Konbaung dynasty | |
|---|---|
| 1752–1885 | |
 Konbaung Dynasty in 1767 | |
 Konbaung Dynasty in 1824 | |
| Status | Kingdom orEmpire |
| Capital | |
| Common languages | Burmese |
| Religion | Theravada Buddhism (official) |
| Demonym(s) | Burmese |
| Government | Absolute monarchy |
| Monarch | |
• 1752–1760 (first) | Alaungpaya |
• 1763–1776 | Hsinbyushin |
• 1782–1819 | Bodawpaya |
• 1853–1878 | Mindon Min |
• 1878–1885 (last) | Thibaw Min |
| Legislature | None |
| Historical era | Early modern period |
• Established | 29 February 1752 |
| 1752–1757 | |
| 1759–1812, 1849–1855 | |
| 1765–1769 | |
| 1785 | |
| 1824–1826, 1852, 1885 | |
• Annexed intoBritish Raj | 29 November 1885 |
| Area | |
| 1824[8] | 794,000 km2 (307,000 sq mi) |
| Population | |
• 1824 | 3,000,000[8] |
| Currency | kyat(from 1852) |
| Today part of | |
| History of Myanmar |
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 Myanmar portal |
TheKonbaung dynasty (Burmese:ကုန်းဘောင်မင်းဆက်), also known as theThird Burmese Empire (တတိယမြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော်),[9] was the last dynasty that ruledBurma from 1752 to 1885. It created the second-largest empire inBurmese history[10] and continued the administrative reforms begun by theToungoo dynasty, laying the foundations of the modern state of Burma. The reforms, however, proved insufficient to stem the advance of theBritish Empire, who defeated the Burmese in all threeAnglo-Burmese Wars over a six-decade span (1824–1885) and ended the millennium-old Burmese monarchy in 1885.
Pretenders to the dynasty claim descent fromMyat Phaya Lat, one of Thibaw's daughters.[11]
An expansionist dynasty, the Konbaung kings waged campaigns against theLushai Hills,Manipur, Assam,Arakan, theMon kingdom ofPegu, Siam (Ayutthaya,Thonburi,Rattanakosin), and theQing dynasty of China—thus establishing the Third Burmese Empire. Subject to later wars and treaties with the British, the modern state ofMyanmar can trace its current borders to these events.
Throughout the Konbaung dynasty, thecapital was relocated several times for religious, political, and strategic reasons.
The dynasty was founded by a village chief, who later became known asAlaungpaya, in 1752 to challenge theRestored Hanthawaddy Kingdom which had just toppled theTaungoo dynasty. By 1759, Alaungpaya's forces had reunited all of Burma (andManipur) and driven out theFrench and the British who had provided arms to Hanthawaddy.[12]
Alaungpaya's second son,Hsinbyushin, came to the throne after a short reign by his elder brother,Naungdawgyi (1760–1763). He continued his father's expansionist policy and finally took Ayutthaya in 1767, after seven years of fighting.
In 1760, Burma began a series of wars withSiam that would last well into the middle of the 19th century. By 1770,Alaungpaya's heirs haddestroyed Ayutthaya (1765–1767), subdued much ofLuang Phrabang andVientiane (both 1765) and defeatedfour invasions byQing China (1765–1769).[13] With the Burmese preoccupied for another two decades by another impending invasion by the Chinese,[14] Siam reunified by 1771, and went on tocapture Lan Na by 1776.[15] The Burmese made additional invasions to thenewly reconstituted Siam in 1785 and 1786 but failed.[16] Burma and Siam went to war until1855 but after decades of war, the two countries exchanged Tenasserim (to Burma) and Lan Na (to Siam).
In the defence of its realm, the dynasty fought four wars successfully against the Qing dynasty of China which saw the threat of the expansion of Burmese power in the East. In 1770, despite his victory over the Chinese armies, King Hsinbyushin sued for peace with China and concluded a treaty to maintain bilateral trade with the Middle Kingdom which was very important for the dynasty at that time. The Qing dynasty then opened up its markets and restored trading with Burma in 1788 after reconciliation. Thenceforth peaceful and friendly relations prevailed between China and Burma for a long time.
In 1823, Burmese emissaries led by George Gibson, who was the son of an English mercenary, arrived in the Vietnamese city ofSaigon. The Burmese kingBagyidaw was very keen to conquerSiam and hoped Vietnam might be a useful ally. Vietnam had then just annexed Cambodia. The Vietnamese emperor wasMinh Mạng, who had just taken the throne after the death of his father,Gia Long (the founder of theNguyen dynasty). A commercial delegation from Vietnam has recently been in Burma, eager to expand the trade in birds nests(tổ yến). Bagyidaw's interest in sending a return mission, however, was to secure a military alliance.[17][18]
Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent Siam in the east, the Konbaung dynasty had ambitions to expand the Konbaung Empire westwards.
Bodawpaya acquired the western kingdoms ofArakan (1784),Manipur (1814), andAssam (1817), leading to a long ill-defined border withBritish India.[19] The Konbaung court had set its sights on potentially conquering British Bengal by the outbreak of theFirst Anglo-Burmese War.
Europeans began to set up trading posts in theIrrawaddy delta region during this period. Konbaung tried to maintain its independence bybalancing between theFrench and theBritish. In the end it failed, the British severed diplomatic relations in 1811, and the dynasty fought and lost three wars against theBritish Empire, culminating in the total annexation of Burma by the British.
The British defeated the Burmese in theFirst Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826) after huge losses on both sides, both in terms of manpower and financial assets. Burma had to cede Arakan, Manipur, Assam andTenasserim, and pay a large indemnity of one millionpounds.
In 1837, KingBagyidaw's brother,Tharrawaddy, seized the throne, put Bagyidaw under house arrest and executed the chief queenMe Nu and her brother. Tharrawaddy made no attempt to improve relations with Britain.
His sonPagan, who became king in 1846, executed thousands—some sources say as many as 6,000—of his wealthier and more influential subjects on trumped-up charges.[20] During his reign, relations with the British became increasingly strained. In 1852, theSecond Anglo-Burmese War broke out. Pagan was succeeded by his younger brother, the progressiveMindon.
Realising the need to modernise, the Konbaung rulers tried to enact various reforms with limited success. KingMindon with his able brother Crown PrinceKanaung established state-owned factories to produce modernweaponry andgoods; in the end, these factories proved more costly than effective in staving off foreign invasion and conquest.
Konbaung kings extended administrative reforms begun in the Restored Toungoo dynasty period (1599–1752), and achieved unprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion. They tightened control in the lowlands and reduced the hereditary privileges ofShanchiefs. They also instituted commercial reforms that increased government income and rendered it more predictable. Money economy continued to gain ground. In 1857, the crown inaugurated a full-fledged system of cash taxes and salaries, assisted by the country's first standardised silver coinage.[21]
Mindon also tried to reduce the tax burden by lowering the heavyincome tax and created aproperty tax, as well asduties on foreign exports. These policies had the reverse effect of increasing the tax burden, as the local elites used the opportunity to enact new taxes without lowering the old ones; they were able to do so as control from the centre was weak. In addition, the duties on foreign exports stifled the burgeoning trade and commerce.
Mindon attempted to bring Burma into greater contact with the outside world, and hosted theFifth Great Buddhist Synod in 1872 atMandalay, gaining the respect of the British and the admiration of his own people.
Mindon avoided annexation in 1875 by ceding theKarenni States.
Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the advance of British colonialism.[22]
He died before he could name a successor, andThibaw, a lesser prince, was manoeuvred onto the throne byHsinbyumashin, one of Mindon's queens, together with her daughter,Supayalat. (Rudyard Kipling mentions her as Thibaw's queen, and borrows her name, in his poem "Mandalay") The new King Thibaw proceeded, under Supayalat's direction, to massacre all likely contenders to the throne. This massacre was conducted by the queen.[citation needed]
The dynasty came to an end in 1885 with the forced abdication and exile of the king and the royal family to India. The British, alarmed by the consolidation ofFrench Indochina, annexed the remainder of the country in theThird Anglo-Burmese War in 1885. The annexation was announced in the British parliament as a New Year gift toQueen Victoria on 1 January 1886.
Although the dynasty had conquered vast tracts of territory, its direct power was limited to its capital and the fertile plains of theIrrawaddy River valley. The Konbaung rulers enacted harsh levies and had a difficult time fighting internal rebellions. At various times, theShan states paid tribute to the Konbaung dynasty, but unlike the Mon lands, were never directly controlled by the Burmese.
The Konbaung dynasty was anabsolute monarchy. As in the rest of Southeast Asia, the traditional concept of kingship aspired to theChakravartin (Universal Monarchs) creating their ownmandala or field of power within theJambudipa universe, along with the possession of the white elephant which allowed them to assume the titleHsinbyushin orHsinbyumyashin (Lord of the White Elephants), played a significant role in their endeavours. Of more earthly importance was the historical threat of periodic raids and aiding of internal rebellions as well as invasion and imposition of overlordship from the neighbouring kingdoms of the Mon, Tai Shans and Manipuris.[23]
The kingdom was divided into provinces calledmyo (မြို့).[24][25] These provinces were administered by Governors calledMyosa (မြို့စား), who were members of the royal family or the highest-ranking officials of the Hluttaw.[26] They collected revenue for the royal government, payable to the Royal Treasury in fixed instalments and retained whatever was left over.[26] Each provinces was subdivided into towns and municipalities. Towns also calledmyo (မြို့), which were capitals of provinces. Towns were administered by Town Headman calledMyo thugyi (မြို့သူကြီး) or Town administrator calledMyo Ok (မြို့အုပ်). Municipalities calledtaik (တိုက်), which contained collections of villages calledywa (ရွာ). Municipalities were administered by Municipal Headman calledTaik thugyi (တိုက်သူကြီး) and villages were administered by Village Headman calledYwa thugyi (ရွာသူကြီး).[24]
The kingdom's peripheral coastal provinces; Arakan, Pegu, Martaban and Tavoy were administered by a Viceroy called aMyowun (မြို့ဝန်), who was appointed by the king and possessed civil, judicial, fiscal and military powers.[26] Provincial councils (myoyon) consisted ofmyo saye (မြို့စာရေး) (town scribes),nakhandaw (နာခံတော်)(receivers of royal orders),sitke (စစ်ကဲ) (chiefs of war),htaunghmu (ထောင်မှူး) (jailer),ayatgaung (အရံခေါင်း) (head of the quarter), anddagahmu (တံခါးမှူး) (warden of the gates).[27] The Viceroy of Pegu was assisted by several additional officials, including anakhunwun (အခွန်ဝန်) (revenue officer),akaukwun (အကောက်ဝန်) (customs collector), and ayewun (ရေဝန်) (conservator of port).[28]
The outlying tributaryfiefdoms on the edges of the kingdom were autonomous in practice and nominally administered by the king.[29] These included the Shan, Palaung, Kachin and Manipuri principalities. The tributary princes of these fiefdoms regularly pledged allegiance and offered tribute to the Konbaung kings (through rituals calledgadaw pwedaw) (ကန်တော့ပွဲ)[30] and were accorded with royal privileges and designatedsawbwa (စော်ဘွား) (from Shan saopha, 'lord of the sky')[29][31] In particular, the families of Shansawbwas regularly intermarried into Burmese aristocracy and had close contact with the Konbaung court.[29]
The government was centrally administered by several advisory royal agencies, following a pattern established during theTaungoo dynasty.[32]
TheHluttaw (လွှတ်တော်, lit. "place of royal release," cf. Council of State)[33] held legislative, ministerial and judicial functions, administering the royal government as delegated by the king.[33] Sessions at the Hluttaw were held for six hours daily, from 6 to 9 a.m., and from noon to 3 p.m.[34] Listed by rank, the Hluttaw was composed of:
TheByedaik (ဗြဲတိုက်, lit. "Bachelor Chambers," withBye stemming fromMonblai (Mon:ဗ္ကဲာ, "bachelor") served as thePrivy Council by handling the court's internal affairs and also served as an interlocutor between the king and other royal agencies.[39] The Byedaik consisted of:
TheShwedaik (ရွှေတိုက်) was the Royal Treasury, and as such, served as the repository of the state's precious metals and treasures.[44] Moreover, the Shwedaik retained the state's archives and maintained various records, including detailed genealogies of hereditary officials and census reports.[44][43] The Shwedaik was composed of:
Each royal agency included a large retinue of middle and low level officials responsible for day-to-day affairs. These included the:
and 3 classes of ceremonial officers:
Konbaung society was centred on the king, who took many wives and fathered numerous children, creating a huge extended royal family which formed the power base of the dynasty and competed over influence at the royal court. It also posed problems of succession at the same time often resulting in royal massacres.
TheLawka Byuha Kyan (လောကဗျူဟာကျမ်း), also known as theInyon Sadan (အင်းယုံစာတန်း), is the earliest extant work on Burmese court protocols and customs.[47] The work was written by the Inyon Wungyi Thiri Uzana, also known as the Inyon Ywaza, during the reign ofAlaungpaya, the founder of the Konbaung dynasty.[48]
Royal court life in the Konbaung dynasty consisted of both codified rituals and ceremonies and those that were innovated with the progression of the dynasty. Many ceremonies were composed of Hindu ideas localised and adapted to existing traditions, both Burmese and Buddhist in origin. These rituals were also used to legitimise the rule of Burmese kings, as the Konbaung monarchs claimed descent fromMaha Sammata through theSakyan clan (of whichGotama Buddha was a member) and theHouse of Vijaya.[49] Life in the royal court was closely regulated.Eunuchs (မိန်းမဆိုး) oversaw the ladies of the royal household and apartments.[50] Inferior queens and concubines could not reside in the main palace buildings.[50]
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Brahmins, generally known asponna (ပုဏ္ဏား) in Burmese, served as specialists for ritual ceremonies, astrology, and devotional rites to Hindu deities at the Konbaung court.[51] They played an essential role in king-making rituals, consecration and ablution ceremonies calledabhiseka (ဗိဿိတ်).[52] Court Brahmins (ပုရောဟိတ်,parohita) were well embedded in daily life at the court, advising and consulting the king on various matters.[53] A social hierarchy among the Brahmins determined their respective duties and functions.[53] Astrologer Brahmins calledhuya (ဟူးရား) were responsible for determining astrological calculations, such as determining the auspicious moment for the foundation of a new capital, a new palace, pagoda, or assumption of the royal residence, announcing an appointment, leaving a place, visiting a pagoda or starting a military campaign.[54] They also established the religious calendar, prepared the almanac (သင်္ကြန်စာ), calculated upcoming solar and lunar eclipses, identified major festival days based on the lunar cycle, and communicated auspicious times and dates.[54] A special group of Brahmins who performedabhiseka rituals were also selected aspyinnya shi (ပညာရှိ), appointed royal counselors.[55]
Lavish affairs were also organised around the life ceremonies of royal family members.[56] Brahmins presided over many of these auspicious ceremonies, including the construction of a new royal capital; consecration of the new palace, the royal ploughing ceremony; the naming, first rice feeding and cradling ceremonies; theabhiseka head anointing rituals, and the King's participation inBurmese New Year (Thingyan) celebrations.[57] During Thingyan, a group of 8 Brahmins sprinkled water blessed by a group of 8 Buddhist monks, throughout the palace grounds, at theHluttaw, various courts, the major city gates, and the 4 corners of the capital.[57] The king attended many of the ceremonies involving royal family members, from cradling ceremonies (ပုခက်မင်္ဂလာ) to ear-boring ceremonies, from marriages to funerals.[56]
Specific buildings in the royal palace served as the venue for various life ceremonies. For instance, the Great Audience Hall was where young princes underwent theshinbyu coming-of-age ceremony and were ordained asmonk novices.[58] This was also the venue where young princes ceremonially had their hair tied in a topknot (သျှောင်ထုံး).[58] Elaborate Burmese New Year feasts took place at the Hmannandawgyi (Palace of Mirrors): on the third day of the New Year, the king and chief queen partook in Thingyan rice, cooked rice dipped in cold perfumed water, while seated on their throne.[59] Musical and dramatic performances and other feasts were also held in that complex.[59]
The most significant court functions of a king's reign were theabhiseka or consecratory rituals, held at various times throughout a king's reign, to reinforce his place as the patron of religion (Sasana) and righteousness.[56]Abhiseka rituals all involved the pouring of water from a conch on the candidate's (usually the king's) head, instructing him what to do or not to do for the love of his people and warning him that if he failed to oblige, he might suffer certain miseries.[57] Ablution rituals were the responsibility of a group of 8 elite Brahmins uniquely qualified to perform the ritual.[57] They were to remain chaste before the ceremony.[57] Another group of Brahmins was responsible for the consecration of the Crown Prince.[57]
There were 14 types ofabhiseka ceremonies in total:[57]
Rajabhiseka (ရာဇဘိသိက်) – the Coronation of the king, which was presided over by Brahmins, was the most important ritual of the royal court.[60][62] The ceremony was typically held in the Burmese month ofKason, but did not necessarily occur during the beginning of a reign.[62][60] TheSasanalinkaya states thatBodawpaya, like his father, was crowned only after establishing control over the kingdom's administration and purifying the religious institutions.[62] The most important features of this ritual were: the fetching of the anointing water; the ceremonial bath; the anointment; and the king's oath.[63]
Elaborate preparations were made precisely for this ceremony. Three ceremonial pavilions (Sihasana orLion Throne;Gajasana or Elephant Throne; and theMarasana or Peacock Throne) were constructed in a specifically designated plot of land (called the "peacock garden") for this occasion.[64] Offerings were also made to deities and Buddhistparittas were chanted.[60] Specially designated individuals, usually the daughters of dignitaries including merchants and Brahmins, were tasked with procuring anointing water midstream from a river.[65] The water was placed in the respective pavilions.[66]
At an auspicious moment, the king was dressed in the costume of aBrahma and the queen in that of a queen fromdevaloka.[67] The couple was escorted to the pavilions in procession, accompanied by a white horse or a white elephant.[68][67] The king first bathed his body in the Morasana pavilion, then his head in the Gajasana pavilion.[69] He then entered the Sihasana pavilion to assume his seat at the coronation throne, crafted to resemble a bloominglotus flower, made offigwood and applied gold leaf.[69] Brahmins handed him the five articles of coronation regalia (မင်းမြောက်တန်ဆာ,Min Myauk Taza):
At his throne, eight princesses anointed the king by pouring specially procured water atop his head, each using a conch bedazzled with gems white solemnly adjuring him in formulae to rule justly.[69][68] Brahmins then raised awhite umbrella over the king's head.[68] This anointment was repeated by eight pure-blooded Brahmins and eight merchants.[71] Afterward, the king repeated words ascribed to Buddha at birth: "I am foremost in all the world! I am most excellent in all the world! I am peerless in all the world!" and made invocation by pouring water from a golden ewer.[68] The ritual ended with the king taking refuge in theThree Jewels.[68]
As part of the coronation, prisoners were released.[71] The king and his pageant returned to the Palace, and the ceremonial pavilions were dismantled and cast into the river.[72] Seven days after the ceremony, the king and members of the royal family made an inaugural procession, circling the city moat on a gilt state barge, amid festive music and spectators.[61]
Uparājabhiseka (ဥပရာဇဘိသေက) – the Installation of theUparaja (Crown Prince), in BurmeseEinshe Min (အိမ်ရှေ့မင်း), was one of the most important rituals in the king's reign. The Installation Ceremony took place in theByedaik (Privy Council).[73] The Crown Prince was invested, received appenages and insignias, and was bestowed a multitude of gifts.[74] The king also formally appointed a retinue of household staff to oversee the Prince's public and private affairs.[75] Afterward, the Crown Prince was paraded to his new Palace, commiserate with his new rank.[76] Preparations for a royal wedding with a princess, specially groomed to become the new king's consort, then commenced.[76]
Kun U Khun Mingala (ကွမ်းဦးခွံ့မင်္ဂလာ) – the Feeding of the First Betel ceremony was held about 75 days after the birth of a prince or princess to bolster the newborn child's health, prosperity and beauty.[77] The ceremony involved the feeding ofbetel, mixed with camphor and other ingredients. An appointed official (ဝန်) arranged the rituals preceding the ceremony.[77] These rituals included a specific set of offerings to the Buddha, indigenous spirits (yokkaso,akathaso,bhummaso, etc.), Guardians of the Sasana, and to the parents and grandparents of the child, all of which were arranged in the infant's chamber.[78] Additional offerings were made to the HundredPhi (ပီတစ်ရာနတ်), a group of 100 Siamese spirits headed byNandi (နန္ဒီနတ်သမီး), personified by a Brahmin figure made ofkusa grass, which was ceremonially fed scoops of cooked rice with the left hand.[78][79]
Nāmakaraṇa (နာမကရဏ) – the naming ceremony took place 100 days after the birth of a prince or princess.[78] Food was also offered for the dignitaries and entertainers in attendance.[80] The infant's name was inscribed on a gold plate or onpalm leaf.[80] The night before the ceremony, apwe was held for the attendees.[80] The dawn of the ceremony, Buddhist monks delivered a sermon to the court.[79] Afterward, at the Chief Queen's apartment, the infant was seated on a divan with the Chief Queen, with respective attendees from the royal court seated according to rank.[81] A Minister of the Interior then presided over ceremonial offerings (ကုဗ္ဘီး) made to theTriple Gem, the 11deva headed byThagyamin, 9 Hindu deities, indigenousnat, and the 100Phi.[82][81] A protective prayer was then recited.[83] After the prayer, apyinnyashi prepared and 'fed' Nandi. At the auspicious moment calculated by astrologers, the name of the infant was read out thrice by the royal herald.[83] Afterward, another royal herald recited an inventory of presents offered by the dignitaries in attendance.[83] At the closing of the ceremony, a feast ensued, with attendees fed in the order of precedence.[83] Offerings to the Buddha were shuttled to the pagodas, and those to Nandi, to the sacrificial Brahmins.[83]
Lehtun Mingala (လယ်ထွန်မင်္ဂလာ)[c] – the Royal Ploughing Ceremony was an annual festival of breaking ground with ploughs in the royal fields east of the royal capital, to ensure sufficient rainfall for the year by propitiating the Moekhaung Nat, who was believed to control rain.[50][84] The ceremony was traditionally linked to an event inGotama Buddha's life. DuringKing Suddhodana's royal ploughing of the fields, the infant Buddha rose to stand, sat cross-legged and began to meditate, underneath the shade of arose apple tree.[85]
The ceremony was held at the beginning of June, at the break of the southwest monsoon.[86] For the ceremony, the king, clad in state robes (apaso with the peacock emblem (daungyut)), a long silk surcoat or tunic encrusted with jewels, a spire-like crown (tharaphu), and 24 strings of thesalwe across his chest, and a gold plate or frontlet over his forehead) and his audience made a procession to theleya (royal fields).[87] At theledawgyi, a specially designated plot of land, milk-white oxen were attached to royal ploughs covered with gold leaf, stood ready for ploughing by ministers, princes and the kings.[88] The oxen were decorated with gold and crimson bands, reins bedecked with rubies and diamonds, and heavy gold tassels hung from the gilded horns.[88] The king initiated the ploughing, and shared this duty among himself, ministers and the princes.[89] After the ceremonial ploughing of theledawgyi was complete, festivities sprung up throughout the royal capital.[89]
AtThingyan and at the end of theBuddhist lent, the king's head was ceremonially washed with water from Gaungsay Gyun (lit. Head Washing Island) between Martaban andMoulmein, near the mouth of theSalween River.[90] After theSecond Anglo-Burmese War (which resulted in Gaungsay Gyun falling under British possession), purified water fromIrrawaddy River was instead procured. This ceremony also preceded theearboring, headdressing, and marriage ceremonies of the royal family.[91]
TheObeisance ceremony was a grand ceremony held at the Great Audience Hall thrice a year where tributary princes and courtiers laid tribute, paid homage to their benefactor, the Konbaung king, and swore their allegiance to the monarchy.[50] The ceremony was held 3 times a year:
During this ceremony, the king was seated at the Lion Throne, along with the chief queen, to his right.[58] The Crown Prince was seated immediately before the throne in a cradle-like seat, followed by princes of the blood (min nyi min tha).[58] Constituting the audience were courtiers and dignitaries from vassal states, who were seated according to rank, known in Burmese asNeya Nga Thwe (နေရာငါးသွယ်):[58]
There, the audience paid obeisance to the monarch and renewed their allegiance to the monarch.[58] Women, barring the chief queen, were not permitted to be seen during these ceremonies.[58] Lesser queens, ministers' wives and other officials were seated in a room behind the throne: the queens were seated in the centre within the railing surrounding the flight of steps, while the wives of ministers and others sat in the space without.[58]
Throughout the Konbaung dynasty, the royal family performedancestral rites to honour their immediate ancestors. These rites were performed at the thrice a year at the Zetawunsaung (Jetavana Hall or "Hall of Victory"), which housed the Goose Throne (ဟင်္သာသနပလ္လင်), immediately preceding the Obeisance Ceremony.[94] On a platform in a room to the west of hall, the king and members of the royal family paid obeisance to images of monarchs and consorts of the Konbaung dynasty. Offerings andPali prayers from a book of odes were also made to the images.[94] The images, which stood 6 to 24 inches (150 to 610 mm) tall, were made of solid gold.[95] Images were only made for Konbaung kings at their death (if he died on the throne) or for Konbaung queens (if she died while her consort was on throne), but not of a king who died after deposition or a queen who survived her husband.[95] Items used by the deceased personage (e.g. sword, spear, betel box) were preserved along with the associated image.[95] After the British conquest ofUpper Burma, 11 images fell into the hands of the Superintendent at theGovernor's Residence, Bengal, where they were melted down.[95]
When a king died, his royal white umbrella was broken and the great drum and gong at the palace's bell tower (at the eastern gate of the palace), was struck.[70] It was custom for members of the royal family, including the king, to be cremated: their ashes were put into a velvet bag and thrown into the river.[96] KingMindon Min was the first to break tradition; his remains were not cremated, but instead were buried intact, according to his wishes, at the place where his tomb now stands.[96] Before his burial, the King Mindon's body was laid in state before his throne at the Hmannandawgyi (Palace of Mirrors).[59][58]
The Foundation Sacrifice was a Burmese practice whereby human victims known asmyosade (မြို့စတေး) were ceremonially sacrificed by burial during the foundation of a royal capital, to propitiate and appease theguardian spirits. to ensure impregnability of the capital city.[97] The victims were crushed to death underneath a massive teak post erected near each gateway, and at the four corners of the city walls, to render the city secure and impregnable.[98] Although this practice contradicted the fundamental tenets of Buddhism, it was in alignment with prevailing animistic beliefs, which dictated that the spirits of persons who suffered violent deaths becamenats (spirits) and protective and possessive of their death sites.[98] The preferred sites for such executions were the city's corners and the gates, the most vulnerable defence points.[98]
The Konbaung monarchs followed ancient precedents and traditions to found the new royal city. Brahmins were tasked with planning these sacrificial ceremonies and determining the auspicious day according to astrological calculations and the signs of individuals best suited for sacrifice.[98] Usually, victims were selected from a spectrum of social classes, or unfortuitiously apprehended against will during the day of the sacrifice.[98] Women in the latter stages of pregnancy were preferred, as the sacrifice would yield two guardian spirits instead of one.[98]
Such sacrifices took place at the foundation of Wunbe In Palace inAva in 1676 and may have taken place at the foundation of Mandalay in 1857.[97] Royal court officials at the time claimed that the tradition was dispensed altogether, with flowers and fruit offered in lieu of human victims.[98]Burmese chronicles and contemporary records only make mention of large jars of oil buried at the identified locations, which was, by tradition, to ascertain whether the spirits would continue to protect the city (i.e., so long as the oil remained intact, the spirits were serving their duty).[98] Shwe Yoe'sThe Burman describes 52 men, women and children buried, with 3 buried under the post near each of the twelve gates of the city walls, one at each corner of those walls, one at each corner of the teak stockade, one under each of the four entrances to the Palace, and four under the Lion Throne.[99]Taw Sein Ko'sAnnual Report for 1902–03 for theArchaeological Survey of India mentions only four victims buried at the corners of the city walls.
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Brahmins at the Konbaung court regularly performed a variety of grand devotional rituals to indigenous spirits (nat) and Hindu deities.[56] The following were the most important devotional cults:
During the Konbaung dynasty, Burmese society was highly stratified. Loosely modelled on the fourHinduvarnas, Konbaung society was divided into four general social classes (အမျိုးလေးပါး) by descent:[93]
Society also distinguished between the free and slaves (ကျွန်မျိုး), who were indebted persons orprisoners of war (including those brought back from military campaigns inArakan,Ayuthaya, andManipur), but could belong to one of the four classes. There was also distinction between taxpayers and non-taxpayers. Tax-paying commoners were calledathi (အသည်), whereas non-taxpaying individuals, usually affiliated to the royal court or under government service, were calledahmuhtan (အမှုထမ်း).
Outside of hereditary positions, there were two primary paths to influence: joining the military (မင်းမှုထမ်း) and joining theBuddhistSangha in the monasteries.
Sumptuary laws calledyazagaing dictated life and consumption for Burmese subjects in the Konbaung kingdom, everything from the style of one's house to clothing suitable to one's social standing from regulations concerning funerary ceremonies and the coffin to be used to usage of various speech forms based on rank and social status.[108][109][110] In particular, sumptuary laws in the royal capital were exceedingly strict and the most elaborate in character.[111]
For instance, sumptuary laws forbade ordinary Burmese subjects to build houses of stone or brick and dictated the number of tiers on the ornamental spired roof (calledpyatthat) allowed above one's residence—the royal palace's Great Audience Hall and the 4 main gates of the royal capital, as well as monasteries, were allowed 9 tiers while those of the most powerful tributary princes (sawbwa) were permitted 7, at most.[112][113]
Sumptuary laws ordained 5 types of funerals and rites accorded to each: the king, royal family members, holders of ministerial offices, merchants and those who possessed titles, and peasants (who received no rites at death).[114]
Sumptuary regulations regarding dress and ornamentation were carefully observed. Designs with thepeacock insignia were strictly reserved for the royal family and long-tailed hip-length jackets (ထိုင်မသိမ်းအင်္ကျီ) and surcoats were reserved for officials.[115]Velvet sandals (ကတ္တီပါဖိနပ်) were worn exclusively by royals.[116]Gold anklets were worn only by the royal children.[108]Silk cloth,brocaded with gold and silver flowers and animal figures were only permitted to be worn by members of the royal family and ministers' wives.[108] Adornment with jewels and precious stones was similarly regulated. Usage ofhinthapada (ဟင်္သပဒါး), avermilion dye made fromcinnabar was regulated.[108]
Throughout the Konbaung dynasty, cultural integration continued. For the first time in history, theBurmese language and culture came to predominate the entireIrrawaddy valley, with theMon language andethnicity completely eclipsed by 1830. The nearer Shan principalities adopted more lowland norms.
Captives from various military campaigns in their hundreds and thousands were brought back to the kingdom and resettled as hereditary servants to royalty and nobility or dedicated topagodas and temples; these captives added new knowledge and skills to Burmese society and enriched Burmese culture. They were encouraged to marry into the host community thus enriching thegene pool as well.[117] Captives fromManipur formed the cavalry calledKathè myindat (Cassay Horse) and alsoKathè a hmyauk tat (Cassay Artillery) in the royal Burmese army. Even captured French soldiers, led byChevalier Milard, were forced into the Burmese army.[118] The incorporated French troops with their guns and muskets played a key role in the later battles between the Burmese and the Mons. They became an elite corps, which was to play a role in the Burmese battles against theSiamese (attacks and capture ofAyutthaya from 1760 to 1765) and theManchus (battles against the Chinese armies of theQianlong Emperor from 1766 to 1769).[118]Muslim eunuchs fromArakan also served in the Konbaung court.[119][120][121][122][123]
A small community of foreign scholars, missionaries and merchants also lived in Konbaung society. Besidesmercenaries and adventurers who had offered their services since the arrival of thePortuguese in the 16th century, a few Europeans served asladies-in-waiting to the last queenSupayalat inMandalay, a missionary established a school attended byMindon's several sons including the last kingThibaw, and anArmenian had served as a king's minister atAmarapura.
Among the most visible non-Burmans of the royal court were Brahmins. They typically originated from one of four locales:
The evolution and growth ofBurmese literature and theatre continued, aided by an extremely high adult maleliteracy rate for the era (half of all males and 5% of females).[126] Foreign observers such asMichael Symes remarked on widespread literacy among commoners, from peasants towatermen.[117]
The Siamese captives carried off from Ayutthaya as part of theBurmese–Siamese War (1765–67) went on to have an outsize influence on traditional Burmese theatre and dance. In 1789, a Burmese royal commission consisting of Princes and Ministers was charged with translating Siamese and Javanese dramas from Thai to Burmese. With the help of Siamese artists captured from Ayutthaya in 1767, the commission adapted two important epics from Thai to Burmese: the Siamese Ramayana and the Enao, the Siamese version of JavanesePanji tales into BurmeseYama Zattaw andEnaung Zattaw.[127] One classical Siamese dance, calledYodaya Aka (lit. Ayutthaya-style dance) is considered one of the most delicate of all traditionalBurmese dances.
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During the Konbaung period, the techniques ofEuropean painting likelinear perspective,chiaroscuro andsfumato became more established amongst Burmese painting style.[128][page needed] Temple paintings from this period utilized techniques such as by casting shadows and distance haze on traditional Burmese styles.[129] The Konbaung period also developedparabaikfolding-book manuscripts styles that recorded court and royal acitivies by painting on white parakbaik.[130]
In the earlier part of the dynasty between 1789 and 1853, the Amarapura style of Buddha image statuary art developed. Artisans used a unique style using wood gild with gold leaf and red lacquer. The rounder faced image ofthe Buddha from this period may have been influenced by the capture of theMahamuni Image fromArakan.[131] AfterMindon Min moved the capital toMandalay, a new Mandalay style of Buddha images developed, depicting a new curly-haired Buddha image and usingalabaster andbronze as materials. This later style would be retained through the British colonial period.[132]
Burmese dynasties had a long history of building regularly planned cities along theIrawaddy valley between the 14th to 19th century. Town planning in pre-modern Burma reached its climax during the Konbaung period with cities such asMandalay.Alaungpaya directed many town planning initiatives. He built many small fortified towns with major defences. One of these,Rangoon, was founded in 1755 as a fortress and sea harbor. The city had an irregular plan withstockades made of teak logs on a groundrampart. Rangoon had six city gates with each gate flanked by massive brick towers with typicalmerlons with cross-shapedembrasures. The stupa ofShwedagon,Sule andBotataung were located outside the city walls. The city had main roads paved with bricks and drains along the sides.[133]
This period also saw a proliferation of stupas and temples with developments in stucco techniques. Wooden monasteries of this period intricately decorated with wood carvings of theJataka Tales are one of the more prominent distinctive examples of traditional Burmese architecture that survive to the present day.[129]
![[icon]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWiki_letter_w_cropped.svg) | This sectionneeds expansion. You can help byadding to it.(October 2013) |
Monastic and lay elites around the Konbaung kings, particularly from Bodawpaya's reign, launched a major reformation of Burmese intellectual life and monastic organisation and practice known as the Sudhamma Reformation. It led to, amongst other things, Burma's first proper state histories.[134]
| No | Formal title in Pali | Title used by chronicles | Lineage | Reign | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Title | Literal meaning | |||||
| 1 | Sīri Pavara Vijaya Nanda Jatha Mahādhammarāja | Alaungpaya | Future Buddha-King | village headman | 1752–1760 | Founder of the dynasty and the Third Burmese Empire, invaded Ayutthaya. |
| 2 | Siripavaradhammarāja | Naungdawgyi | Royal Elder Brother | son | 1760–1763 | Invaded Ayutthaya with his father. |
| 3 | Sirisūriyadhamma Mahadhammarāja Rājadhipati | Hsinbyushin | Lord of the White Elephant | brother | 1763–1776 | Invaded and sackedAyutthaya, invadedChiang Mai andLaos, invadedManipur, successfully repulsed fourChinese invasions. |
| 4 | Mahādhammarājadhirāja | Singu Min | Singu King | son | 1776–1781 | |
| 5 | - | Phaungkaza Maung Maung | Lord of Phaungka Younger Brother | cousin (son of Naungdawgyi) | 1782 | The shortest reign in Konbaung history of just over one week. |
| 6 | Siripavaratilokapaṇdita Mahādhammarājadhirāja | Bodawpaya | Royal Lord Grandfather | uncle (son of Alaungpaya) | 1782–1819 | Invaded and annexedArakan, invaded Rattanakosin (Bangkok). |
| 7 | Siri Tribhavanaditya Pavarapaṇdita Mahādhammarajadhirāja | Bagyidaw | Royal Elder Uncle | grandson | 1819–1837 | Invaded Ayutthaya with his grandfather, invadedAssam andManipur, defeated in theFirst Anglo-Burmese War. |
| 8 | Siri Pavarāditya Lokadhipati Vijaya Mahādhammarājadhirāja | Tharrawaddy Min | Tharrawaddy King | brother | 1837–1846 | Fought in the First Anglo-Burmese War as Prince of Tharrawaddy. |
| 9 | Siri Sudhamma Tilokapavara Mahādhammarājadhirāja | Pagan Min | Pagan King | son | 1846–1853 | Overthrown by Mindon after his defeat in theSecond Anglo-Burmese War. |
| 10 | Siri Pavaravijaya Nantayasapaṇḍita Tribhavanāditya Mahādhammarājadhirāja | Mindon Min | Mindon King | half-brother | 1853–1878 | Sued for peace with the British; had a very narrow escape in a palace rebellion by two of his sons but his brotherCrown Prince Ka Naung was killed. |
| 11 | Siripavara Vijayānanta Yasatiloka Dhipati Paṇḍita Mahādhammarājadhirāja | Thibaw Min | Thibaw King | son | 1878–1885 | The last king of Burma, forced to abdicate and exiled to India after his defeat in the Third Anglo-Burmese War. |
Note: Naungdawgyi was the eldest brother of Hsinbyushin and Bodawpaya who was the grandfather of Bagyidaw who was Mindon's elder uncle. They were known by these names to posterity, although the formal titles at their coronation by custom ran to some length inPali;Mintayagyi paya (Lord Great King) was the equivalent of Your/His Majesty whereasHpondawgyi paya (Lord Great Glory) would be used by the royal family.
| 1 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Alaungpaya (1752–1760) | Yun San | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 3 | 6 | 2 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Me Hla | Hsinbyushin (1763–1776) | Bodawpaya (1782–1819) | Naungdawgyi (1760–1763) | Shin Hpo U | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 4 | 5 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Singu Min (1776–1781) | Thado Minsaw | Phaungka (1782) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 7 | 8 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Bagyidaw (1819–1837) | Tharrawaddy (1837–1846) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 9 | 10 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Pagan[N 1] (1846–1853) | Mindon[N 2] (1853–1878) | Laungshe Mibaya | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 11 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Thibaw (1878–1885) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
—Royal house — Konbaung dynasty Founding year:1752 Deposition:1885 | ||
| Preceded by | Dynasty ofBurma 29 February 1752 – 29 November 1885 | Vacant |
After the abolition of the monarchy, the title of Royal Householder of the Konbaung dynasty nominally passed toMyat Phaya Lat, Thibaw's second daughter, as the King's eldest daughter renounced her royal titles to be with an Indian commoner.[11]
Thibaw's third daughterMyat Phaya Galay returned to Burma and sought the return of the throne from the British in the 1920s. Her eldest sonTaw Phaya Gyi was taken byImperial Japan during the Second World War for his potential as a puppet king. Japan's efforts failed due to Taw Phaya Gyi's distaste of the Japanese and his assassination in 1948 by Communist insurgents.[135]
After the death of Myat Phaya Lat, her grandson-in-lawTaw Phaya became the nominal Royal Householder. Taw Phaya was the son of Myat Phaya Galay, the brother of Taw Phaya Gyi and the husband of Myat Phaya Lat's granddaughter Hteik Su Gyi Phaya.[136]Upon Taw Phaya's death in 2019, it is unclear who serves as the Royal Householder.Soe Win, the eldest son of Taw Phaya Gyi is assumed to be the Royal Householder as there is little public information about Taw Phaya's children.[137]
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![Royal Seal[a][1][2] of Konbaung](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aState_seal_of_the_Konbaung_dynasty.svg)
