"Kissing" redirects here. For the municipality, seeKissing, Bavaria.
Maternal Kiss, a 1896 painting byMary Cassatt.Aforehead kissAmerican sailor kissing his infant sonKissing thegospelGraduates of the Basic Patrol Course inAfghanistan kiss theQuran after the graduation ceremony.
Prevalence of romantic-sexual kiss among indigenous cultures worldwide
Anthropologists disagree on whether kissing is aninstinctual orlearned behaviour. Those who believe kissing to be an instinctual behaviour cite similar behaviours in other animals such asbonobos, which are known to kiss after fighting - possibly to restore peace.[2] Others believe that it is a learned behaviour, having evolved from activities such assuckling orpremastication in early human cultures passed on to modern humans. Another theory posits that the practice originated in males during thePaleolithic era tasting the saliva of females to test their health in order to determine whether they would make a good partner for procreation. The fact that not all human cultures kiss is used as an argument against kissing being an instinctual behaviour in humans; only around 90% of the human population is believed to practice kissing.[3][4]
The earliest reference to kissing-like behavior[1] comes from theVedas, Sanskrit scriptures that informedHinduism,[5]Buddhism, andJainism, around 3,500 years ago, according to Vaughn Bryant, an anthropologist at Texas A&M University who specialized in the history of the kiss.[6] However, recent studies challenge the belief that kissing originated in South Asia around 1500 BCE, arguing that there is no single point of origin in historical times. Figurines have been found that indicate kissing may have been practiced in prehistory. It’s been suggested that Neandertals and humans kissed.[7] Evidence from ancientMesopotamia and Egypt suggests that kissing was documented as early as 2500 BCE. Kissing was present in both romantic and familial contexts in ancient Mesopotamia, but it was subject to social regulation, and public display of the sexual aspect of kissing was discouraged. Kissing also had a role in rituals. The act of kissing may have unintentionally facilitated the transmission of orally transmitted microorganisms, potentially leading to disease. Advances in ancient DNA extraction have revealedpathogen genomes in human remains, including those transmitted through saliva. The shift in dominant lineages of theherpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) during theBronze Age implies that cultural practices like romantic-sexual kissing could have contributed to its transmission. Ancient Mesopotamian medical texts mention a disease called bu'shanu, which may have been related to HSV-1 infection. While kissing itself was not directly associated with disease transmission in Mesopotamia, certain cultural and religious factors governed its practice.[8]
Both lip and tongue kissing are mentioned inSumerian poetry:[9]
My lips are too small, they know not to kiss.
My precious sweet, lying by my heart, one by one "tonguemaking," one by one.
When my sweet precious, my heart, had lain down too, each of them in turn kissing with the tongue, each in turn.[10]
Finally I will drink life from your lips and wake up from this ever lasting sleep.
The wisdom of the earth in a kiss and everything else in your eyes.
I kiss her before everyone that they all may see my love.[11]
And when her lips are pressed to mine I am made drunk and need not wine. When we kiss, and her warm lips half open, I fly cloud-high without beer!
His kisses on my lips, my breast, my hair... ...Come! Come! Come! And kiss me when I die, For life, compelling life, is in thy breath; And at that kiss, though in the tomb I lie, I will arise and break the bands of Death.[12]
The earliest reference to kissing in theOld Testament is inGenesis 27:26, whenJacob deceives his father to obtain his blessing:
And his fatherIsaac said unto him, Come near now, and kiss me, my son.
Genesis 29:11 features the first man-woman kiss in theBible, when Jacob flees fromEsau and goes to the house of his uncleLaban:
And Jacob kissedRachel, and lifted up his voice, and wept.
May he kiss me with the kisses of his mouth, for your love is better than wine.[13][14]
InCyropaedia (370 BC),Xenophon wrote about thePersian custom of kissing in the lips upon departure while narrating the departure ofCyrus the Great (c. 600 BC) as a boy from hisMedian kinsmen.[15] According toHerodotus (5th century BC), when two Persians meet, the greeting formula expresses their equal or inequal status. They do not speak; rather, equals kiss each other on the mouth, and in the case where one is a little inferior to the other, the kiss is given on the cheek.[16][17]
During the later Classical period, affectionate mouth-to-mouth kissing was first described in the Hindu epic theMahabharata.
Anthropologist Vaughn Bryant argues kissing spread from India to Europe afterAlexander the Great conquered parts of Punjab in northern India in 326 BCE.[18]
The Romans were passionate about kissing and talked about several types of kissing. Kissing the hand or cheek was called anosculum. Kissing on the lips with mouth closed was called abasium, which was used between relatives. A kiss of passion was called asuavium.[19]
A fresco fromPompeii showing the kiss of a Roman couple
Kissing was not always an indication oferos, or love, but also could show respect and rank as it was used inMedieval Europe.
Kristoffer Nyrop identified a number of types of kisses, including kisses of love, affection, peace, respect, and friendship. He notes, however, that the categories are somewhat contrived and overlapping, and some cultures have more kinds, including the French with twenty and the Germans with thirty.[22]
Kissing another person's lips has become a common expression of affection or warm greeting in many cultures worldwide. Yet in certain cultures, kissing was introduced only through European settlement, before which it was not a routine occurrence. Such cultures include certain indigenous peoples of Australia, the Tahitians, and many tribes in Africa.[23]
A kiss can also be used to express feelings without an erotic element but can be nonetheless "far deeper and more lasting", writes Nyrop. He adds that such kisses can be expression of love "in the widest and most comprehensive meaning of the word, bringing a message of loyal affection, gratitude, compassion, sympathy, intense joy, and profound sorrow."[22]: 79
Nyrop writes that the most common example is the "intense feeling which knits parents to their offspring", but he adds that kisses of affection are not only common between parents and children, but also between other members of the same family, which can include those outside the immediate family circle, "everywhere where deep affection unites people."[22]: 82 The tradition is written of in the Bible, as when Esau met Jacob after a long separation, he ran towards him, fell on his neck, and kissed him (Genesis 33:4),Moses greeted his father-in-law and kissed him (Exodus 18:7), andOrpah kissed her mother-in-law before leaving her (Ruth 1:14). The family kiss was traditional with the Romans and kisses of affection are often mentioned by the earlyGreeks, as whenOdysseus, on reaching his home, meets his faithful shepherds.[22]: 82–83
Affection can be a cause of kissing "in all ages in grave and solemn moments," notes Nyrop, "not only among those who love each other, but also as an expression of profound gratitude. When theApostle Paul took leave of the elders of the congregation atEphesus, "they all wept sore, and fell on Paul's neck and kissed him" (Acts 20:37)." Kisses can also be exchanged between total strangers, as when there is a profound sympathy with or the warmest interest in another person.[22]: 85
Folk poetry has been the source of affectionate kisses where they sometimes played an important part, as when they had the power to cast off spells or to break bonds of witchcraft and sorcery, often restoring a man to his original shape. Nyrop notes the poetical stories of the "redeeming power of the kiss are to be found in the literature of many countries, especially, for example, in the Old French Arthurian romances (Lancelot, Guiglain) in which the princess is changed by evil arts into a dreadful dragon, and can only resume her human shape in the case of a knight being brave enough to kiss her." In the reverse situation, in the tale of "Beauty and the Beast", a transformed prince then told the girl that he had been bewitched by a wicked fairy, and could not be recreated into a man unless a maid fell in love with him and kissed him, despite his ugliness.[22]: 95–96
A kiss of affection can also take place after death. InGenesis 50:1, it is written that when Jacob was dead, "Joseph fell upon his father's face and wept upon him and kissed him." And it is told ofAbu Bakr,Muhammad's first disciple, father-in-law, and successor, that, when the prophet was dead, he went into the latter's tent, uncovered his face, andkissed his forehead. Nyrop writes that "the kiss is the last tender proof of love bestowed on one we have loved, and was believed, in ancient times, to follow mankind to the nether world."[22]: 97
Kissing on the lips can be a physical expression of affection or love between two people in which the sensations of touch, taste, and smell are involved.[24] According to the psychologist Menachem Brayer, although many "mammals, birds, and insects exchange caresses" which appear to be kisses of affection, they are not kisses in the human sense.
Surveys indicate that kissing is the second most common form ofphysical intimacy among United States adolescents (afterholding hands), and that about 85% of 15 to 16-year-old adolescents in the US have experienced it.[25]
US Naval Officer's son welcomes his dad back from operation with a kiss
The kiss on the lips can be performed between twofriends or family. This move aims to express affection for a friend. Unlike kissing forlove, a friendly kiss has no sexual connotation. The kiss on the lips is a practice that can be found in the time ofpatriarchs (Bible).[26] InAncient Greece, the kiss on the mouth was used to express a concept of equality between people of the same rank.[27] In theMiddle Ages, thekiss of peace was recommended by the Catholic Church.[28] The kiss on the lips was also common among knights.[27] The gesture has again become popular with young people, particularly in England.[29][30]
A heterosexual couple kissingA gay couple kissingA lesbian couple kissing
In many cultures, it is considered a harmless custom forteenagers to kiss on adate or to engage inkissing games with friends. These games serve as icebreakers at parties and may be some participants' first exposure to sexuality. There are many such games, includingtruth or dare,seven minutes in heaven (or the variation "two minutes in the closet"),spin the bottle,post office, and wink.The psychologist William Cane notes that kissing inWestern society is often a romantic act and describes a few of its attributes:
It's not hard to tell when two people are in love. Maybe they're trying to hide it from the world, still they cannot conceal their inner excitement. Men will give themselves away by a certain excited trembling in the muscles of the lower jaw upon seeing their beloved. Women will often turn pale immediately of seeing their lover and then get slightly red in the face as their sweetheart draws near. This is the effect of physical closeness upon two people who are in love.[31]: 9
Romantic kissing in Western cultures is a fairly recent development and is rarely mentioned even in ancient Greek literature. In the Middle Ages it became a social gesture and was considered a sign of refinement of the upper classes.[24]: 150–151 Other cultures have different definitions and uses of kissing, notes Brayer. InChina, for example, a similar expression of affection consists of rubbing one's nose against the cheek of another person. In otherEastern cultures kissing is not common. In South East Asian countries the "sniff kiss" is the most common form of affection and Westernmouth to mouth kissing is often reserved for sexual foreplay. In some tribal cultures the "equivalent to 'kiss me' is 'smell me.'"[32]
The kiss can be an important expression of love anderotic emotions. In his bookThe Kiss and its History, Kristoffer Nyrop describes the kiss of love as an "exultant message of the longing of love, love eternally young, the burning prayer of hot desire, which is born on the lovers' lips, and 'rises,' as Charles Fuster has said, 'up to the blue sky from the green plains,' like a tender, trembling thank-offering." Nyrop adds that the love kiss, "rich in promise, bestows an intoxicating feeling of infinite happiness, courage, and youth, and therefore surpasses all other earthly joys in sublimity."[22]: 30 He also compares it to achievements in life: "Thus even the highest work of art, yet, the loftiest reputation, is nothing in comparison with the passionate kiss of a woman one loves."[22]: 31
The power of a kiss is not minimized when he writes that "we all yearn for kisses and we all seek them; it is idle to struggle against this passion. No one can evade the omnipotence of the kiss ..." Kissing, he implies, can lead one to maturity: "It is through kisses that a knowledge of life and happiness first comes to us. Runeberg says that the angels rejoice over the first kiss exchanged by lovers," and can keep one feeling young: "It carries life with it; it even bestows the gift of eternal youth." The importance of the lover's kiss can also be significant, he notes: "In the case of lovers a kiss is everything; that is the reason why a man stakes his all for a kiss," and "man craves for it as his noblest reward."[22]: 37
As a result, kissing as an expression of love is contained in much of literature, old and new. Nyrop gives a vivid example in the classic love story ofDaphnis and Chloe. As a reward "Chloe has bestowed a kiss on Daphnis—an innocent young-maid's kiss, but it has on him the effect of an electrical shock":[22]: 47
Ye gods, what are my feelings. Her lips are softer than the rose's leaf, her mouth is sweet as honey, and her kiss inflicts on me more pain than a bee's sting. I have often kissed my kids, I have often kissed my lambs, but never have I known aught like this. My pulse is beating fast, my heart throbs, it is as if I were about to suffocate, yet, nevertheless, I want to have another kiss. Strange, never-suspected pain! Has Chloe, I wonder, drunk some poisonous draught ere she kissed me? How comes it that she herself has not died of it?
Romantic kissing "requires more than simple proximity," notes Cane. It also needs "some degree of intimacy or privacy, ... which is why you'll see lovers stepping to the side of a busy street or sidewalk."[31] PsychologistWilhelm Reich "lashed out at society" for not giving young lovers enough privacy and making it difficult to be alone.[31] However, Cane describes how many lovers manage to attain romantic privacy despite being in a public setting, as they "lock their minds together" and thereby create an invisible sense of "psychological privacy." He adds, "In this way they can kiss in public even in a crowded plaza and keep it romantic."[31]: 10 Nonetheless, when Cane asked people to describe the most romantic places they ever kissed, "their answers almost always referred to this ends-of-the-earth isolation, ... they mentioned an apple orchard, a beach, out in a field looking at the stars, or at a pond in a secluded area ..."[31]: 10
AFrench kiss, also known ascataglottism or atongue kiss, is an amorous kiss in which the participants'tongues extend to touch each other's lips or tongue. Akiss with the tongue stimulates the partner's lips, tongue and mouth, which are sensitive to the touch and induce sexual arousal. The sensation when two tongues touch—also known astongue touching—has been proven to stimulateendorphin release and reduce acutestress levels.[citation needed] Extended French kissing may be part ofmaking out. The term originated at the beginning of the 20th century, in America and Great Britain, as the French had acquired a reputation for more adventurous and passionate sex practices.
French kissing may be a mode for disease transmission, particularly if there are open wounds.
Throughout history, a kiss has been a ritual, formal, symbolic or social gesture indicating devotion, respect or greeting. It appears as a ritual or symbol of religious devotion. For example, in the case of kissing a temple floor, or a religious book or icon. Besides devotion, a kiss has also indicated subordination or, nowadays, respect.
In modern times the practice continues, as in the case of a bride and groom kissing at the conclusion of a wedding ceremony or national leaders kissing each other in greeting, and in many other situations.
A kiss in a religious context is common. In earlier periods ofChristianity orIslam, kissing became a ritual gesture, and is still treated as such in certain customs, as when "kissing... relics, or a bishop's ring."[24] InJudaism, the kissing of theTorah scroll, aprayer book, and aprayer shawl is also common.[33] Crawley notes that it was "very significant of the affectionate element in religion" to give so important a part to the kiss as part of its ritual. In the early Church the baptized were kissed by the celebrant after the ceremony, and its use was even extended as a salute to saints and religious heroes, with Crawley adding, "Thus Joseph kissed Jacob, and his disciples kissed Paul. Joseph kissed his dead father, and the custom was retained in our civilization", as the farewell kiss on dead relatives, although certain sects prohibit this today.[34]: 126
A distinctive element in the Christianliturgy was noted byJustin in the 2nd century, now referred to as the "kiss of peace," and once part of the rite in the primitive Mass.Conybeare has stated that this act originated within the ancient Hebrewsynagogue, andPhilo, the ancient Jewish philosopher called it a "kiss of harmony", where, as Crawley explains, "the Word of God brings hostile things together in concord and the kiss of love."[34]: 128 Saint Cyril also writes, "this kiss is the sign that our souls are united, and that we banish all remembrance of injury."[34]: 128
Nyrop notes that thekiss of peace was used as an expression of deep, spiritual devotion in theearly Christian Church. Christ said, for instance, "Peace be with you, my peace I give you," and the members of Christ's Church gave each other peace symbolically through a kiss.St Paul repeatedly speaks of the "holy kiss," and, in hisEpistle to the Romans, writes: "Salute one another with an holy kiss" and his first Epistle to the Thessalonians (1 Thessalonians 5:26), he says: "Greet all the brethren with an holy kiss."[22]: 101
The kiss of peace was also used insecular festivities. During theMiddle Ages, for example, Nyrop points out that it was the custom to "seal the reconciliation and pacification of enemies by a kiss." Even knights gave each other the kiss of peace before proceeding to the combat, and forgave one another all real or imaginary wrongs. The holy kiss was also found in the ritual of the Church on solemn occasions, such as baptism, marriage, confession, ordination, or obsequies. However, toward the end of the Middle Ages the kiss of peace disappears as the official token of reconciliation.[22]: 109
Man kissing the ground after a long sea voyage (as part of a reenactment of the first landing of English settlers in Virginia in 1607)
The kiss of respect is of ancient origin, notes Nyrop. He writes that "from the remotest times we find it applied to all that is holy, noble, and worshipful—to the gods, their statues, temples, and altars, as well as to kings and emperors; out of reverence, people even kissed the ground, and both sun and moon were greeted with kisses."[22]: 114
He notes some examples, as "when the prophetHosea laments over the idolatry of the children ofIsrael, he says that they make molten images of calves and kiss them" (Hosea 13:2). In classical times similar homage was often paid to the gods, and people were known to kiss the hands, knees, feet, and the mouths, of their idols.Cicero writes that the lips and beard of the famous statue ofHercules atAgrigentum were worn away by the kisses of devotees.[22]: 115
People kissed the cross with the image of Jesus, and such kissing of the cross is always considered a holy act. In many countries it is required, on taking an oath, as the highest assertion that the witness would be speaking the truth. Nyrop notes that "as a last act of charity, the image of the Redeemer is handed to the dying or death-condemned to be kissed." Kissing the cross brings blessing and happiness; people kiss the image ofMary and the pictures and statues of saints—not only their pictures, "but even their relics are kissed," notes Nyrop. "They make both soul and body whole." There are legends innumerable of sick people regaining their health by kissing relics, he points out.[22]: 121
The kiss of respect has also represented a mark of fealty, humility and reverence. Its use in ancient times was widespread, and Nyrop gives examples: "people threw themselves down on the ground before their rulers, kissed their footprints, literally 'licked the dust,' as it is termed."[22]: 124 "Nearly everywhere, wheresoever an inferior meets a superior, we observe the kiss of respect. The Roman slaves kissed the hands of their masters; pupils and soldiers those of their teachers and captains respectively."[22]: 124 People also kissed the earth for joy on returning to their native land after a lengthened absence, as whenAgamemnon returned from theTrojan War.
The kiss is also commonly used in American and European culture as a salutation between friends or acquaintances. The friendly kiss until recent times usually occurred only between ladies, but today it is also common between men and women, especially if there is a great difference in age. According to Nyrop, up until the 20th century, "it seldom or never takes place between men, with the exception, however, of royal personages," although he notes that in former times the "friendly kiss was very common with us between man and man as well as between persons of opposite sexes." In guilds, for example, it was customary for the members to greet each other "with heartyhandshakes and smacking kisses," and, on the conclusion of a meal, people thanked and kissed both their hosts and hostesses.[22]: 142
In approximately 10% of the world population, kissing does not take place, for a variety of reasons, including that they find it dirty or because of superstitious reasons. For example, in parts ofSudan it is believed that the mouth is the portal to the soul, so they do not want to invite death or have their spirit taken.[35] Psychology professorElaine Hatfield noted that "kissing was far from universal and even seen as improper by many societies."[36] Despite kissing being widespread, in some parts of the world it is still taboo to kiss publicly and is often banned in films or in other media.
On-screen lip-kissing was not a regular occurrence inBollywood until the 1990s, although it has been present from the time of the inception of Bollywood.[37] This can appear contradictory since the culture of kissing is believed to have originated and spread from India.[38]
There are also taboos as to whom one can kiss in someMuslim-majority societies governed by religious law. In the Islamic Republic ofIran, a man who kisses or touches a woman who is not his wife or relative can be punished such as getting whipped up to 100 times or even go to jail.[39]
Research from May 2023 found texts from ancient people in Mesopotamia that indicates that kissing was a well-established practice 4500 years ago. According to Dr Troels Pank Arbøll, one of the authors of this study:
"In ancient Mesopotamia, which is the name for the early human cultures that existed between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers in present-day Iraq and Syria, people wrote in cuneiform script on clay tablets. Many thousands of these clay tablets have survived to this day, and they contain clear examples that kissing was considered a part of romantic intimacy in ancient times, just as kissing could be part of friendships and family members' relations."[40]
Donald Richie comments that in Japan, as in China, although kissing took place in erotic situations, in public "the kiss was invisible", and the "touching of the lips never became the culturally encoded action it has for so long been in Europe and America." The earlyEdison film,The Widow Jones – the May Irwin-John Rice Kiss (1896), created a sensation when it was shown in Tokyo, and people crowded to view the enormity. Likewise,Rodin's sculptureThe Kiss was not displayed in Japan until after thePacific War.[41] Also, in the 1900s,Manchu tribes along theAmur River regarded public kissing between adults with revulsion.[42] In a similar situation inChinese tradition, when Chinese men sawWestern women kissing men in public, they thought the women were prostitutes.[43]
In modernWestern culture, kissing on the lips is commonly an expression of romanticaffection[44] or a warm greeting. When lips are pressed together for an extended period, usually accompanied with anembrace, it is an expression of romantic and sexual desire. The practice of kissing with an open mouth, to allow the other to suck their lips or move theirtongue into their mouth, is calledFrench kissing. "Making out" is often anadolescent's first experience of theirsexuality and games which involve kissing, such asspin the bottle, facilitate the experience. People may kiss children on the forehead to comfort them or the cheek or lips to show affection.
In modernEastern culture, the etiquette vary depending on the region. In West Asia, kissing on the lips between both men and women is a common form of greeting. In South and Eastern Asia, it might often be a greeting between women, however, between men, it is unusual. Kissing a baby on the cheeks is a common form of affection. Most kisses between men and women are on the cheeks and not on the lips unless they are romantically involved. Sexual forms of kissing between lovers encompass the whole range of global practices.
The first romantic kiss on screen was in American silent films in 1896, beginning with the filmThe Kiss. The kiss lasted 18 seconds and caused many to rail against decadence in the new medium of silent film. WriterLouis Black writes that "it was the United States that brought kissing out of the Dark Ages."[45] However, it met with severe disapproval by defenders of public morality, especially in New York. One critic proclaimed that "it is absolutely disgusting. Such things call for police interference."[45]
Young moviegoers began emulating romantic stars on the screen, such asRonald Colman andRudolph Valentino, the latter known for ending his passionate scenes with a kiss. Valentino also began his romantic scenes with women by kissing her hand, traveling up her arm, and then kissing her on the back of her neck. Actresses were often turned into stars based on their screen portrayals of passion. Actresses likeNazimova,Pola Negri,Vilma Bánky andGreta Garbo, became screen idols as a result.
Eventually, the film industry began to adopt the dictates of theProduction Code established in 1934, overseen byWill Hays and influenced by Christian religious leaders in America.[46][47] According to the new code, "Excessive and lustful kissing, lustful embraces, suggestive postures and gestures, are not to be shown."[45] As a result, kissing scenes were shortened, with scenes cut away, leaving the imagination of the viewer to take over. Under the code, actors kissing had to keep their feet on the ground and had to be either standing or sitting.[48]
The heyday of romantic kissing on the screen took place in the early sound era, during theGolden Age of Hollywood in the 1930s and 1940s.[49]: watch Body language began to be used to supplement romantic scenes, especially with the eyes, a talent that added to Greta Garbo's fame. AuthorLana Citron writes that "men were perceived as the kissers and women the receivers. Should the roles ever be reversed, women were regarded as vamps . . ."[48] According to Citron,Mae West andAnna May Wong were the only Hollywood actresses never to have been kissed on screen.[48] Among the films rated for having the most romantic kisses areGone with the Wind,From Here to Eternity,Casablanca, andTo Have and Have Not.[48]
Sociologist Eva Illouz notes that surveys taken in 1935 showed that "love was the most important theme represented in movies. Similar surveys during the 1930s found the 95% of films had romance as one of their plot lines, what film critics called "the romantic formula."[50]
In early Japanese films, kissing and sexual expression were controversial. In 1931, a director slipped a kissing scene past the censor (who was a friend), but when the film opened in a downtown Tokyo theater, the screening was stopped and the film confiscated. During the American occupation of Japan, in 1946, an American censor required a film to include a kissing scene. One scholar says that the censor suggested "we believe that even Japanese do something like kissing when they love each other. Why don't you include that in your films?" Americans encouraged such scenes to force the Japanese to express publicly actions and feelings that had been considered strictly private. Since Pearl Harbor, Americans had felt that the Japanese were "sneaky", claiming that "if Japanese kissed in private, they should do it in public too."[51]
A mother kissing her child.People kissing in this sketch by reporter and artistMarguerite Martyn of aNew Year's Eve celebration in 1914
In some Western cultures, it is consideredgood luck to kiss someone onChristmas or onNew Year's Eve, especially beneath a sprig ofmistletoe. Newlyweds usually kiss at the end of awedding ceremony.
Female friends and relations and close acquaintances commonly offerreciprocalkisses on the cheek as agreeting orfarewell.[52]Where cheek kissing is used, in some countries a single kiss is the custom, while in others a kiss on each cheek is the norm, or even three or four kisses on alternating cheeks. In the United States, anair kiss is becoming more common. This involves kissing in the air near the cheek, with the cheeks touching or not.[53] After a firstdate, it is common for the couple to give each other a quick kiss on the cheek (or lips where that is the norm) on parting, to indicate that a good time was had and perhaps to indicate an interest in another meeting.
A symbolic kiss is frequent in Western cultures. A kiss can be "blown" to another by kissing the fingertips and then blowing the fingertips, pointing them in the direction of the recipient. This is used to convey affection, usually when parting or when the partners are physically distant but can view each other. Blown kisses are also used when a person wishes to convey affection to a large crowd or audience. The termflying kiss is used in India to describe a blown kiss. In written correspondence a kiss has been represented by the letter "X" since at least 1763.[54] A stage or screen kiss may be performed by actually kissing, or faked by using the thumbs as a barrier for the lips and turning so the audience is unable to fully see the act.
Some literature suggests that a significant percentage of humanity does not kiss.[55] It has been claimed that inSub-Saharan African,Asiatic,Polynesian and possibly in someNative American cultures, kissing was relatively unimportant untilEuropean colonization.[56][57] Historically however, the culture of kissing is thought to have begun and spread from theEastern World, specificallyIndia.[38]
With theAndamanese, kissing was only used as a sign of affection towards children and had no sexual undertones.[58]
In traditional Islamic cultures, kissing is not permitted between a man and woman who are not married or closely related by blood or marriage. Akiss on the cheek is a very common form of greeting among members of the same sex in most Islamic countries, much like theSouthern European pattern.
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In 2007, two people were fined and jailed for a month after kissing andhugging in public in Dubai.[59]
InIndia,public display of affection is a criminal offence underSection 294 of the Indian Penal Code, 1860 with a punishment of imprisonment of up to three months, or a fine, or both. This law was used by police to prosecute couples engaging in intimate acts, such as kissing in public.[60][61] However, in a number of landmark cases, the higher courts dismissed assertions that kissing in public is obscene.[62][63]
InNew York in the United States, an unwanted kiss constitutes the sex offense offorcible touching.[64][65][66] In Italy, theSupreme Court of Cassation has upheldsexual violence convictions for forced kisses.[67] In Australia, unwanted kissing issexual assault.[68] In the Netherlands, forced-tongue-kissing was prosecuted as rape from 1998 until 2017, when theDutch Supreme Court ruled that it should instead (while still deemed illegal) be viewed as a potential form of sexual assault, carrying a maximum eight-year prison sentence.[69]
The Taking of Christ by Caravaggio (c. 1602) depicts Judas betrayingJesus with a kiss as a signal to arrest Jesus.
Kissing was a custom during the Biblical period mentioned in theGenesis 27:26, whenIsaac kissed his sonJacob.[70]: 585 The kiss is used in numerous other contexts in the Bible: the kiss of homage, inEsther 5:2; of subjection, in 1Samuel 10:1; of reconciliation, in 2 Samuel 14:33; of valediction, inRuth 1:14; of approbation, inPsalms 2:12; of humble gratitude, inLuke 7:38; of welcome, inExodus 18:7; of love and joy, inGenesis 20:11. There are also spiritual kisses, as inSong of Songs 1:2; sensual kisses, as inProverbs 7:13; and hypocritical kisses, as in 2Samuel 15:5. It was customary to kiss the mouth in biblical times, and also the beard, which is still practiced in Arab culture. Kissing the hand is not biblical, according to Tabor.[70] The kiss of peace was anapostolic custom, and continues to be one of the rites in theEucharistic services ofRoman Catholics.[70]
In the Roman Catholic Order of Mass, the bishop or priest celebrant bows and kisses the altar, reverencing it, upon arriving at the altar during the entrance procession before Mass and upon leaving at the recessional at the closing of Mass; if a deacon is assisting, he bows low before the altar but does not kiss it.
Among primitive cultures, it was usual to throw kisses to the sun and to the moon, as well as to the images of the gods. Kissing the hand is first heard of among the Persians.[70] According to Tabor, the kiss of homage—the character of which is not indicated in the Bible—was probably upon the forehead, and was expressive of high respect.[70]
This woodcut of the practice of kissing the pope's toe is fromPassionary of the Christ and Antichrist byLucas Cranach the Elder.
In Ancient Rome and some modern Pagan beliefs, worshipers, when passing the statue or image of a god or goddess, will kiss their hand and wave it towards the deity (adoration).
Theholy kiss orkiss of peace is a traditional part of most Christian liturgies, though often replaced with an embrace or handshake today in Western cultures.
Catholics will kissrosary beads as a part ofprayer, or kiss their hand after making thesign of the cross. It is also common to kiss the wounds on a crucifix, or any other image of Christ's Passion.
Pope John Paul II would kiss the ground on arrival in a new country.
Visitors to the pope traditionally kiss his foot.
Catholics traditionally kiss the ring of a cardinal or bishop.
Catholics traditionally kiss the hand of a priest.
Eastern Orthodox andEastern Catholic Christians often kiss the icons around the church on entering; they will also kiss the cross and/or the priest's hand in certain other customs in the church, such as confession or receiving a blessing.
Jews will kiss the Western Wall of the Holy Temple inJerusalem, and other religious articles duringprayer such as theTorah, usually by touching their hand,Tallis, orSiddur (prayerbook) to theTorah and then kissing it.Jewish law prohibits kissing members of the opposite sex, except for spouses and certain close relatives. SeeNegiah.
Pilgrims jostle for a chance to kiss theBlack Stone, and if they cannot kiss it, they can point to it at each circuit with their right hand.
Within the natural world of other animals, there are numerous analogies to kissing, notes Crawley, such as "the billing of birds, the cataglottism of pigeons and the antennal play of some insects." Even among mammals such as the dog, cat and bear, similar behavior is noted.[34]: 114
Anthropologists have not reached a conclusion as to whether kissing is learned or a behavior from instinct. It may be related togrooming behavior also seen between other animals, or arising as a result of motherspremasticating food for their children. Non-humanprimates also exhibit kissing behavior.[72][73] Dogs, cats, birds and other animals displaylicking, nuzzling, andgrooming behavior among themselves, and also towards humans or other species. This is sometimes interpreted by observers as a type of kissing.
Kissing in humans was argued by ethologist Eibl-Eibesfeldt to have evolved from the direct mouth-to-mouth regurgitation of food (kiss-feeding) from parent to offspring or male to female (courtship feeding) and has been observed in numerous mammals.[74] The similarity in the methods between kiss-feeding and deep human kisses (e.g.French kiss) is quite pronounced; in the former, the tongue is used to push food from the mouth of the mother to the child with the child receiving both the mother's food and tongue in sucking movements, and the latter is the same but forgoes the premasticated food. In fact, through observations across various species and cultures, it can be confirmed that the act of kissing and premastication has most likely evolved from the similar relationship-based feeding behaviours.[74][75]
Kissing is a complex behavior that requires significant muscularcoordination involving a total of 34 facial muscles and 112 postural muscles.[76][77] The most importantmuscle involved is theorbicularis oris muscle, which is used to pucker thelips and informally known as thekissing muscle.[78][79] In the case of the French kiss, the tongue is also an important component. Lips have many nerve endings which make them sensitive to touch and bite.[80]
Kissing stimulates the production ofhormones responsible for a good mood:oxytocin, which releases the feeling of love and strengthens the bond with the partner,endorphins – hormones responsible for the feeling of happiness –, anddopamine, which stimulates thepleasure center in the brain.[81][82][83]Affection in general hasstress-reducing effects. Kissing in particular has been studied in acontrolled experiment and it was found that increasing the frequency of kissing in marital and cohabiting relationships results in a reduction of perceived stress, an increase in relationship satisfaction, and a lowering ofcholesterol levels.[84][82]
Kissing on the lips can result in the transmission of some diseases, includinginfectious mononucleosis (known as the "kissing disease") andherpes simplex when the infectious viruses are present in saliva. Research indicates that contraction ofHIV via kissing is extremely unlikely, although there was a documented case in 1997 of an HIV infection by kissing. Both the woman and infected man hadgum disease, so transmission was through the man's blood, not through saliva.[85]
^Dyer, Tristeleton T.F. "The History of Kissing",The American Magazine, vol. 14 1882, pp. 611–614
^abcBrayer, Menachem M.The Jewish Woman in Rabbinic Literature, KTAV Publishing House (1986)
^Halpern, Carolyn Tucker; Joyner, Kara; Udry, J.Richard; Suchindran, Chirayath (2000). "Smart teens don't have sex (or kiss much either)".Journal of Adolescent Health.26 (3):213–25.doi:10.1016/S1054-139X(99)00061-0.PMID10706169.
^Yannick Carré,Le baiser sur la bouche au Moyen Âge : rites, symboles, mentalités, à travers les textes et les images, XIe-XVe siècles, Le Léopard d'Or, 1992, page 357
^Donald Richie, "The Japanese Kiss," in Donald Richie, ed.,Walkman, Manga, and Society: Essays on Contemporary Japanese Culture (Tokyo: Kirihara shoten, 1989), 52–58.
^Shirokogorov, Sergeĭ Mikhaĭlovich (1924).Social Organization of the Manchus: A Study of the Manchu Clan Organization. Royal Asiatic Society. p. i, 1–6, 122.
^Illouz, Eva.Consuming the Romantic Utopia, Univ. of Calif. Press (1997) p. 31
^Kyoko Hirano,Mr. Smith Goes to Tokyo: The Japanese Cinema under the American Occupation, 1945–1952 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1992), pp 154–57, 162
^abEibl-Eibesfeldt, Irenäus (1971).Love and hate: the natural history of behavior patterns. Aldine Transaction.
^Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Irenäus (1983). "Chapter 3: A comparative approach to human ethology". In Rajecki, D. W. (ed.).Comparing behavior: studying man studying animals. Routledge.
^Blue, Adrienne (1 June 1996)."The kiss".The Independent (London). Archived fromthe original on 23 December 2008. Retrieved29 August 2008.
^Highfield, Roger (17 October 2006)."Seal with..146 muscles".The Telegraph. London. Archived fromthe original on 26 October 2006. Retrieved29 August 2008.
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