The grammar of theKlingon language was created byMarc Okrand for theStar Trek franchise. He first described it in his bookThe Klingon Dictionary. It is anominative–accusative, primarily suffixingagglutinative language, and has anobject–verb–subject word order. The Klingon language has a number of unusual grammatical features, as it was designed to sound and seem alien, but it has an extremely regular morphology.

Klingon follows anobject–verb–subject word order.^[1] Adverbs usually go at the beginning of the sentence^[2] and prepositional phrases go before the object.^[3]

Sentences can be treated as objects, and the wordʼeʼ is placed after the sentence.ʼeʼ is treated as the object of the next sentence.[4] The adverbs, indirect objects and locatives of the latter sentence go after the subject, but before theʼeʼ^[5]

Klingon has threenoun classes. The first one is living beings with an innate capacity to use language. The second one is body parts (not the body itself) and the third is all other nouns.^[6] Klingon has no articles, so the wordraStable can meana table orthe table. The difference between the two is inferred from context.

There are five types of noun suffixes. A word cannot have two suffixes of the same type.^[7] The suffixes are ordered based on type number; a type 2 suffix goes before a type 3 suffix, but after a type 1 suffix.^[8] In the following example, all five suffix types are used in the correct order.

This type has three suffixes:

• Theaugmentative suffix-ʼaʼ,

• Thediminutive suffix-Hom,^[7]

• and the endearment suffix-oy.

• If the noun to which the endearment suffix is added ends with a vowel, a glottal stop is inserted between them:^[9]

This type of suffix forms plurals. There are three suffixes, one for each noun class.

• The suffix-puʼ is for beings capable of using language.^[6]

• The suffix-Duʼ is for body parts,

• The suffix-mey is used for all other nouns.

• When-mey is used for nouns that would normally take-puʼ or-Duʼ, it carries the connotation of being all over the place.

A noun does not require a plural suffix if a pronoun, pronominal prefix, or context serves to indicate that it is plural,^[10] or if it is being used in conjunction with a number.^[11]

DuypuʼchaH orDuychaH

They are emissaries.

raSmeyDIghor orraSDIghor

We broke the tables.

This type of suffix indicates the speaker's opinion of the applicability of the noun. There are three suffixes:

• The suffix-qoq indicates that the speaker thinks what they are referencing is not actually represented by the noun.

• Thedubitative suffix-Hey indicates the speaker is not entirely sure if the object they are referencing is represented by the noun.^[12]

• The suffix-naʼ indicates that the speaker is entirely sure that the object is represented accurately by the noun.^[13]

This type of suffix indicates possession or specifies which object is referred to. It contains twelve suffixes.

There are ten possession suffixes, indicating who is the possessor of the object, which may be a person. For first- and second-person possessors, there are different forms depending on whether the "object" is a being capable of using language.

There are also two determiner suffixes:^[14]

• -vamthis indicates an object that is nearby or that is being discussed
• -vetlhthat indicates an object that is not nearby or that had previously been discussed

Examples:

• Non-language-user possessives:

• Language-user possessives:

• Determiners:

This type of suffix serves a syntactic role in the sentence. It contains five suffixes.

• Thelocative suffix-Daq indicates the action of the sentence is taking place in, at or on the noun.^[15] With certain verbs, it indicates motion towards the noun.

• Theablative suffix-voʼ indicates that the action is taking place away from the noun. Again, with certain verbs, it indicates motion away from the noun.

• Thecausal suffix-moʼ indicates that the action is occurring because of the noun.

• Thedative/benefactive suffix-vaD indicates the indirect object, and/or the noun for which the action has been done.^[15]

• Thetopicalizing suffix-ʼeʼ indicates the topic of the sentence or emphasises the noun in the phrase, and also marks the head noun of a relative clause.^[16]

Klingon verbs mark foraspect but not for tense, which is indicated where necessary by context and by time adverbs. Prefixes mark subject and object. There are ten types of suffix, and as with nouns, a verb can have no more than one suffix of any type. (The tenth type, calledrovers, are an exception.) Again as with nouns, the types of suffix must appear in a strict order, indicated by their type number: a type 2 suffix goes before a type 3 suffix, but after a type 1 suffix. A rover suffix can go between any of them.^[17]

Unlike English, there is no infinitive.^[18] The presentation of the verb stem as an infinitive in this article's example sentences is just to show the individual morphemes.

Klingon verb prefixes mark both the subject and the object.

* Expressed with the type-5 verb suffix-luʼ

Prefixes must be present even if the nouns or pronouns they reference are declared explicitly.^[19] In certain cases with a third person object, a first or second person indirect object can be omitted by using the first and second person object prefixes instead. This is known as the prefix trick.^[20]

Examples:

• No object:

• Subject and object:

• Imperative:

This type of suffix forms reflexive verbs. There are two suffixes.

• Thereflexive suffix-ʼegh indicates that the individual subject(s) does/do the action to her/him/itself/themselves.^[21]

• Thereciprocal suffix-chuq indicates that the individual subjects do the action to each other.^[22] Intransitive verbs cannot take this suffix.

This type of suffix deals with the subject's volition. There are five suffixes.

• The suffix-nIS indicates that the subject is required to or has the necessity to complete the action.

• The suffix-qang indicates that the subject is willing to perform the action.

• The suffix-rup indicates the subject is prepared to complete the action.

• The suffix-beH indicates that the subject has been set up to complete the action.-beH is used with devices, whereas-rup is used with beings.^[22]

• The suffix-vIp indicates that the subject is afraid to do the action.^[23]

This type of suffix describes the action of the verb. There are two suffixes.

• The suffix-choH indicates a change of state to that indicated by the verb:

• The suffix-qaʼ indicates the action had been stopped, but is now resuming, or that the action is being performed again.^[23]

There is only one suffix in this category, thecausative suffix-moH. This suffix indicates that the subject is causing something to happen. If the verb to which it is added is transitive, the object becomes the indirect object. Many Klingon words are derived this way. For example, the verbclean (SayʼmoH) is derived from the verbbe clean (Sayʼ).^[24]

Intransitive verb:

Causative form:

Transitive verb:

Causative form:

There are two unrelated suffixes in this group. The suffix-luʼ indicates an undefined subject.^[24] The verb prefixes that are normally used for first or second personsubject with third person singularobject are used to indicate first or second personobject. The suffix-laH indicates that the subject is capable of performing the action of the verb.^[24]

Examples:

• -luʼ without prefix:

much bej

He/she watches the presentation

• -luʼ with prefix:

vItlhaʼ

I chase it

• -laH:

This type indicates the speaker's opinion of the action of the verb. There are four suffixes.

• The suffix-chuʼ indicates that the speaker considers the action is done in the best possible manner.

• The suffix-bej indicates that the speaker is completely sure the action is occurring.

• Thedubitative suffix-lawʼ indicates that the speaker thinks the action is occurring, but is not sure.^[25]

• The suffix-baʼ indicates that the speaker thinks that it is obvious that the action is occurring.^[26]

This type indicates the verb'saspect. There are four Type 7 suffixes.

Note that aspect is different from tense and independent of it. A "completed" event (perfective aspect,-puʼ or-taʼ) can just as easily be set before, during, or after the time of description (past, present, or future tense), or unspecified for tense. For simplicity, this section says "is completed", not "was, is, or will be completed." (Do not confuse perfective aspect with"perfectly done".)

• Theperfective suffix-puʼ indicates that, in the time context of the sentence, the action is completed.

• The suffix-taʼ also indicates that the action is completed, and further specifies that it was done on purpose.^[27]

• The suffix-taH indicates that the verb is occurring continuously.

• The suffix-lIʼ indicates that the verb is occurring continuously, but that it has a definite ending point.^[28]

The perfective aspect can also be indicated by the use of the verb formrIntaH after the main verb. This carries the connotation of irreversibility.^[28]

ghorluʼ rIntaHIt has been broken (and it cannot be mended)

There is only one suffix in this group, thehonorific suffix-neS. It is used when addressing any type of superior, be it social, political, or military, and only when being very polite or having high regard for that person. It is never required.^[29]

-neS:

Eleven suffixes specify syntactic roles in the sentence.

Two suffixes form specific types of noun from a verb.

• The suffix-wIʼ is used to form words forpersons and things that do something, much as English nouns of the formX-er can mean either "person who does X" (listener, baker) or "thing that does X" (screwdriver, sprinkler).^[17]

• The suffix-ghach is used as anominalizer for verbs ending in suffixes, which otherwise are unable to be nominalized. This suffix is usually used with other suffixes and is rarely found alone with the verb stem.^[30][31]

These two suffixes inflect the verb in specificgrammatical moods.

• Theinterrogative suffix-ʼaʼ is used to form yes–no questions.^[17]

• Theoptative suffix-jaj is used to indicate a wish or desire of the speaker.^[26]

The following seven suffixes are used to formsubordinate clauses. A subordinate clause may go after or before the clause it modifies.^[32]

Time

• The suffix-paʼ indicates that the event described in the main clause occurs chronologically before the event of this clause.

jItlheDpaʼ, HIboQBefore I depart, assist me

(jItlheDI depart,HIboQassist me)

• The suffix-vIS indicates that the main clause is occurring at the same time as this clause. It is always used in conjunction with the type-7 suffix continuous suffix-taH.

lumtaHvIS, pagh taʼHe accomplishes nothing while he procrastinates

(lumprocrastinate,taʼaccomplish,paghnothing)

• The suffix-DIʼ indicates that the event of the main clause occurs immediately after the event of this clause is completed.

jImej chocholDIʼAs soon as you approach me, I leave

(jImejI leave,chocholyou approach me)

Cause and effect

• The suffix-chugh is used to formconditionals.^[29]

DaSamlaHchugh, DaSuqlaHIf you can find it, you can take it

(DaSamlaHyou can find it,DaSuqlaHyou can acquire (take) it)

• The suffix-moʼ indicates the main clause is occurring because of this clause.^[26]

bIʼIlmoʼ, qavoqBecause you are sincere, I trust you

(bIʼIlyou are sincere,qavoqI trust you)

(Relative and purpose clauses)

• The suffix-bogh is used in relative clauses. Their usage is covered in therelative clauses section.
• The suffix-meH is used in purpose clauses.^[17] Their usage is covered in thepurpose clauses section.

This type of suffix is known as alengwIʼ in Klingon, which is translated asrover (lengwander +wIʼ). There are four rovers. These suffixes have no defined position, and can go after the verb stem or after any suffix – even another rover – except after a type-9 suffix or where the result would be meaningless. They modify whatever directly precedes them.

• The rover suffix-beʼ negates what precedes it but in the imperative mood-Qoʼ is used.^[33]

• The rover suffix-Qoʼ negates what precedes it in the imperative mood. In the indicative mood it indicates refusal by the subject. It can only be used between verb suffixes of Type 8 and Type 9.^[34]

• The rover suffix-quʼ emphasises what precedes it.^[35]

• The rover suffix-Haʼ reverses what precedes it; that is, it indicates that the opposite of what precedes it is being done, or that the action is being undone.^[34] If used on a verb that cannot be undone and has no meaningful opposite, it means to perform the action wrongly, not in the proper way, somewhat like the English prefixmis- inmisspeak, mistype, misspell, etc. Unlike the other rovers, it can be placed only just after the stem; its classification in the rover category is attributed to the insistence of fictional Klingon grammarians.^[36]

The position of the rover suffixes affects the meaning of the word. Contrast

luSoplaHThey are able to eat it

luSoplaHbeʼThey are not able to eat it

luSopbeʼlaHThey are able to not eat it

(In context, possibly equivalent toThey can refuse to eat it)

luSopbeʼlaHbeʼThey are not able to not eat it

(In context, possibly equivalent toThey cannot refuse to eat it)

Klingon has no verb that corresponds to the verbto be; the concept is expressed using a different grammatical construction. Pronouns can be used as verbs that act as the pronoun plus the verb to be. The pronoun can take verb suffixes, which then modify the pronoun like any other verb. A third-person subject that is not a pronoun must go after the pronoun-verb and carry the type-5 noun suffix-ʼeʼ^[37]

Examples:

• qonwI' tlhIHYou are composers
• ghojwIʼ ghaH HaDwIʼʼeʼA studier is a learner

Klingon does not have adjectives as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many intransitive verbs can be used as adjectives, in which case they follow the noun they modify.Contrast (wepcoat, andyIQbe wet)

wep yIQ

the wet coat

with

yIQ wep.

The coat is wet.

In this construction, the only verbal suffixes allowed are rover suffixes such as-quʼ and-Haʼ.^[39]Type-5noun suffixes that would normally be attached to the noun are instead attached to the adjectival verb:^[40]

paʼDaq

in the room

paʼ tInDaq

in the big room (tInbig)

Adverbs are usually placed at the beginning of the sentence,^[2] but time adverbs go before other adverbs.^[41]

Adverbs can take the rover suffix-Haʼ to denote the opposite adverbial.^[42]

Doʼ

fortunately

DoʼHaʼ

unfortunately

Klingon has seven conjunctions, and they are different for nouns and for sentences. The noun conjunctions areje for alogical conjunction,joq for alogical disjunction andghap for anexclusive disjunction. Noun conjunctions go after the nouns they connect. Sentence conjunctions areʼej for alogical conjunction,qoj for alogical disjunction andpagh for anexclusive disjunction.ʼach (orʼa)but is used to contrast sentences.^[11]

In a relative clause, the verb has the type-9 verb suffix-bogh added to it.^[43] The order of the words in relative clauses remains the same as in regular clauses, but the head noun may optionally get the type-5 suffix-ʼeʼ added.^[44]

Since there is already a type-5 noun suffix marking the head noun, nothing other than the subject or the object can be marked as head noun. Two sentences are formed instead to form the same idea. Relative clauses can have nouns with type 5 suffixes as modifiers, but it can be ambiguous as they can be misinterpreted as being part of the main sentence.[44]

A purpose clause expresses the reason or goal of the action of the main clause. If it is modifying a noun it states the purpose of the noun. A purpose clause always goes before the clause or noun it modifies.^[43] This is the cause of some grammatical ambiguity in Klingon, as a-meH modifying a noun at the beginning of a sentence can be misinterpreted as modifying the entire sentence. This can be resolved in writing with punctuation.^[44]

• -meH with sentence:

• -meH with nouns:

In this section,noun phrases are indicated by the abbreviationNP, and adjectives byA.

Klingoncomparatives mainly rely on adjectives likelawʼ (to be many),puS (to be few),rap (to be the same), andrur (to resemble, to be like) to contrast the nouns. However, many (but not all) of the comparatives have unusual word orders that don't parse as regular Klingon sentences.

• The main Klingon comparative structure isNP₁ Alawʼ NP₂ ApuS.
  The general meaning of this construction is"NP₁ is moreA thanNP₂".

• The structureNP₁ Alawʼ Hoch ApuS is used to formsuperlatives, i.e.
  "NP₁ has the most of quality A (= has more of quality A than anything/one else has)".
  (Hoch =all, everyone, everything)

• The inverse structure,Hoch Alawʼ NP₁ ApuS is used to indicate
  "NP₁ has the least of quality A".[43]

• The structureA NP₁; NP₂rur is used to formsimiles:
  "NP₁ is A; he/she/it resembles NP₂".

A yes–no question in Klingon can be formed by adding the suffix-ʼaʼ to the regular form. The word for yes isHISlaH orHIjaʼ and the word for no isghobeʼ.^[37] Interrogative pronouns go where the answer would normally go, and don't reorder the sentence. Interrogative adverbs go at the beginning of the sentence.^[46]

Klingon uses a base-10 system to count numbers. To form a multiple of 10, 100, 1 000, 1 000 000, the word for the multiple of ten is suffixed to the digit. For example,chorghmaHeighty is a combination of the wordchorgheight and the number forming suffix-maHten.

Larger powers go before smaller powers:chorghmaH Soch iseight-ten seven. The number suffix-DIch is used to form ordinal numbers, and the number suffix-logh indicates how many times an action has been repeated:loSDIchfourth,waʼmaH chaʼloghtwelve times.^[47]

• Okrand, Marc (1992).The Klingon Dictionary, 2nd Edition. Pocket Books.ISBN 978-0671745592.
• Okrand, Marc.paq'batlh. uitgeverij. 2011.

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