 Konkanite Christians celebratingMonti Fest inPoona (Pune), 2009. | |
| Total population | |
|---|---|
| c. 2.3 million[1] | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| Goa | 964,305[2] |
| Karnataka | 788,204 |
| Maharashtra | 399,204[citation needed] |
| Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu | 96,305[citation needed] |
| Dang district, Gujarat | 92,210[citation needed] |
| Kerala | 70,000(approx.)[citation needed] |
| Languages | |
| Konkani Marathi,Malvani,English,Kannada,Hindi-Urdu,Indo-Portuguese,Malayalam &Gujarati | |
| Religion | |
 Hinduism Islam.svg) Buddhism Christianity | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Indo-Aryans · Tuluvers · Luso-Indians · Marathis · Saurashtrians | |
TheKonkani people orKonkanites are anIndo-Aryanethnolinguistic group native to theKonkan region of theIndian subcontinent. They speak various dialects of theKonkani language. Following theKonkani language agitation, Konkani became the premier official language ofGoa state, whileMarathi remains as the associate official language of Goa.[3] Konkani is also spoken by populations inKarnataka,Maharashtra,Damaon,Kerala[4] &Gujarat.[5]A large percentage of Konkani people arebilingual.[6]
The wordKoṅkaṇa (कोंकण) and, in turnKoṅkaṇi, is derived fromKuṅkaṇa (कुङ्कण) orKuṅkaṇu (कुङ्कणु). Different authorities elaborate etymology of this word differently. They include:
Ultimately, the nameKonkani, comes from the wordKonkaṇ, which meansthe people of Konkan.[10]
In general, in Konkani the masculine form used to address a Konkani speaker isKoṅkaṇo and the feminine form isKoṅkaṇe. The plural form isKonkane orKonkani. In GoaKonkano now refers only to Hindus, as Konkani Catholics do not address themselves as Konkanos, since they were banned by thePortuguese from referring to themselves this way.Saraswat Brahmins of Canara refer to the Konkanis asĀmcigelo /Āmcigelī. This literally meansour tongue orpeople speaking our tongue. Though this is not common amongst theGoans, they normally refer to Konkani asĀmgelī bhās orour language. SometimesĀmgele can be used in the Goan context to meanpeople from my community.[citation needed]
Many of the colonial documents mention them as theConcanees,Canarians,Concanies.[11][12]
The prehistoric region consisting of Modern Goa and some parts of Konkan adjoining Goa were inhabited by theHomo sapiens inUpper Paleolithic andMesolithic phase i.e. 8000–6000 BC. The rock engraving in many places along the coast has proven the existence of hunter-gathers.[13] Nothing much is known about these earliest settlers. Figures ofmother goddess and many other motifs have been recovered which do not really shed light on the ancient culture and language.[14] Traces ofShamanic religion have been found in Goa.[15]
It is believed that tribes ofAustric origin likeKols,Mundaris,Kharvis may have settled Goa and Konkan during theNeolithic period, living on hunting, fishing and a primitive form of agriculture since 3500 BC.[16] According to Goan historianAnant Ramakrishna Dhume, theGauda and Kunbi and other such castes are modern descendants of ancient Mundari tribes. In his work he mentions several words of Mundari origin in the Konkani language. He also elaborates on the deities worshiped by the ancient tribes, their customs, methods of farming and its overall impact on modern day Konkani society.[17] They were in a Neolithic stage of primitive culture, and they were food-gatherers rather.[15] The tribe known as theKonkas, from whom is derived the name of the region,Kongvan orKonkan with the other mentioned tribes formed reportedly the earliest settlers in the territory.[18] Agriculture was not fully developed at this stage, and was just shaping up.[clarification needed] The Kols and Mundaris might have been using stone and wood implements as iron implements were used by themegalithic tribes as late as 1200 BC.[15] TheKol tribe is believed to have migrated fromGujarat.[19] During this period worship of mother goddess in the form ofanthill orSanter, was started. Anthill is called asRoen (Konkani:रोयण), this word has been derived from the Austric wordRono meaning with holes. The later Indo-Aryan and Dravidian settlers also adopted anthill worship, which was translated toSantara in Prakrit by them.[17]
The first wave ofVedic people came and settled from Northern India in then Konkan region.[citation needed] Some of them might have been followers ofVedic religion.[20] They were known to speak the earliest form ofPrakrit orVedic Sanskrit vernacular.[citation needed] This migration of thenortherners is mainly attributed to the drying up of theSarasvati River inNorthern India. Many historians claim onlyGaud Saraswat Brahmins and few of the other Brahmins to be their descendants. This hypothesis is not authoritative according to some. Balakrishna Dattaram Kamat Satoskar a renowned Goan Indologist and historian, in his workGomantak prakruti ani sanskruti, Volume I explains that the originalSarasvat tribe consisted of people of all the folds who followed theVedic fourfold system and not justBrahmins, as the caste system was not fully developed then, and did not play an important role.(seeGomantak prakruti ani sanskruti, Volume I).
The second wave of Indo-Aryans occurred sometime between 1700 and 1450 BC.[citation needed] This second wave migration was accompanied byDravidians from the Deccan plateau. A wave ofKusha orHarappan people aLothal probably around 1600 BC to escape submergence of their civilisation which thrived on sea-trade.[15] The admixture of several cultures, customs, religions, dialects and beliefs, led to revolutionary change in the formation of early Konkani society.[20]
TheMaurya era is marked with migrations from the East, advent ofBuddhism and differentPrakrit vernaculars.[21]
The advent ofWestern Satrap rulers also led to manyScythian migrations, which later gave its way to theBhoja kings.The Yadava Bhojas patronised Buddhism and settled many Buddhist converts of Greek andPersian origin.[22]
TheAbhirs,Chalukyas,Rashtrakutas,Shilaharas ruled the then Konkan-Goa for several years which was responsible for many changes in the society. Later The powerfulKadambas of Goa, came to power. During their rule, the society underwent radical transition. Close contact with theArabs,Turks, introduction ofJainism, patronisingShaivism, use ofSanskrit andKannada, the overseas trade had an overwhelming impact on the people.
In 1350CE, Goa was conquered by theBahmani Sultanate ofTurkic origin. However, in 1370, theVijayanagara Empire, a resurgent Hindu empire situated at modern dayHampi, reconquered the area. The Vijayanagara rulers held on to Goa for nearly 100 years, during which its harbours were important landing places forArabian horses on their way to Hampi to strengthen the Vijayanagara cavalry. In 1469, however, Goa was reconquered, by theBahmani Sultans. When this dynasty broke up in 1492, Goa became a part of Adil Shah'sBijapur Sultanate, who madeGoa Velha their second capital.
ThePortuguese conquest of Goa occurred in 1510 under the leadership ofAfonso de Albuquerque and with the assistance of the local Hindus led byTimoji. TheChristianisation of Goa and its simultaneous Lusitanisation soon followed.[26]
TheGoa Inquisition was established in 1560, briefly suppressed from 1774 to 1778, and finally abolished in 1812. Its main aim was to investigateNew Christians forheresy, and to preserve the Catholic faith.Crypto-Jews who emigrated to Goa from theIberian Peninsula to escape theSpanish Inquisition and thePortuguese Inquisition, were the main cause behind the launch of the Goa Inquisition. Some 16,202 persons were brought to trial by the Inquisition. 57 were sentenced to death and executed in person, another 64 were burned in effigy. Of these, 105 of them were men and 16 women. The rest of those convicted were subjected to lesser punishments or penanced. Those sentenced to various punishments totaled 4,046, out of whom 3,034 were men and 1,012 were women.[27][28]
Seventy-oneautos da fe were recorded. In the first few years alone, over 4000 people were arrested.[citation needed] According to theChronista de Tissuary (Chronicles ofTiswadi), the last auto da fe was held in Goa on 7 February 1773.[27]
In 1567, the campaign of destroying temples in Bardez was completed after the majority of the local Hindus had converted to Christianity. At the end of it, 300 Hindu temples were destroyed. Laws were enacted from 4 December 1567 prohibiting the public performance of Hindu rituals such as marriages, sacred thread wearing and cremation. All persons above 15 years of age were compelled to listen to Christian preaching, failing which they were punished. In 1583, Hindu temples atAssolna andCuncolim were also destroyed by the Portuguese after the majority of the locals had converted.
The remaining few Hindus who wanted to keep their Hindu religion did so, by emigrating to the neighbouring territories that continued to be ruled by Bijapur, where these Hindus again had to payjizya tax.[29]
Konkani language had originally been studied andRoman Konkani promoted by Catholic missionaries in Goa (e.g.Thomas Stephens) as a communication medium during the 16th century. TheMaratha threat was compounded by their attacks on native Catholics and destruction of local churches during their repeated attacks on Goa in the 17th century. This led the Portuguese government to initiate a positive programme for the suppression of Konkani in Goa, in order to make native Catholic Goans identify fully with the Portuguese Empire.[30] As a result, Konkani was suppressed and rendered unprivileged in Goa by the enforcement of Portuguese.[31]Urged by theFranciscans, the Portuguese viceroy forbade the use of Konkani on 27 June 1684 and further decreed that within three years, the local people in general would speak thePortuguese language and use it in all their contacts and contracts made in Portuguese territories. The penalties for violation would be imprisonment. The decree was confirmed by the king on 17 March 1687.[30] However, according to the Inquisitor António Amaral Coutinho's letter to the Portuguese monarchJoão V in 1731, these draconian measures were unsuccessful.
The fall of the "Province of the North" (which includedBassein,Chaul andSalsette) in 1739 led to the suppression of Konkani gaining new strength. On 21 November 1745, the Archbishop of Goa, Lourenço de Santa Maria e Melo (O.F.M.), decreed that fluency in Portuguese was mandatory for the Goan applicants to the priesthood, and also for all their immediate relatives (men as well as women). This language fluency would be confirmed via rigorous examinations by ordained priests. Furthermore, theBamonns andChardos were required to learn Portuguese within six months, failing which they would be denied the right to marriage.
TheJesuits, who had historically been the greatest advocates of Konkani, were expelled from Goa by theMarquis of Pombal in 1761. In 1812, the Archbishop decreed that children should be prohibited from speaking Konkani in schools. In 1847, this rule was extended to seminaries. In 1869, Konkani was completely banned in schools until Portugal became a Republic in 1910.[30]
The result of this linguistic displacement was that Konkani in Goa became thelíngua de criados (language of the servants).[32] Hindu and Catholic elites turned to Marathi and Portuguese, respectively. Ironically, Konkani is at present the 'cement' that binds all Goans across caste, religion and class and is affectionately termedKonkani Mai (Mother Konkani).[31] Due to negative propaganda from theMaharashtrawadi Gomantak Party, Marathi was made the official language of Goa following theAnnexation of Goa in 1961. Konkani received official recognition only in February 1987, when the Indian government recognized Konkani as the official language of Goa.[33]
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