperate climate with comparatively fewertyphoons than other countries in East Asia. Due to the peninsula's position, it has a unique climate influenced by Siberia in the north, the Pacific Ocean in the east and the rest of Eurasia in the west. The peninsula has four distinct seasons: spring, summer, autumn and winter.[178]
Spring
As influence from Siberia weakens, temperatures begin to increase while the high pressure begins to move away. If the weather is abnormally dry, Siberia will have more influence on the peninsula leading to wintry weather such as snow.[179]
Summer
During June at the start of the summer, there tends to be a lot of rain due to the cold and wet air from theSea of Okhotsk and the hot and humid air from the Pacific Ocean combining. When these fronts combine, it leads to a so-called rainy season with often cloudy days with rain, which is sometimes very heavy. The hot and humid winds from the south west blow causing an increasing amount of humidity and this leads to the fronts moving towardsManchuria in China and thus there is less rain and this is known as midsummer; temperatures can exceed 30 °C (86 °F) daily at this time of year.
Autumn
Usually, high pressure is heavily dominant during autumn leading to clear conditions. Furthermore, temperatures remain high but the humidity becomes relatively low.
Winter
The weather becomes increasingly dominated by Siberia during winter and the jet stream moves further south causing a drop in temperature. This season is relatively dry with some snow falling at times.
Animal life of the Korean Peninsula includes a considerable number of bird species and nativefreshwater fish. Native orendemic species of the Korean Peninsula includeKorean hare,Korean water deer,Korean field mouse,Korean brown frog,Korean pine andKorean spruce. TheKorean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) with its forest and naturalwetlands is a unique biodiversity spot, which harbours eighty-twoendangered species. Korea once hosted manySiberian tigers, but as the number of people affected by the tigers increased, the tigers were killed in the Joseon dynasty and the Siberian tigers in the South Korea became extinct during the Japanese colonial era period. It has been confirmed that Siberian tigers are only on the side of North Korea now.
There are also approximately 3,034 species ofvascular plants throughout the peninsula.
One of the best known artefacts of Korea's history of science and technology is theCheomseongdae, a 9.4-meter highastronomical observatory built in 634 CE.
The earliest known surviving Korean example of woodblock printing isThe Great Dharani Sutra.[180] It is believed to have been printed in Korea in 750–51 CE, which if correct, would make it older than theDiamond Sutra.
Jikji,Selected Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Seon Masters, the earliest known book printed with movable metal type, 1377. Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris.
During theGoryeo period,metal movable type printing was invented byCh'oe Yun-ŭi in 1234 CE.[181][107][182][183][110][105] This invention made printing easier, more efficient and also increased literacy, which observed by Chinese visitors was seen to be so important where it was considered to be shameful to not be able to read.[184] TheMongol Empire later adopted Korea's movable type printing and spread as far as Central Asia. There is conjecture as to whether or not Ch'oe's invention had any influence on later printing inventions such as Gutenberg'sPrinting press.[185] When theMongolsinvaded Europe they inadvertently introduced different kinds of Asian technology.[186]
As of 2023[update], the combined population of the Koreas is about 77.9 million (South Korea: 51.7 million, North Korea: 26.1 million).[190][191] Korea is chiefly populated by a highlyhomogeneousethnic group, theKoreans, who speak theKorean language.[192] The number of foreigners living in Korea has also steadily increased since the late 20th century, particularly in South Korea, where more than 1 million foreigners reside.[193] It was estimated in 2006 that only 26,700 of the oldChinese community now remain in South Korea.[194] However, in recent years, immigration from mainland China has increased; 624,994 persons ofChinese nationality have immigrated to South Korea, including 443,566 ofethnic Korean descent.[195] Small communities of ethnic Chinese andJapanese are also found in North Korea.[196]
Modern Korean is written almost exclusively in the script of theKorean alphabet (known as Hangul in South Korea and Chosungul in China and North Korea), which was invented in the 15th century. Korean is sometimes written with the addition of some Chinese characters called Hanja; however, this is only occasionally seen nowadays.
Korean Buddhist architectureAmitabha and Eight Great Bodhisattvas, Goryeo scroll from the 1300s
Confucian tradition has dominated Korean thought, along with contributions byBuddhism,Taoism, andKorean Shamanism. Since the middle of the 20th century, however,Christianity has competed with Buddhism in South Korea, while religious practice has been suppressed in North Korea. Throughout Korean history and culture, regardless of separation; the influence of traditional beliefs of Korean Shamanism, Mahayana Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism have remained an underlying religion of the Korean people as well as a vital aspect of their culture; all these traditions have coexisted peacefully for hundreds of years up to today despite strong Westernisation from Christian missionary conversions in the South[197][198][199] or the pressure from theJuchegovernment in the North.[200][201]
According to 2005 statistics from the South Korean government, about 46% of citizens profess no particular religion.Christians account for 29.2% of the population (of which are Protestants 18.3% and Catholics 10.9%) andBuddhists 22.8%.[202] In North Korea, around 71.3% claim to be non-religious or atheists, 12.9% followCheondoism and 12.3%Korean Folk Religion, while Christians account for 2% of the population and Buddhists 1.5%.[203]
Islam in South Korea is practised by about 45,000 natives (about 0.09% of the population) in addition to some 100,000 foreign workers from Muslim countries.[204] While in North Korea it's estimated to be around 3000 Muslims, which is around 0.01% of the population.[205] TheAr-Rahman Mosque is the only mosque in DPRK, and it is located at the Iranian Embassy grounds in Pyongyyang.[206]
The modern South Korean school system consists of six years in elementary school, three years in middle school, and three years in high school. Students are required to go to elementary and middle school, and do not have to pay for their education, except for a small fee called a "School Operation Support Fee" that differs from school to school. TheProgramme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by theOECD, ranks South Korea's science education as the third best in the world and being significantly higher than the OECD average.[208]
Although South Korean students often rank high on international comparative assessments, the education system is criticized for emphasising too much upon passive learning and memorisation. The South Korean education system is rather notably strict and structured as compared to its counterparts in most Western societies.
Location of World Heritage Sites in Korea.[211][212]Note: Seoul is home to three separate properties; Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty locate throughout the country, only one site is shown on map.
Traditional Korean dance (Jinju geommu)
In ancient Chinese texts, Korea is referred to as "Rivers and Mountains Embroidered on Silk" (금수강산;錦繡江山) and "Eastern Nation of Decorum" (동방예의지국;東方禮儀之國).[213] Individuals are regarded as one year old when they are born, as Koreans reckon the pregnancy period as one year of life for infants, and age increments increase onNew Year's Day rather than on the anniversary of birthdays. Thus, one born immediately before New Year's Day may only be a few days old in western reckoning, but two years old in Korea. Accordingly, a Korean person's stated age (at least among fellow Koreans) will be one or two years more than their age according to western reckoning. However, western reckoning is sometimes applied with regard to the concept oflegal age; for example, thelegal age for purchasing alcohol orcigarettes in the Republic of Korea is 19, which is measured according to western reckoning.
Korean literature is the body of literature produced by Koreans, mostly in theKorean language and sometimes inClassical Chinese. For much of Korea's 1,500 years of literary history, it was written inHanja. It is commonly divided into classical and modern periods, although this distinction is sometimes unclear.
There are four major traditional poetic forms:hyangga ("native songs"); byeolgok ("special songs"), or changga ("long poems");sijo ("current melodies"); andgasa ("verses"). Other poetic forms that flourished briefly include the kyonggi-style, in the 14th and 15th centuries, and theakchang ("words for songs") in the 15th century. The most representative akchang is Yongbi och'on ka (1445–47; Songs of Flying Dragons), a cycle compiled in praise of the founding of the Yi dynasty. Korean poetry originally was meant to be sung, and its forms and styles reflect its melodic origins. The basis of its prosody is a line of alternating groups of three or four syllables, which is probably the most natural rhythm to the language.
One famous earliest poetry or lyric song was the Gonghuin (Konghu-in) byYeo-ok duringGojoseon.
Traditional Korean music includes combinations of the folk, vocal, religious andritual music styles of theKorean people. Korean music has been practised since prehistoric times.[214] Korean music falls into two broad categories. The first,Hyangak, literally meansThe local music orMusic native to Korea, a famous example of which is Sujechon, a piece of instrumental music often claimed to be at least 1,300 years old.[215] The second,yangak, represents a more Western style.
Koreans traditionally believe that the taste and quality of food depend on its spices and sauces, the essential ingredients to making a delicious meal. Therefore,soybean paste,soy sauce,gochujang or red pepper paste andkimchi are some of the most important staples in a Korean household.
Korean cuisine was greatly influenced by the geography and climate of the Korean Peninsula, which is known for its cold autumns and winters, therefore there are many fermented dishes and hot soups and stews.
Korean cuisine is probably best known forkimchi, a side dish which uses a distinctivefermentation process of preserving vegetables, most commonly cabbage. Kimchi is said to relieve the pores on the skin, thereby reducing wrinkles and providing nutrients to the skin naturally. It is also healthy, as it provides necessary vitamins and nutrients. Gochujang, a traditional Korean sauce made of red pepper is also commonly used, often as pepper (chilli) paste, earning the cuisine a reputation for spiciness.
Bulgogi (roasted marinated meat, usually beef),galbi (marinated grilled short ribs), andsamgyeopsal (pork belly) are popular main courses. Fish is also a popular commodity, as it is the traditional meat that Koreans eat. Meals are usually accompanied by a soup or stew, such asgalbitang (stewed ribs) ordoenjang jjigae (fermented bean paste soup). The center of the table is filled with a shared collection of sidedishes calledbanchan.
Other popular dishes includebibimbap, which literally means "mixed rice" (rice mixed with meat, vegetables, and red pepper paste), andnaengmyeon (cold noodles).[216][217]
Instant noodles, orramyeon, is a popular snack food. Koreans also enjoy food frompojangmachas (street vendors), which servetteokbokki, rice cake and fish cake with a spicy gochujang sauce;gimbap, made of steamed white rice wrapped in driedgreen laver seaweed; fried squid; and glazed sweet potato.Soondae, a sausage made of cellophane noodles and pork blood, is widely eaten.
Additionally, some other common snacks include "Choco Pie", shrimp crackers, "bbeongtwigi" (puffed rice grains), and "nurungji" (slightly burnt rice). Nurungji can be eaten as it is or boiled with water to make a soup. Nurungji can also be eaten as a snack or a dessert.
Korea is unique among Asian countries in its use of metal chopsticks. Metal chopsticks have been discovered in archaeological sites belonging to the ancient Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla.
North Korea and South Korea usually compete as two separate nations in international events. There are, however, a few examples of them havingcompeted as one entity, under the name Korea.
Whileassociation football remains one of the most popular sports in South Korea, the martial art oftaekwondo is considered to be the national sport.Baseball andgolf are also popular. The board gameGo, known in Korea asbaduk, has also been popular for over a millennium, first arriving from China in the 5th century CE;baduk is played both casually and competitively.
Taekwon-Do is Korea's most famous martial art and sport. It combines combat techniques, self-defence, sport and exercise. Taekwon-Do has become an official Olympic sport, starting as a demonstration event in1988 (when South Korea hosted the Games in Seoul) and becoming an official medal event in2000. The two major Taekwon-Do federations, theInternational Taekwon-Do Federation and theWorld Taekwondo Federation, were founded in Korea..
Hapkido is a modernKorean martial art with a grappling focus that employs joint locks, throws, kicks, punches and other striking attacks like attacks against pressure points. Hapkido emphasizes circular motion, non-resisting movements and control of the opponent. Practitioners seek to gain advantage through footwork and body positioning to employ leverage, avoiding the pure use of strength against strength.
Ssireum is a traditional form of wrestling that has been practised in Korea for thousands of years, with evidence discovered from Goguryeo of Korea's Three Kingdoms Period (57 BCE to 688). Ssireum is the traditional national sport of Korea. During a match, opponents grip each other by sash belts wrapped around the waist and the thigh, attempting to throw their competitor to the sandy ground of the ring. The first opponent to touch the ground with any body part above the knee or to lose hold of their opponent loses the round.
Ssireum competitions are traditionally held twice a year, during theDano Festival (the 5th day of the fifth lunar month) andChuseok (the 15th day of the 8th lunar month). Competitions are also held throughout the year as a part of festivals and other events.
Taekkyon is a traditional martial art, considered the oldest form of fighting technique of Korea. Practiced for centuries and especially popular during theJoseon period, two forms co-existed: one for practical use, the other for sport. This form was usually practised alongsideSsireum during festivals and competitions between villages. Nonetheless, Taekkyon almost disappeared during theJapanese Occupation and theKorean War.
^First attested in the 13th-centurySamguk yusa as阿斯達 (MCAsjedat[8]). The name is credited to the 6th-centuryBook of Wei but does not appear in surviving passages.
^Janhunen, Juha (2010). "RReconstructing the Language Map of Prehistorical Northeast Asia".Studia Orientalia (108).... there are strong indications that the neighbouring Baekje state (in the southwest) was predominantly Japonic-speaking until it was linguistically Koreanized.
^"Korea". Asian info.Archived from the original on 4 February 2012. Retrieved3 November 2009.
^Yi, Hyŏn-hŭi; Pak, Sŏng-su; Yun, Nae-hyŏn (2005).New history of Korea. Jimoondang. p. 201.ISBN9788988095850.Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved29 July 2016. "He launched a military expedition to expand his territory, opening the golden age of Goguryeo."
^Yi, Ki-baek (1984).A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 47.ISBN9780674615762.Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved29 July 2016. "Koguryŏ was the first to open hostilities, with a bold assault across the Liao River against Liao-hsi, in 598. The Sui emperor, Wen Ti, launched a retaliatory attack on Koguryŏ but met with reverses and turned back in mid-course. Yang Ti, the next Sui emperor, proceeded in 612 to mount an invasion of unprecedented magnitude, marshalling a huge force said to number over a million men. And when his armies failed to take Liao-tung Fortress (modern Liao-yang), the anchor of Koguryŏ's first line of defense, he had a nearly a third of his forces, some 300,000 strong, break off the battle there and strike directly at the Koguryŏ capital of P'yŏngyang. But the Sui army was lured into a trap by the famed Koguryŏ commander Ŭlchi Mundŏk, and suffered a calamitous defeat at the Salsu (Ch'ŏngch'ŏn) River. It is said that only 2,700 of the 300,000 Sui soldiers who had crossed the Yalu survived to find their way back, and the Sui emperor now lifted the siege of Liao-tung Fortress and withdrew his forces to China proper. Yang Ti continued to send his armies against Koguryŏ but again without success, and before long his war-weakened empire crumbled."
^Nahm, Andrew C. (2005).A Panorama of 5000 Years: Korean History (Second revised ed.). Seoul: Hollym International Corporation. p. 18.ISBN978-0930878689. "China, which had been split into many states since the early 3rd century, was reunified by the Sui dynasty at the end of the 6th century. Soon afterward, Sui China mobilized its army and invaded Koguryŏ. However, the people of Koguryŏ were united and able to repel the Chinese invasion. In 612, Sui troops invaded Korea again, but Koguryŏ forces fought bravely and destroyed Sui troops everywhere. General Ŭlchi Mundŏk of Koguryŏ completely wiped out some 300,000 Sui troops which came across the Yalu River in the battles near the Salsu River (now Ch'ŏngch'ŏn River) with his ingenious military tactics. Only 2,700 Sui troops were able to flee from Korea. The Sui dynasty, which wasted so much energy and manpower in aggressive wars against Koguryŏ, fell in 618."
^Lee, Injae; Miller, Owen; Park, Jinhoon; Yi, Hyun-Hae (15 December 2014).Korean History in Maps. Cambridge University Press. p. 29.ISBN9781107098466.Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved17 July 2016.
^Griffis, William Elliot (1885).Corea, Without and Within: Chapters on Corean History, Manners and Religion. Presbyterian Board of Publication. p. 251. Retrieved25 September 2016.Corea was not only the road by which the art of China reached Japan, but it is the original home of many of the art-ideas which the world believes to be purely Japanese..
^Yayo,Metropolitan Museum of Art, October 2002,archived from the original on 4 January 2020, retrieved17 July 2011,Metallurgy was also introduced from the Asian mainland during this time. Bronze and iron were used to make weapons, armor, tools, and ritual implements such as bells (dotaku)
^Pottery – MSN Encarta. Archived fromthe original on 29 October 2009. "The pottery of the Yayoi culture (c. 300 BCE – CEc. 250), made by a Mongol people who came from Korea to Kyūshū, has been found throughout Japan. "
^"Kanji". Japan guide. 25 November 2010.Archived from the original on 10 May 2012. Retrieved21 May 2012.
^Lee, Injae; Miller, Owen; Park, Jinhoon; Yi, Hyun-Hae (15 December 2014).Korean History in Maps. Cambridge University Press. pp. 64–65.ISBN978-1107098466.Archived from the original on 24 January 2023. Retrieved24 February 2017.
^Reischauer, Edwin Oldfather (1955).Ennins Travels in Tang China. John Wiley & Sons Canada, Limited. pp. 276–283.ISBN978-0471070535.Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved21 July 2016.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) "From what Ennin tells us, it seems that commerce between East China, Korea and Japan was, for the most part, in the hands of men from Silla. Here in the relatively dangerous waters on the eastern fringes of the world, they performed the same functions as did the traders of the placid Mediterranean on the western fringes. This is a historical fact of considerable significance but one which has received virtually no attention in the standard historical compilations of that period or in the modern books based on these sources. . . . While there were limits to the influence of the Koreans along the eastern coast of China, there can be no doubt of their dominance over the waters off these shores. . . . The days of Korean maritime dominance in the Far East actually were numbered, but in Ennin's time the men of Silla were still the masters of the seas in their part of the world."
^Chŏng, Yang-mo; Smith, Judith G.; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, N.Y.) (1998).Arts of Korea. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 230.ISBN978-0870998508. Retrieved30 September 2016.
^Adams, Edward B. (1989)."The Legacy of Kyongju".The Rotarian. Vol. 154, no. 4. Rotary International. p. 28.ISSN0035-838X. Retrieved19 December 2018.
^Lee, Ki-Baik (1984).A New History of Korea. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 103.ISBN978-0674615762.When Parhae perished at the hands of the Khitan around this same time, much of its ruling class, who were of Koguryŏ descent, fled to Koryŏ. Wang Kŏn warmly welcomed them and generously gave them land. Along with bestowing the name Wang Kye ("Successor of the Royal Wang") on the Parhae crown prince, Tae Kwang-hyŏn, Wang Kŏn entered his name in the royal household register, thus clearly conveying the idea that they belonged to the same lineage, and also had rituals performed in honor of his progenitor. Thus Koryŏ achieved a true national unification that embraced not only the Later Three Kingdoms but even survivors of Koguryŏ lineage from the Parhae kingdom.
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^Bowman, John (5 September 2000).Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. Columbia University Press. p. 202.ISBN9780231500043. Retrieved1 August 2016.The Mongolian-Khitan invasions of the late tenth century challenge the stability of the Koryo government, but a period of prosperity follows the defeat of the Khitan in 1018..
^Lewis, James B. (2 November 2005).Frontier Contact Between Choson Korea and Tokugawa Japan. Routledge.ISBN9781135795986. Retrieved20 July 2016. "Tribute trade was the oldest and most important component of the trade structure, not for its volume or content, but for its symbolism. Japanese brought items to "offer" to Korea and received in exchange "gifts" of higher value, since Korea was a greater land receiving supplicants. Koreans viewed tribute trade as a "burden" and a favor extended to needy islanders; the significance was diplomatic not economic."
^Haralambous, Yannis; Horne, P. Scott (26 September 2007).Fonts & Encodings. "O'Reilly Media, Inc.". p. 155.ISBN9780596102425.Archived from the original on 24 January 2023. Retrieved8 October 2016.
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^Takahashi, Kosuke (28 March 2005)."History Overshadows Japan-South Korea Rapprochement".The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus.3 (3). Archived fromthe original on 4 April 2005. Retrieved3 November 2009. NOTE: First published 10 March 2005 under the title "Roh reopens Japan's war wounds" in, and Copyright 2005,Asia Times OnlineArchived 23 February 2023 at theWayback Machine Ltd. This is a slightly abbreviated version of the article, posted at Japan Focus 16 March 2005. Archived copy is of full article text fromAsia Times.
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^Hawley, Samuel (2005).The Imjin War. Japan's Sixteenth-Century Invasion of Korea and Attempt to Conquer China. Seoul: The Royal Asiatic Society, Korea Branch. pp. 195f.ISBN978-89-954424-2-5.
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