TheKingdom of Sardinia, also referred to as theKingdom of Sardinia and Corsica among other names,[nb 1] was a kingdom inSouthern Europe from the late 13th until the mid-19th century. The kingdom's history can be divided into two distinct phases, one as part of the Aragonese and Spanish crowns (1324-1720) and one as a possession of theSavoyard state (1720-1861).[7]
The kingdom was a member of theCouncil of Aragon and initially consisted of the islands ofCorsica andSardinia, sovereignty over both of which was claimed by thepapacy, which granted them as a fief, theRegnum Sardiniae et Corsicae (Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica),[8] to KingJames II of Aragon in 1297.[1][9] Beginning in 1324, James and his successorsconquered the island of Sardinia and establishedde facto theirde jure authority. In 1420, after theSardinian–Aragonese war, the last competing claim to the island was bought out. After the union of the crowns of Aragon andCastile, Sardinia became a part of the burgeoningSpanish Empire.
In 1720, the island and its kingdom were ceded by theHabsburg andBourbon claimants from the Spanish throne to theDuke of Savoy,Victor Amadeus II. TheSavoyards united it with their historical possessions on the Italian mainland, and the kingdom came to be progressively identified with the mainland states, which included, besides Savoy andAosta, dynastic possessions like thePrincipality of Piedmont and theCounty of Nice. The formal name of thiscomposite state was the "States of His Majesty the King of Sardinia",[10] and itwas and is referred to as either Sardinia–Piedmont,[4][5] Piedmont–Sardinia, or erroneously the Kingdom of Piedmont, since the island of Sardinia had always been of secondary importance to the monarchy.[6] Under Savoyard rule, the kingdom's government, ruling class, cultural models, and centre of population were entirely situated in the mainland.[11] Therefore, while the capital of the island of Sardinia and the seat of its viceroys had always beende jureCagliari, it was thePiedmontese city ofTurin, the capital of Savoy since the mid 16th century, which was thede facto seat of power. This situation would be conferred official status with thePerfect Fusion of 1847, when all the kingdom's governmental institutions would be centralized in Turin.
When the mainland domains of the House of Savoy were occupied and eventually annexed byNapoleonic France, theking of Sardinia temporarily resided on the island for the first time in Sardinia's history under Savoyard rule. TheCongress of Vienna (1814–1815), which restructured Europe after Napoleon's defeat, returned to Savoy its mainland possessions and augmented them withLiguria, taken from theRepublic of Genoa. FollowingGeneva's accession toSwitzerland, theTreaty of Turin (1816) transferredCarouge and adjacent areas to the newly created SwissCanton of Geneva. In 1847–1848, through an act of union analogous to theone between Great Britain and Ireland, the various Savoyard states were unified under one legal system with their capital in Turin, and granted a constitution, theStatuto Albertino.
In 238 BC Sardinia became, along with Corsica, aprovince of theRoman Empire. The Romans ruled the island until the middle of the 5th century when it was occupied by theVandals, who had also settled in north Africa. In 534 AD it was reconquered by theEastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. It remained a Byzantine province until the Arab conquest of Sicily in the 9th century. After that, communications with Constantinople became very difficult, and powerful families of the island assumed control of the land.
Facing Zaragozan Muslims attempts to sack and conquer, while having almost no outside help, Sardinia used the principle oftranslatio imperii ("transfer of rule") and continued to organize itself along the ancient Roman and Byzantine model. The island was not the personal property of the ruler and of his family, as was then the dominant practice in western Europe, but rather a separate entity and during theByzantine Empire, amonarchical republic, as it had been since Roman times. Information about the Sardinian political situation in the following centuries is scarce. Due to Zaragozan attacks, in the 9th centuryTharros was abandoned in favor ofOristano, after more than 1800 years of occupation;Caralis,Porto Torres, and numerous other coastal centres suffered the same fate.
There is a record of another massiveDenian Muslims sea attack in 1015–16 from theBalearics, commanded byMujāhid al-ʿĀmirī theSlavic Muslim Emir of Taifa of Denia (Latinized asMuseto). The Denian first attempt to invade the island was stopped by theJudicates with the support of the fleets of themaritime republics ofPisa andGenoa. PopeBenedict VIII also requested aid from the two maritime republics in the struggle against the Denian Muslims.[16]
After theEast–West Schism, Rome made many efforts to restore Latinity to the Sardinian church, politics and society, and to finally reunify the island under one Catholic ruler, as it had been for all of southern Italy, when the Byzantines had been driven away by CatholicNormans. Even the title of "Judge" was a Byzantine reminder of the Greek church and state,[17] in times of harsh relations between eastern and western churches (Massacre of the Latins, 1182,Siege of Constantinople (1204),Recapture of Constantinople, 1261).
Before the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica, thearchons (Ancient Greek:ἄρχοντες), orjudices in Latin,[18][19] who reigned in the island from the 9th or 10th century until the beginning of the 11th century, can be considered real kings of all Sardinia (Κύριε βοήθε ιοῦ δούλου σου Tουρκοτουρίου ἅρχωντοσ Σαρδινίας καί τής δούλης σου Γετιτ),[20][21][22] even though nominal vassals of the Byzantine emperors. Of these sovereigns, only two names are known: Turcoturiu and Salusiu (Tουρκοτουρίου βασιλικοῦ πρωτοσπαθαρίου[23] (καὶ Σαλουσίου των εὐγενεστάτων ἀρχόντων),[24][25] who probably ruled in the 10th century. The archons still wrote in Greek or Latin, but one of the oldest documents left of theJudicate of Cagliari (theCarta Volgare), issued byTorchitorio I de Lacon-Gunale in 1070, was already written in theRomanceSardinian language, albeit with theGreek alphabet.[26]
The realm was divided into four small kingdoms, the Judicates ofCagliari,Arborea,Gallura andLogudoro, perfectly organized as was the previous realm, but was now under the influence of thepapacy, which claimed sovereignty over the entire island, and in particular of theItalian states of Genoa and Pisa, that through alliances with the "judges" (the local rulers), secured their political and economic zones of influence. While Genoa was mostly, but not always, in the north and west regions of Sardinia, that is, in the Judicates of Gallura and Logudoro; Pisa was mostly, but not always, in the south and east, in the Judicates of Cagliari and Arborea.[27][28] That was the cause of conflicts leading to a long war between the Judges, who regarded themselves as kings fighting against rebellious nobles.[29][30]
The flag of the Kingdom of Sardinia at the funeral ceremony ofCharles V
Later, the title of King of Sardinia was granted by theEmperor of theHoly Roman Empire toBarisone II of Arborea,[31] and subsequently also toEnzio of Sardinia. The first could not reunify the island under his rule, despite years of war against the other Sardinian judges, and he finally concluded a peace treaty with them in 1172.[32] The second did not have the opportunity. Invested with the title from his father,Emperor Frederick II in 1239, he was soon recalled by his parent and appointed Imperial Vicar for Italy. He died in 1272 without direct recognized heirs after a detention of 23 years in a prison in Bologna.
The Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica, later only the Kingdom of Sardinia from 1460,[33] was a state whose king was theKing of Aragon, who started to conquer it in 1324, gained full control in 1410, and directly ruled it until 1460. In that year it was incorporated into a sort of confederation of states, each with its own institutions, called theCrown of Aragon, and united only in the person of the king. The Crown of Aragon was made by a council of representatives of the various states and grew in importance for the main purpose of separating the legacy ofFerdinand II of Aragon from that ofIsabella I of Castile when they married in 1469.
The idea of the kingdom was created in 1297 byPope Boniface VIII, as a hypothetical entity created forJames II of Aragon under a secret clause in theTreaty of Anagni. This was an inducement to join in the effort to restoreSicily, then under the rule of James's brotherFrederick III of Sicily, to theAngevin dynasty over the oppositions of the Sicilians. The two islands proposed for this new kingdom were occupied by other states and fiefs at the time. In Sardinia, three of the four states that had succeededByzantine imperial rule in the 9th century had passed through marriage and partition under the direct or indirect control of Pisa and Genoa in the 40 years preceding the Treaty of Anagni. Genoa had also ruledCorsica since conquering the island nearly two centuries before (c. 1133).
There were other reasons beside this papal decision: it was the final successful result of the long fight against theGhibelline (pro-imperial) city of Pisa and the Holy Roman Empire itself. Furthermore, Sardinia was then under the control of the very Catholic kings of Aragon, and the last result of rapprochement of the island to Rome. The Sardinian church had never been under the control of theEcumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople; it was an autonomous province loyal to Rome and belonging to theLatin Church, but during the Byzantine period became influenced by Byzantine liturgy and culture.
In 1297,Pope Boniface VIII, intervening between theHouses of Anjou andAragon, established on paper aRegnum Sardiniae et Corsicae that would be afief of the papacy. Then, ignoring the indigenous states which already existed, the Pope offered his newly created fief toJames II of Aragon, promising him papal support should he wish to conquer Pisan Sardinia in exchange for Sicily. In 1323, James II formed an alliance withHugh II of Arborea and, following a military campaign which lasted a year or so, occupied the Pisan territories ofCagliari andGallura along with the city ofSassari, claiming the territory as the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica.
In 1353,Arborea waged war on Aragon. The Crown of Aragon did not reduce the last of the judicates (indigenous kingdoms of Sardinia) until 1420.The Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica retained its separate character as part of the Crown of Aragon and was not merely incorporated into the Kingdom of Aragon. At the time of his struggles with Arborea,Peter IV of Aragon granted an autonomous legislature to the kingdom and its legal traditions. The kingdom was governed in the king's name by aviceroy. In 1420,Alfonso V of Aragon, king of Sicily and heir to Aragon, bought the remaining territories for 100,000 gold florins of the Judicate of Arborea in the 1420 from the last judge,William III of Narbonne, and the Kingdom of Sardinia extended throughout the island, except for the city ofCastelsardo (at that time calledCasteldoria orCastelgenovese) that was stolen from theDoria in 1448, and renamedCastillo Aragonés (Aragonese Castle).
Corsica, which had never been conquered, was dropped from the formal title and Sardinia passed with the Crown of Aragon to a united Spain. The defeat of the local kingdoms,communes andsignorie, the firm Aragonese (later Spanish) rule, the introduction of a sterilefeudalism, as well as the discovery of the Americas, provoked an unstoppable decline of the Kingdom of Sardinia. A short period of uprisings occurred under the local nobleLeonardo Alagon,marquess of Oristano, who defended his territories against Viceroy Nicolò Carroz and managed to defeat the viceroy's army in the 1470s, but was later crushed at theBattle of Macomer in 1478, ending any further revolts in the island. The unceasing attacks fromnorth African pirates and a series of plagues (in 1582, 1652 and 1655) further worsened the situation.
Although the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica could be said to have started as a questionable and extraordinaryde jure state in 1297, itsde facto existence began in 1324 when, called by their allies of theJudicate of Arborea in the course of war with theRepublic of Pisa, James II seized the Pisan territories in the former states ofCagliari andGallura and asserted his papally-approved title. In 1347, Aragon made war on landlords of the Doria House and the Malaspina House, who were citizens of theRepublic of Genoa, which controlled most of the lands of the formerLogudoro state in north-western Sardinia, including the city ofAlghero and the semiautonomousRepublic ofSassari, and added them to its direct domains.
TheJudicate of Arborea, the only Sardinian state that remained independent of foreign domination, proved far more difficult to subdue. Threatened by the Aragonese claims of suzerainty and consolidation of the rest of the island, in 1353 Arborea, under the leadership ofMarianus IV, started the conquest of the remaining Sardinian territories, which formed the Kingdom of Sardinia. In 1368 an Arborean offensive succeeded in nearly driving the Aragonese from the island, reducing the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica to just the port cities ofCagliari andAlghero, and incorporating everything else into their own kingdom.
A peace treaty returned the Aragonese their previous possessions in 1388 but tensions continued. In 1382, the Arborean army led byBrancaleone Doria again swept most of the island into Arborean rule. This situation lasted until 1409 when the army of the Judicate of Arborea suffered a heavy defeat by the Aragonese army in theBattle of Sanluri. After the sale of the remaining territories for 100,000 gold florins to the Judicate of Arborea in 1420, the Kingdom of Sardinia extended throughout the island, except for the city ofCastelsardo (at that time calledCasteldoria orCastelgenovese), which had been stolen from theDoria in 1448. The subduing of Sardinia having taken a century, Corsica, which had never been wrested from the Genoese, was dropped from the formal title of the kingdom.
Under theCrown of Aragon Sardinia continued to be governed as a semi-independent kingdom, retaining its own parliament and aViceroy governing the island on the king's behalf. This arrangement continued after the personal union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon to formSpain under theHabsburg dynasty. During this time, the island became a target forBarbary pirates due to the frequent wars between Spain and theOttoman Empire. From the 1570s onward a series of towers, known today as the Spanish Towers, were built around the island's coast to guard against pirate raids.
During theWar of the Quadruple Alliance,Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy, Prince of Piedmont, and by now also King of Sicily, had to agree to yield Sicily to the Austrian Habsburgs and receive Sardinia in exchange. The exchange was formally ratified in theTreaty of The Hague of 17 February 1720. Because the Kingdom of Sardinia had existed since the 14th century, the exchange allowed Victor Amadeus to retain the title of king in spite of the loss of Sicily. From 1720 to 1798, whenNapoleon invaded Italy, thede facto government resided in Turin; Cagliari, which had been the capital of the Kingdom of Sardinia since 1324, returned to be thede facto government during the Savoy exile from 1798 to 1814. When Napoleon was first resided, thede facto government returned to Turin but did not officially became the capital of the Kingdom of Sardinia until 1847.
Victor Amadeus initially resisted the exchange of Sardinia for Sicilia in 1720. Until 1723, he continued to style himself King of Sicily rather than King of Sardinia. The state took the official title of Kingdom of Sardinia, Cyprus, and Jerusalem,[34] as the House of Savoy still claimed the thrones ofCyprus andJerusalem, although both had long been underOttoman rule. In 1767–1769,Charles Emmanuel III annexed theMaddalena archipelago in theStrait of Bonifacio from theRepublic of Genoa and claimed it as part of Sardinia, which became a part of the Sardinian region since then.
A map of the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1856 after thePerfect Fusion merged all its provinces into a single jurisdiction.
Since the Iberian period in Sardinia, common languages includedSardinian,Corsican,Catalan, andSpanish.[35] Other languages includedFrench,Piedmontese,Ligurian,Occitan, andArpitan. During the Savoyard period as a composite state,Italian, which alongside French had already been made official in the peninsula since the 16th century via the Rivoli Edict,[36][37][38] was introduced to Sardinia in 1760.[39] With the Regio Biglietto of 25 July 1760, Italian was made a priority over French in Piedmont. The Kingdom of Sardinia's attempt of promotion of a unitary language was incisive,[40] and also the replacement of Spanish with Italian has been described as a "revolution of ideas".[41] Since French was still in use in some provinces, theStatuto Albertino (1848) authorised the use of French.[42]
In 1792, the Kingdom of Sardinia and the other states of the Savoy Crown joined theFirst Coalition against theFrench First Republic, but was beaten in 1796 byNapoleon and forced to conclude the disadvantageousTreaty of Paris (1796), giving the French army free passage through Piedmont. On 6 December 1798Joubert occupied Turin and forcedCharles Emmanuel IV to abdicate and leave for the island of Sardinia. The provisionary government voted to unite Piedmont with France. In 1799, the Austro-Russians briefly occupied the city, but with theBattle of Marengo (1800), the French regained control. The island of Sardinia stayed out of the reach of the French for the rest of the war and was, for the first time in centuries governed directly by its king instead of a viceroy.
In 1814, the Crown of Savoy enlarged its territories with the addition of the formerRepublic of Genoa, now a duchy, and it served as abuffer state against France. This was confirmed by theCongress of Vienna, which returned the region ofSavoy to its borders after it had been annexed by France in 1792.[43] By theTreaty of Stupinigi (1817), the Kingdom of Sardinia extended its protectorate over thePrincipality of Monaco. In 1821, the Kingdom of Sardinia's reported population amounted to 3,974,500.[44]
In the reaction after Napoleon, the country was ruled by the conservative monarchsVictor Emmanuel I (1802–1821),Charles Felix (1821–1831), andCharles Albert (1831–1849), who fought at the head of a contingent of his own troops at theBattle of Trocadero, which set the reactionaryFerdinand VII on the Spanish throne. Victor Emmanuel I disbanded the entireCode Napoléon and returned the lands and power to the nobility and the Church. This reactionary policy went as far as discouraging the use of roads built by the French. These changes typified Sardinia.
The Kingdom of Sardinia industrialized from 1830 onward. A constitution, theStatuto Albertino, was enacted during theRevolutions of 1848 under liberal pressure. In addition to make Turin its official capital, theStatuto Albertino madeRoman Catholicism "the only State religion".[45] Earlier in 1847, the island of Sardinia, a Piedmontese dependency for more than a century, lost its own residual autonomy to the peninsula through thePerfect Fusion issued by Charles Albert. As a result, the kingdom's fundamental institutions were deeply transformed, assuming the shape of a constitutional and centralized monarchy on the French model; under the same pressure, Charles Albertdeclared war onAustria. After initial success, the war took a turn for the worse and Charles Albert was defeated byMarshal Radetzky at theBattle of Custozza (1848).
Like all the variousduchies andcity-states on theApennine peninsula and associated islands, the Kingdom of Sardinia was troubled with political instability under alternating governments. After a short and disastrous renewal of the war with Austria in 1849, Charles Albert abdicated on 23 March 1849 in favour of his sonVictor Emmanuel II. In 1852, a liberal ministry underCount Camillo Benso di Cavour was installed and the Kingdom of Sardinia became the engine drivingItalian unification. The Kingdom of Sardinia took part in theCrimean War, allied with theOttoman Empire,Britain, and France, and fighting against Russia.
In 1859, France sided with the Kingdom of Sardinia in a war againstAustria, theAustro-Sardinian War.Napoleon III did not keep his promises to Cavour to fight until all of theKingdom of Lombardy–Venetia had been conquered. Following the bloody battles ofMagenta andSolferino, both French victories, Napoleon thought the war too costly to continue and made a separate peace behind Cavour's back in which only Lombardy would be ceded. Due to the Austrian government's refusal to cede any lands to the Kingdom of Sardinia, they agreed to cedeLombardy to Napoleon, who in turn then ceded the territory to the Kingdom of Sardinia to avoid "embarrassing" the defeated Austrians. Cavour angrily resigned from office when it became clear that Victor Emmanuel would accept this arrangement.
On 5 March 1860,Piacenza,Parma, Tuscany,Modena, andRomagna voted in referendums to join the Kingdom of Sardinia. This alarmed Napoleon III, who feared a strong Savoyard state on his south-eastern border and he insisted that if the Kingdom of Sardinia were to keep the new acquisitions they would have to cede Savoy and Nice to France. This was done through theTreaty of Turin, which also called for referendums to confirm the annexation. Subsequently,somewhat controversial referendums showed over 99.5% majorities in both areas in favour of joining France.[46]
In 1860,Giuseppe Garibaldi started his campaign to conquer the southern Apennines in the name of the Kingdom of Sardinia.The Thousand quickly toppled theKingdom of the Two Sicilies, which was the largest of the states in the region, stretching fromAbruzzo andNaples on the mainland toMessina andPalermo on Sicily. He then marched toGaeta in the central peninsula. Cavour was satisfied with the unification while Garibaldi, who was too revolutionary for the king and his prime minister, also wanted to conquer Rome.
Garibaldi was disappointed in this development, as well as in the loss of his home province,Nice, to France. He also failed to fulfill the promises that had gained him popular and military support by the Sicilians: that the new nation would be a republic, not a kingdom, and that the Sicilians would see great economic gains after unification. The former did not come to pass until 1946.
On 17 March 1861, law no. 4671 of the Sardinian Parliamentproclaimed the Kingdom of Italy, so ratifying theannexations of all other Apennine states, plus Sicily, to the Kingdom of Sardinia.[47] The institutions and laws of the kingdom were quickly extended to all of Italy, abolishing the administrations of the other regions. Piedmont became the most dominant and wealthiest region in Italy and the capital of Piedmont, Turin, remained the Italian capital until 1865, when the capital was moved toFlorence. As part of theBrigandage in the Two Sicilies, many revolts exploded throughout the peninsula, especially in southern Italy and on the island of Sicily, because of the perceived unfair treatment of the south by the Piedmontese ruling class. TheHouse of Savoy ruled the Kingdom of Italy until 1946, when Italy was declared arepublic byreferendum. The result of the1946 Italian institutional referendum was 54.3% in favor of a republic.
When theDuchy of Savoy acquired theKingdom of Sicily in 1713 and the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1723, theflag of Savoy became the flag of a naval power. This posed the problem that the same flag was already in use by theKnights of Malta. Because of this, the Savoyards modified their flag for use as anaval ensign in various ways, adding the lettersFERT in the four cantons, or adding a blue border, or using a blue flag with the Savoy cross in one canton. Eventually, KingCharles Albert of Savoy adopted from Revolutionary France theItalian tricolor, surmounted by the Savoyard shield, as his flag. This flag would later become the flag of theKingdom of Italy, and the tricolor without the Savoyard escutcheon remains theflag of Italy.
^The name of the state was originallyRegnum Sardiniae orRegnum Sardiniae et Corsicae (when the kingdom was still considered to include Corsica) in Latin. It isRegno di Sardegna in Italian,Rennu de Sardigna[ˈrenːuðɛzaɾˈdiɲːa] in Sardinian,Regn ëd Sardëgna[ˈrɛɲətsarˈdəɲːa] in Piedmontese,Regnu di Sardegna in Corsican,Reino de Cerdeña in Spanish,Regne de Sardenya[ˈrɛŋnəðəsəɾˈðɛɲə] in Catalan, andRoyaume de Sardaigne in French. Despite this, everyking of Sardinia continued to retain the nominal title ofRex Corsicae (King of Corsica). The kingdom was initially calledRegnum Sardiniae et Corsicae, in that it was originally meant to also include the neighbouring island of Corsica, until its status as aGenoese land was eventually acknowledged byFerdinand II of Aragon,[1] who dropped the last original bit mentioning Corsica in 1479.[2][3] Other names used to refer to thecomposite state during the ruling of theHouse of Savoy from 1720 to 1861 (the Piedmontese part of the kingdom is referred to by historians as theSavoyard state, which represents the lands owned by the House of Savoy) include informal ones like Kingdom of Sardinia–Piedmont, Kingdom of Piedmont–Sardinia, Sardinia–Piedmont, and Piedmont–Sardinia,[4][5] and the erroneous Kingdom of Piedmont.[6]
^abCasùla, Francesco Cesare (2012).Italia. Il grande inganno. 1861–2011 (in Italian) (e-book ed.). Sassari; Ussana: Carlo Delfino Editore; Logus mondi interattivi (e-book). pp. 44–45.ISBN978-88-98062-13-3. Retrieved20 December 2024 – via Google Books.
^abCasùla, Francesco Cesare (2012).Italia. Il grande inganno. 1861–2011 (in Italian) (e-book ed.). Sassari; Ussana: Carlo Delfino Editore; Logus mondi interattivi (e-book). pp. 32–49.ISBN978-88-98062-13-3. Retrieved20 December 2024 – via Google Books.... 1479, Regno di 'Sardegna e Corsica' malgrado non rappresentasse tutta la Sardegna e malgrado la Corsica non fosse interessata ma considerata solo ambita (non sarà mai conquistata). Poi, dal 1479, si chiamo solo Regno di Sardegna ... poi solo Regno di Sardegna (fino al 1861), poi Regno d'Italia (fino al 1946), e, finalmente, Repubblica Italiana. E, tutto questo, senza alcuna soluzione di continuità. [... 1479, Kingdom of 'Sardinia and Corsica' even though it did not represent all of Sardinia and even though Corsica was not interested but only considered coveted (it will never be conquered). Then, from 1479, it was called only the Kingdom of Sardinia ... then only the Kingdom of Sardinia (until 1861), then the Kingdom of Italy (until 1946), and, finally, the Italian Republic. And, all this, without any solution of continuity.]
^Piras, Enrico (1996).Le monete della Sardegna, dal IV secolo a.C. al 1842 (in Italian). Sassari: Fondazione Banco di Sardegna. By the 14th century, the coinage minted since the establishment of the kingdom bore the reference to Sardinia only.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
^Schena, Olivetta (2012). "The Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica". In Gamberini, Andrea; Lazzarini, Isabella (eds.).The Italian Renaissance State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 50–68.ISBN978-0-511-84569-7. Retrieved19 January 2023.
^Cioppi, Alessandra (2021). "The Crown of Aragon and the Regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae in the Fourteenth Century: Comparing Institutional Identities". In Sabaté, Flocel (ed.).Identity in the Middle Ages: Approaches from Southwestern Europe. CARMEN Monographs and Studies. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 329–346.ISBN978-1-64189-259-9. Retrieved20 December 2024.
^"Sardinia, Historical Kingdom".Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20 July 1998.Archived from the original on 4 December 2024. Retrieved20 December 2024. Updated 14 November 2024 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
^Raspi, Raimondo Carta (1971).Storia della Sardegna (in Italian). Milan: Ugo Mursia Editore. Retrieved26 December 2024 – via Google Books.
^Casula, Francesco Cesare (2001)."Regno di Sardegna".Dizionario storico sardo (in Italian). Sassari: Carlo Delfino Editore. p. 70.ISBN978-88-7138-241-8.OCLC315870784. Retrieved26 December 2024 – via Internet Archive.Il regno, che dal 1475 si chiamò semplicemente Regno di Sardegna rimase giudidicamente aggregato in Corona (Corona d'Aragona, poi Corona di Spagna) fino alla fine della corona d'Aragona ... La sua storia procede fino al Risorgimento, quando, il 17 marzo 1861, ha cambiato nome in Regno d'Italia. [The kingdom, which from 1475 was simply called the Kingdom of Sardinia, remained legally aggregated in the Crown (Crown of Aragon, then Crown of Spain) until the end of the Crown of Aragon ... Its history continues until the Risorgimento, when, on 17 March 1861, it changed its name to the Kingdom of Italy.]
^Ortu, Leopoldo (2011).Storia della Sardegna dal Medioevo all'età contemporanea (in Italian) (1st ed.). Cagliari: CUEC Editrice.ISBN978-88-8467-647-4.OCLC711514132.
^Sandulli, Aldo; Vesperini, Giulio (2011)."L'organizzazione dello Stato unitario"(PDF).Rivista trimestrale di diritto pubblico (in Italian):48–95. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 2 November 2018. Retrieved19 March 2013.[At p. 94] Dall'indagine sulla legislazione del quadriennio 1861-64, innanzi svolta, trova conferma quanto affermato all'inizio e, cioè, che quello italiano non fu uno Stato nuovo, ma prevalse la continuità con le istituzioni e l'apparato amministrativo sabaudo. Si navigò a vista, senza elaborare un piano di riforme volto a costruire in modo organico e duraturo, preferendo operare per adattamenti e giustapposizioni. È emerso piuttosto chiaramente che si intese assicurare in tempi brevi la costruzione di uno Stato centrale (e periferico) forte, comprimendo gradualmente, soprattutto a seguito dell'emersione della questione meridionale, l'autonomia degli enti locali e i progetti riformatori tendenti al decentramento. [From the investigation into the legislation of the four-year period 1861–64 carried out above, what was stated at the beginning is confirmed, that is, that the Italian state was not a new one, but continuity with the institutions and the administrative apparatus of Savoy prevailed. They navigated by sight, without developing a plan of reforms aimed at building in an organic and lasting way, preferring to operate by adaptations and juxtapositions. It emerged rather clearly that the intention was to ensure in a short time the construction of a strong central (and peripheral) state, gradually compressing, especially following the emergence of the Southern Question, the autonomy of local authorities, and reform projects tending towards decentralization.]
^B. Maragonis, Annales pisani a. 1004–1175, ed. K. Pertz, in MGH, Scriptores, 19, Hannoverae, 1861/1963, pp. 236–2 and Gli Annales Pisani di Bernardo Maragone, a cura di M. L. Gentile, in Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, n.e., VI/2, Bologna 1930, pp. 4–7. "1017. Fuit Mugietus reversus in Sardineam, et cepit civitatem edificare ibi atque homines Sardos vivos in cruce murare. Et tunc Pisani et Ianuenses illuc venere, et ille propter pavorem eorum fugit in Africam. Pisani vero et Ianuenses reversi sunt Turrim, in quo insurrexerunt Ianuenses in Pisanos, et Pisani vicerunt illos et eiecerunt eos de Sardinea."
^C. Zedda-R. Pinna, La nascita dei giudicati, proposta per lo scioglimento di un enigma storiografico, su Archivio Storico Giuridico Sardo di Sassari, vol. n°12, 2007, Dipartimento di Scienze Giuridiche dell'Università di Sassari
^F. Pinna, Le testimonianze archeologiche relative ai rapporti tra gli Arabi e la Sardegna nel medioevo, in Rivista dell'Istituto di storia dell'Europa mediterranea, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, n°4, 2010
^Archeological museum of Cagliari, from Santa Sofia church in Villasor
^Georg Heinrich (ed.), MGH, Scriptores, Hannoverae, 1863, XVIII, pp. 56–96."Antiquitas nostra primum Calarense iudicatum, quod tunc erat caput tocius Sardinie, armis subiugavit, et regem Sardinie Musaitum nomine civitati Ianue captum adduxerunt, quem per episcopum qui tunc Ianue erat, aule sacri palatii in Alamanniam mandaverunt, intimantes regnum illius nuper esse additum ditioni Romani imperii." –Oberti Cancellarii,Annales p. 71.
^Crónica del califa 'Abd ar-Rahmân III an-Nâsir entre los años 912–942,(al-Muqtabis V), édicion. a cura de P. CHALMETA – F. CORRIENTE, Madrid, 1979, p. 365 "Tuesday, August 24th 942 (A.D.), a messenger of the Lord of the island of Sardinia appeared at the gate of al-Nasir ... asking for a treaty of peace and friendship. With him were the merchants, people Malfat, known in al-Andalus as from Amalfi, with the whole range of their precious goods, ingots of pure silver, brocades etc. ... transactions which drew gain and great benefits"
^Constantini Porphyrogeneti De caerimoniis aulae Byzantinae, in Patrologia cursus completus. Series Graeca CXII, Paris 1857
^Roberto Coroneo, Scultura mediobizantina in Sardegna, Nuoro, Poliedro, 2000
^Roberto Coroneo, Arte in Sardegna dal IV alla metà dell'XI secolo, edizioni AV, Cagliari 2011
^Ferrer, Eduardo Blasco (1984).Storia Linguistica Della Sardegna, p. 65, De Gruyter
^Besta, Enrico (1933)."Giudicati".Enciclopedia Italiana (in Italian). Retrieved20 December 2024.
^Doria, Barisone.Archivo de la Corona d'Aragon. Colleccion de documentos inéditos (in Spanish). Vol. XLVIII.La senyoria no la tenim ne havem haùda ne del rey ne da regina, e no som tenguts a rey ne a regina axi com eren los dits harons de Sicilia, abans de la dita senyoria e domini obtenim per Madonna Elionor, nostra muller, che és jutgessa d'Arborea e filla e succehidora per son pare per lo jutgat d'Arborea, la qual Casa d'Arborea ha D anys que ha hauda senyioria en la present illa [We had our lordship not from any king or queen and have not to be loyal to any king or queen as sicilian Barons, because we had our lordship from Madonna Elionor, our wife, who is Lady Judge (Juighissa in Sardinian) of Arborea, daughter and successor of her father of the Judicate of Arborea, and this House of Arborea has reigned for five hundreds years in this island.]
^G. Seche, "L'incoronazione di Barisone 'Re di Sardegna' in due fonti contemporanee: gli Annales genovesi e gli Annales pisani", inRivista dell'Istituto di storia dell'Europa mediterranea, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, no. 4, 2010.
^Dino Punchu (ed.), "I Libri Iurium della Repubblica de Genova", Ministero per i Beni Culturali e Ambientali, Rome, 1996, no. 390, p. 334.
^Geronimo Zurita,Los cinco libros postreros de la segunda parte de los Anales de la Corona d'Aragon, Oficino de Domingo de Portonaris y Ursono, Zaragoza, 1629, libro XVII, pp. 75–76.
^"N/A".The Spectator. 7 May 1831. p. 8. Retrieved26 December 2024 – via The Spectator Archive.
^Ingrassia, Giorgia; Blasco Ferrer, Eduardo, eds. (2009).Storia della lingua sarda (in Italian). Vol. 3. Sassari: Cuec Editrice.ISBN978-8-88467-543-9.
^Wells, H.G., Raymond Postgate, and G.P. Wells.The Outline of History, Being a Plain History of Life and Mankind. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1956. p. 753[ISBN missing]
^Seiwert, Hubert (2011).Religious Intolerance and Discrimination in Selected European Countries. Münster: LIT Verlag Münster. p. 166.ISBN978-3-643-99894-1. Retrieved23 December 2024 – via Google Books.In 1848, the Statute or constitution issued by King Carlo Alberto for the kingdom of Sardinia (better known as Piedmont, from its capital in Turin) proclaimed 'the only State religion' the Roman Catholic one.
Romani, Roberto (2018). "The Reason of the Elites: Constitutional Moderatism in the Kingdom of Sardinia, 1849–1861". InSensibilities of the Risorgimento. Brill. pp. 192–244.
Schena, Olivetta (2019). "The Role Played by Towns in Parliamentary Commissions in the Kingdom of Sardinia in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth centuries".Parliaments, Estates and Representation. '39 (3): 304–315.
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