a.^ Was formally declaredConducător (literally, "Leader") of the state on 6 September 1940, by a royal decree which consecrated a ceremonial role for the monarch.[3]
b.^ Area and population according to Ioan Suciu,Istoria contemporana a României (1918–2005).[4]
c.^ The indicator for the localities of Romania (1941).[5]
d.^ 1938 GDP in lei amounting to 387.204 billion (20,487 lei per capita at an estimated population of 18.9 million[6]) at the 1938 average exchange rate of 1 leu for $0.00732.[7]
With the exception of the southern halves ofBukovina andTransylvania, these territories were ceded to neighboring countries in 1940, under the pressure ofNazi Germany or theSoviet Union. Following the abolishment of the 1923 constitution byKing Carol II in 1938, the Kingdom of Romania became anabsolute monarchy, only to become amilitary dictatorship underIon Antonescu in 1940 after the forced abdication of King Carol II, with his successor,King Michael I being a figurehead with no effective political power. The country's name was changed toLegionary Romania.
On 11 (O.S.) / 23 February 1866 a so-called "monstrous coalition", composed of Conservatives and radical Liberals, forced Cuza to abdicate. TheGerman prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was appointed as Prince of Romania, in a move to assure German backing to unity and future independence. He immediately adopted the Romanian spelling of his name,Carol, and his cognatic descendants would rule Romania until the overthrow of the monarchy in 1947.
For more than a decade after the formal union of the two principalities, Romania was still nominally a vassal of the Ottoman Empire. However, this was increasingly a legal fiction. Romania had its own flag and anthem, and from 1867 had its own currency as well. Following theRusso-Turkish War of 1877–1878, Romania was recognized as an independent state by theTreaty of Berlin, 1878 and acquiredDobruja, although it was forced to surrender southern Bessarabia (Budjak) to Russia. On 15 March 1881, as an assertion of full sovereignty, theRomanian parliament raised the country to the status of a kingdom, and Carol was crowned king on 10 May.
Proclamation Act of the Kingdom of Romania
The new state, squeezed between theOttoman,Austro-Hungarian, andRussian Empires, with Slavic populations on its southwestern, southern, and northeastern borders, the Black Sea due east, andHungarian neighbours on its western and northwestern borders, looked to the West, particularly France, for its cultural, educational, and administrative models.[10][11]
Abstaining from theInitial Balkan War against theOttoman Empire, the Kingdom of Romania entered theSecond Balkan War in June 1913 against theTsardom of Bulgaria. 330,000 Romanian troops moved across the Danube and into Bulgaria. One army occupiedSouthern Dobruja and another moved into northern Bulgaria to threaten Sofia, helping to bring an end to the war. Romania thus acquired the ethnically mixed territory of Southern Dobruja, which it had desired for years.
In 1916 Romania enteredWorld War I on theEntente side. Romania engaged in a conflict againstBulgaria but as a result Bulgarian forces, after a series of successful battles, regainedDobruja, which had been previously ceded from Bulgaria by the treaty of Bucharest and theBerlin congress. Although the Romanian forces did not fare well militarily, by the end of the war the Austrian and Russian empires were gone; various assemblies proclaimed as representative bodies inTransylvania,Bessarabia andBukovina decided on union with Romania. In 1919 by theTreaty of Saint-Germain and in 1920 by theTreaty of Trianon most of the territories claimed were assigned to Romania.
TheRomanian Old Kingdom (Romanian:Vechiul Regat or justRegat; German:Regat orAltreich) is a colloquial term referring to the territory covered by the first independent Romaniannation state, which was composed of theDanubian Principalities – Wallachia and Moldavia. It was achieved when, under the auspices of theTreaty of Paris (1856), thead hoc Divans of both countries – which were underImperial Ottomansuzerainty at the time – voted forAlexander Ioan Cuza as their prince, thus achieving ade facto unification. The region itself is defined by the result of that political act, followed by the inclusion ofNorthern Dobruja in 1878, the proclamation of the Kingdom of Romania in 1881, and the annexation ofSouthern Dobruja in 1913.
1901 German map of Romania
The term came into use after World War I, when the Old Kingdom was opposed toGreater Romania, which included Transylvania,Banat, Bessarabia, and Bukovina. Nowadays, the term is mainly of historical relevance, and is otherwise used as a common term for all regions in Romania included in both the Old Kingdom and present-day borders (namely: Wallachia, Moldavia, and Northern Dobruja).
Romania delayed in entering World War I, but ultimately declared war on the Central Powers in 1916. TheRomanian military campaign ended in stalemate when the Central Powers quickly crushed the country'soffensive into Transylvania and occupied Wallachia and Dobruja, including Bucharest and the strategically important oil fields, by the end of 1916. In 1917, despite fierce Romanian resistance, especially at theBattle of Mărășești, due to Russia's withdrawal from the war following theOctober Revolution, Romania, being almost completely surrounded by the Central Powers, was forced to also drop from the war, signing theArmistice of Focșani and next year, in May 1918, theTreaty of Bucharest. But after the successful offensive on theThessaloniki front which put Bulgaria out of the war, Romania's government quickly reasserted control and put an army back into the field on 10 November 1918, a day before the war ended in Western Europe. Following the proclamation of theunion of Transylvania with the Kingdom of Romania on 1 December 1918 by the representatives of Transylvanian Romanians gathered atAlba Iulia, Transylvania was soon united with the Kingdom, as wasBessarabia earlier in 1918, since the power vacuum in Russia caused by the civil war there allowed theSfatul Țării, or National Council, to proclaim theunion of Bessarabia with Romania.War with the Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919 resulted in the occupation of Budapest by Romanian troops and the end ofBéla Kun's Bolshevik regime.
At theParis Peace Conference, Romania received the territories ofTransylvania, part of Banat and other territories fromHungary, as well as Bessarabia (Eastern Moldavia betweenPrut andDniester rivers) and Bukovina. In theTreaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favor of Romania all the claims of theAustro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania.[12] The union of Romania withBukovina was ratified in 1919 in theTreaty of Saint Germain,[13] and in 1920 some of the Western powers recognized Romanian rule over Bessarabia by theTreaty of Paris.[14] Thus, Romania in 1920 was more than twice the size it had been in 1914. The last territorial change during this period came in 1923, when a few border settlements were exchanged between Romania andKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The most notable Romanian acquisition was the town ofJimbolia, while the most notable Yugoslav acquisition was the town ofJaša Tomić.[15][16]
Romania made no further territorial claims; nonetheless the kingdom's expansion aroused enmity from several of its neighbors, including Bulgaria, the Soviet Union, and especially Hungary.[a]Greater Romania now had a significant minority population, especially ofHungarians, and faced the difficulty of assimilation. Transylvania had significant Hungarian and German population who were accustomed to being the power structure; with a historically contemptuous[citation needed] attitude towards Romanians, they now feared reprisals. Both groups were effectively excluded from politics as the postwar regime passed an edict stating that all personnel employed by the state had to speak Romanian. The new state was also a highly centralized one, so it was unlikely that the Hungarian or German minorities would exercise political influence without personal connections in the government in Bucharest. Despite these policies, the Romanian government permitted both Germans and Hungarians the freedom to have separate schools, publications and judicial hearings in their respective languages.[citation needed] These rights were not extended to other minorities, Jews in particular.[citation needed]
Ethnic map of Romanians within the Kingdom of Hungary in 1890
The resultingGreat Union did not survive World War II. Until 1938, Romania's governments maintained the form, if not always the substance, of a liberal constitutional monarchy. TheNational Liberal Party, dominant in the years immediately after World War I, became increasinglyclientelist andnationalist, and in 1927 was supplanted in power by theNational Peasants' Party. Between 1930 and 1940 there were over 25 separate governments; on several occasions in the last few years before World War II, the rivalry between the fascistIron Guard and other political groupings approached the level of a civil war.[citation needed]
Upon the death of KingFerdinand in 1927, his son,Prince Carol, was prevented from succeeding him because of previous marital scandals that had resulted in his renunciation of rights to the throne. After living three years in exile, with his brother Nicolae serving as regent and his young sonMichael as king, Carol changed his mind and with the support of the ruling National Peasants' Party he returned and proclaimed himself king.
Iuliu Maniu, leader of the National Peasants' Party, engineered Carol's return on the basis of a promise that he would forsake his mistressMagda Lupescu, and Lupescu herself had agreed to the arrangement. However, it became clear upon Carol's first re-encounter with his former wife,Elena, that he had no interest in a reconciliation with her, and Carol soon arranged for Magda Lupescu's return to his side. Her unpopularity was a millstone around Carol's neck for the rest of his reign, particularly because she was widely viewed as his closest advisor and confidante. Maniu and his National Peasant Party shared the same general political aims as the Iron Guard: both fought against the corruption and dictatorial policies of King Carol II and the National Liberal Party.[19]
Theworldwide Great Depression that started in 1929 andwas also present in Romania destabilised the country. The early 1930s were marked by social unrest, high unemployment, and strikes. In several instances, the Romanian government violently repressed strikes and riots, notably the 1929 miners' strike inValea Jiului and the strike in theGrivița railroad workshops. In the mid-1930s, the Romanian economy recovered and the industry grew significantly, although about 80% of Romanians were still employed in agriculture. French economic and political influence was predominant in the early 1920s but then Germany became more dominant, especially in the 1930s.[20]
Romanian pavilion at EXPO Paris 1937
As the 1930s progressed, Romania's already shaky democracy slowly deteriorated towardfascist dictatorship. The constitution of 1923 gave the king free rein to dissolve parliament and call elections at will; as a result, Romania experienced over 25 governments in a single decade.
Increasingly, these governments were dominated by a number ofanti-Semitic, ultra-nationalist, and mostly at least quasi-fascist parties. TheNational Liberal Party steadily became more nationalistic than liberal, but nonetheless lost its dominance over Romanian politics. It was eclipsed by parties like the (relatively moderate) National Peasants' Party and its more radicalRomanian Front offshoot, theNational-Christian Defense League (LANC) and theIron Guard. In 1935, LANC merged with theNational Agrarian Party to form theNational Christian Party (NCP). The quasi-mystical fascist Iron Guard was an earlier LANC offshoot that, even more than these other parties, exploited nationalist feelings, fear of communism, and resentment of alleged foreign and Jewish domination of the economy.
Already the Iron Guard had embraced the politics of assassination, and various governments had reacted more or less in kind. On 10 December 1933, Liberal prime ministerIon Duca "dissolved" the Iron Guard, arresting thousands; consequently, 19 days later he was assassinated by Iron Guard legionnaires.
Throughout the 1930s, these nationalist parties had a mutually distrustful relationship with King Carol II. Nonetheless, in December 1937, the king appointed National Christian Party leader, the poetOctavian Goga, as prime minister of Romania's firstFascist government. Around this time, Carol met withAdolf Hitler, who expressed his wish to see a Romanian government headed by the pro-Nazi Iron Guard. Instead, on 10 February 1938 King Carol II used the occasion of a public insult by Goga toward Lupescu as a reason to dismiss the government and institute a short-lived royal dictatorship, sanctioned 17 days later by a new constitution under which the king named personally not only the prime minister but all the ministers.
In April 1938, King Carol had Iron Guard leaderCorneliu Zelea Codreanu (aka "The Captain") arrested and imprisoned. On the night of 29–30 November 1938, Codreanu and several other legionnaires were killed while purportedly attempting to escape from prison. It is generally agreed that there was no such escape attempt, but that they were murdered in retaliation for a series of assassinations by Iron Guard commandos.
The royal dictatorship was brief. On 7 March 1939, a new government was formed withArmand Călinescu as prime minister; on 21 September 1939, three weeks after the start of World War II, Călinescu, in turn, was also assassinated by legionnaires avenging Codreanu's murder.
In 1939, Germany and theSoviet Union signed theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which stipulated, among other things, the Soviet "interest" in Bessarabia. After the 1940 territorial losses and growing increasingly unpopular, Carol was compelled to abdicate and name generalIon Antonescu as the new Prime-Minister with full powers in ruling the state by royal decree.[21]
At the time of the proclamation of the Kingdom, there were already several industrial facilities in the country: The Assan and Olamazusteam mills, built in 1853 and 1862 respectively, a brick factory built in 1865, and two sugar factories built in 1873, among others. In 1857, the first oil refinery in the world was built atPloiești.[22] In 1880, after several railways were built, theCFR was founded. After proclamation of the Kingdom, the pre-established industrial facilities began to be highly developed: 6 more, larger, sugar factories were built and the railway network was expanded more. Another, more modern brick factory was built in 1891.[23]
Despite all of these industrial achievements, the overwhelming majority of Romania's economy remained agricultural.[23] In 1919, a staggering 72% of Romanians were engaged in agriculture. The Romanian peasantry was among the poorest in the region, a situation aggravated by one of Europe's highest birth rates. Farming was primitive and machinery and chemical fertilizers almost unheard of. The Regat (prewar Romania) was traditionally a land of large estates worked by peasants who either had little or no land of their own. The situation in Transylvania and Bessarabia was marginally better. After peasant calls for land reform snowballed into an avalanche, King Ferdinand had to oblige, especially once the Russian Revolution had encouraged peasants to take the matter in their own hands.The land reform passed in 1921 accomplished little however. Large landowners still controlled up to 30% of Romania's land, including the forests peasants depended on for fuel. The redistributed plots were invariably too small to feed their owners and most peasants could not overcome their tradition of growing grain over cash crops. Nothing was done to remedy basic problems such as rural overpopulation and technological backwardness. Draft animals were rare, to say nothing of machinery, actual productivity was worse than before. Romanian agriculture struggled in the international market,[citation needed] and with the onset ofthe Great Depression, collapsed completely.
Romania's 1913 GDP at the 1990 exchange rate amounted to $11.7 billion.[24] However, the 1990 dollar was 9.27 times weaker than the 1938 dollar.[25] Thus, Romania's 1913 GDP at the 1938 exchange rate amounted to $1.262 billion.
The 1938 Romanian GDP amounted to 387.204 billion lei, with a GDP per capita of 20,487 lei at an estimated population of 18.9 million.[6] The 1938 average exchange rate was of 1leu for US$0.00732.[7] Romania's 1938 GDP thus amounted to $2.834 billion.
Romania's public debt as of 1 April 1938 amounted to 112,267,290,144 lei, of which 78,398,078,964 lei consisted of external debt.[26] Total public debt thus amounted to 29% of Romania's 1938 GDP, while public external debt amounted to just over 20%.
The Malaxa Prime, a Romanian-made steel-wrought locomotive
Despite the destruction provoked by the First World War, Romanian industry managed significant growth, as a result of new establishments and development of the older ones. TheMALAXA industrial engineering and manufacturing company was established in 1921 by Romanian industrialistNicolae Malaxa and dealt especially with rolling stock maintenance and manufacturing.[27] It developed rapidly, and by 1930 Romania had managed to cease importing locomotives altogether, all required rolling stock being supplied by the local industry.[citation needed] Industrial facilities acquired along with the new provinces, such as theReșița works, also contributed to the rapid development of Romanian heavy industry. Other important establishments were theCopșa Mică works, producing non-ferrous metals and theRomanian Optical Enterprise. Construction also developed, as great monuments like theCaraiman Cross (1928),Arcul de Triumf (1936), and theMausoleum of Mărășești (1938) were erected. The oil industry was also greatly expanded, making Romania one of the top oil exporters by the late 1930s, which also attracted German and Italianinterest.
In 1938, Romania produced 6.6 million tons of crude oil, 284,000 tons of crude steel, 133,000 tons ofpig iron, 510,000 tons of cement, and 289,000 tons of rolled steel.[28]
Romanian military industry duringWorld War I was mainly focused on converting various fortification guns into field and anti-aircraft artillery. Up to 334 German 53 mmFahrpanzer guns, 93 French 57 mm Hotchkiss guns, 66 Krupp 150 mm guns and dozens more 210 mm guns were mounted on Romanian-builtcarriages and transformed into mobile field artillery, with 45 Krupp 75 mm guns and 132 Hotchkiss 57 mm guns being transformed into anti-aircraft artillery. The Romanians alsoupgraded 120 German Krupp 105 mm howitzers, the result being the most effective field howitzer in Europe at that time. Romania even managed to design and build from scratch its own model of mortar, the 250 mm Negrei Model 1916.[29] Other Romanian technological assets include the building ofVlaicu III, the world's first aircraft made of metal.[30] The Romanian Navy possessed the largest warships on the Danube. They were a class of 4 river monitors, built locally at theGalați shipyard using parts manufactured in Austria-Hungary, and the first one launched wasLascăr Catargiu, in 1907.[31][32] The Romanian monitors displaced almost 700 tons, were armed with three 120 mm naval guns in 3 turrets, two 120 mm naval howitzers, four 47 mm anti-aircraft guns and two 6.5 machine guns.[33] The monitors took part in theBattle of Turtucaia and theFirst Battle of Cobadin. The Romanian-designed Schneider 150 mm Model 1912 howitzer was considered one of the most modern field guns on the Western Front.[34]
The Romanian armament industry was expanded greatly during the Interwar period and World War II. New factories were constructed, such as theIndustria Aeronautică Română andSocietatea Pentru Exploatări Tehnice aircraft factories, which produced hundreds of indigenous aircraft, such asIAR 37,IAR 80, andSET 7. Before the war, Romania acquired from France the licence to produce hundreds ofBrandt Mle 27/31 andBrandt Mle 1935 mortars, with hundreds more produced during the war,[35] and also the licence to produce 140 French 47 mm Schneider anti-tank guns at the Concordia factory, with 118 produced between 26 May 1939 and 1 August 1940 and hundreds more produced during the war;[36][37] these guns were to be towed byMalaxa Tip UE armored carriers, built since late 1939 at the Malaxa factory under French licence, eventually 126 being built until March 1941. Czechoslovak licence was acquired in 1938 to produce theZB vz. 30 machine gun, with 5,000 being built at the Cugir gun factory until the start ofOperation Barbarossa in June 1941.[38] Romania also acquired the licence to produce theR-1 tankette, but ultimately only one prototype was built locally.[39] German licence was acquired in 1938 to produce 36037 mm Rheinmetall anti-aircraft guns, but only 102 were produced until May 1941.[38] British licence was acquired to produce 100Vickers Model 1931 75 mm anti-aircraft guns at theReșița works, with the first battery of 6 guns entering service on 1 August 1939, and 100 more guns were built during the war for a total production of 200.[38] On 14 June, Romania launched the first locally-built warship, the minelayerNMS Amiral Murgescu.
While the Romanian nobility had a long tradition of sending their sons to Europe's finest schools, the educated were otherwise a tiny minority. Transylvania had the most educated population in Greater Romania, while Bessarabia fared the worst. While legally all Romanians were required to undergo at least four years of schooling, in practice few actually did and the system was designed to separate those who would go on to higher education from those who would not. While this was partially necessary due to limited resources, it ensured that peasants had almost no chance of becoming educated.[citation needed]
High school and college education in Romania was modeled after the French system. Students undertook a rigid curriculum based around the liberal arts. Romania suffered from the same problem as the rest of Eastern Europe, which was that most students, coming from aristocratic backgrounds, preferred to study subjects such as theology, philosophy, literature and the fine arts over science, business, and engineering.[citation needed]
After Independence, the Romanian Old Kingdom was divided into 33 counties.
After World War I, as a result of the 1925 administrative unification law, the territory was divided into 71 counties, 489 districts (plăși) and 8,879communes.
In 1938,King Carol II promulgated a newConstitution, and subsequently he had the administrative division of the Romanian territory changed. Tenținuturi (approximate translation: "lands") were created (by merging the counties) to be ruled byrezidenți regali (approximate translation: "Royal Residents") - appointed directly by the King. This administrative reform did not last and the counties were re-established after the fall of Carol's regime.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after theSecond Balkan War andWorld War I but were lost afterWorld War II, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after World War I and remained so after World War II.Timeline of the borders of Romania between 1859 and 2010
Formal union of Moldavia and Wallachia to form principality of Romania.
• 1866 –
Cuza forced to abdicate and a foreign dynasty is established. Carol I signed the first modern Constitution.
• 1877 –
16 April. Treaty by which the Russian troops are allowed to pass through Romanian territory 24 April. Russia declares war on the Ottoman Empire and its troops enter Romania 9 May. Romanian independence declared by the Romanian parliament, start ofRomanian War of Independence 10 May.Carol I ratifies independence declaration
• 1878 –
UnderTreaty of Berlin, Ottoman Empire recognizes Romanian independence. Romania ceded southern Bessarabia to Russia.
Leaders of the Transylvanian Romanians who senta Memorandum to the Austrian Emperor demanding national rights for the Romanians are found guilty of treason.
Death of Carol I, succeeded by his nephewFerdinand.
• 1916 –
August. Romania entersWorld War I on theEntente side. December.Romanian Treasure sent to Russia for safekeeping but was seized by Soviets after the Romanian army refused to withdraw from Bessarabia.
1 December. Theunion of Transylvania with Romania is declared. This day concludes a series of unifications between the Kingdom of Romania and its claimedhistorical regions. However, the terms of these proclamations (and, subsequently, the materialization of theGreater Romania ideal) would only be de facto recognized 2 years later, following theTreaty of Trianon.
By theTreaty of Versailles, Romania agreed to grant citizenship to the former citizens of Russian and Austro-Hungarian Empires living in the new Romanian territories.[dubious –discuss]
• 1919 –
A military conflict occurs between Romania and Hungarian Soviet Republic led byBéla Kun. The Romanian Army takes overBudapest on 4 August 1919. The city is ruled by a military administration until 16 November 1919. TheTreaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye officially assigns Bukovina to Romania.
Liberal Electoral Law adopted. Franco-Romanian Treaty.
• 1927 –
The National Peasants' Party takes over the government from the National Liberal Party. The Legion of the Archangel Michael, later the Iron Guard, splits from LANC. Michael (Mihai) becomes king under aregency regime.
16 February. Grivița Railcar Workshops strike violently put down by police. 10 December. Prime MinisterIon Duca "dissolves" the Iron Guard, arresting thousands; 19 days later he is assassinated by Iron Guard legionnaires.
• 1935 –
LANC and National Agrarian Party merge to form the fascist National Christian Party (NCP).
• 1937 –
Electoral "non-aggression pact" between the National Peasants' Party and Iron Guard, later adding the Agrarian Union. Romanian Communist Party denounces pact, but, in practice, supports the National-Peasants. LANC forms government, but is rapidly in conflict with Carol II overhis Jewish mistress.
• 1938 –
10 February. Royal dictatorship declared. New constitution adopted 27 February. 29–30 November. Iron Guard leader Codreanu and other legionnaires shot on the King's orders.
6 September. After the forced abdication of King Carol II, his 19-year-old son Michael I assumes the throne, being obliged to grant dictatorial powers to Prime Minister andConducătorIon Antonescu. 14 September. The Kingdom of Romania is supplanted by a short-lived dictatorship called theNational Legionary State.
^The Treaty of Paris – recognizing the union with Bessarabia – never came into effect because one of its signatories, Japan, refused to ratify it. This meant that the union was not recognized by the international community, making it – unlike the other provinces – more of ade facto union than an official,de jure one.[17] Furthermore, PresidentWoodrow Wilson left the peace conference to emphasize his disagreements earlier in 1919, and because the U.S. Congress did not ratify theTreaty of Trianon, the United States of America and the Kingdom of Hungary signed a separate peace treaty on 29 August 1921.[18]
^"Constitutiunea din 1923" (in Romanian). Legislatie pentru Democratie.Archived from the original on 17 January 2014. Retrieved19 September 2011.
^Bataković, Dušan T. (2011).Minorities in the Balkans: State policy and interethnic relations (1804 - 2004): Les minorites dans les Balkans. Balkanološki institut SANU. p. 98.ISBN9788671790680.
^Dan Petre,Hotarele românismului în date (Ed. Litera Internațional, București, 2005), pp. 106–107
^Peter Jordan (1989),Atlas Ost- und Südosteuropa: aktuelle Karten zu Ökologie, Bevölkerung und Wirtschaft, Issue 2, Österreichisches Ost- und Südosteuropa-Institut, p. 27
^Takako Ueta, Eric Remacle, Peter Lang (2005),Japan and Enlarged Europe: Partners in Global Governance, p. 81
^1921. évi XLVIII. törvénycikk az Amerikai Egyesült-Államokkal 1921. évi augusztus hó 29. napján Budapesten kötött békeszerződés becikkelyezéséről - XLVIII. Act of 1921 about the enactment the peace treaty signed in Budapest on 29. August 1921 with the United States of America -http://www.1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3¶m=7504Archived 21 September 2017 at theWayback Machine
^William A. Hoisington Jr, "The Struggle for Economic Influence in Southeastern Europe: The French Failure in Romania, 1940."Journal of Modern History 43.3 (1971): 468-482.
^Adrian Storea, Gheorghe Băjenaru,Artileria română în date și imagini (Romanian artillery in data and pictures), pp. 40, 49, 50, 54, 59, 61, 63, 65 and 66 (in Romanian)
^Jozef Wilczynski,Technology in Comecon: Acceleration of Technological Progress Through Economic Planning and the Market, p. 243
^International Naval Research Organization,Warship International, Volume 21, p. 160
^Frederick Thomas Jane,Jane's Fighting Ships, p. 343
^Robert Gardiner,Conway's All the World Fighting Ships 1906–1921, p. 422
^Adrian Storea, Gheorghe Băjenaru,Artileria română în date și imagini (Romanian artillery in data and pictures), p. 53 (in Romanian)
^Third Axis. Fourth Ally. Romanian Armed Forces in the European War, 1941-1945, pp. 29, 30, 75 and 147
^Dan Ovidiu Pintilie,Istoricul societății Concordia 1907-1948, p. 142 (in Romanian)
^abThird Axis. Fourth Ally. Romanian Armed Forces in the European War, 1941-1945, p. 75
^abcThird Axis. Fourth Ally. Romanian Armed Forces in the European War, 1941-1945, p. 29
^Charles K. Kliment, Vladimir Francev,Czechoslovak Armored Fighting Vehicles, pp. 113-134
^abcSteven J. Zaloga,Tanks of Hitler's Eastern Allies 1941-45, p. 31
^Third Axis. Fourth Ally. Romanian Armed Forces in the European War, 1941-1945, p. 220
^Spencer C. Tucker,World War II at Sea: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia, p. 633
^Populaţia pe Neamuri (in Romanian). Institutul Central de Statistică. 16 July 2008. pp. XXIV.Archived from the original on 2 March 2014. Retrieved27 October 2011.
Great Britain. Admiralty.A handbook of Roumania (1920) primary source that focuses on prewar economy and societyonline free
Treptow, Kurt W.A history of Romania (1996).
Raluca Goleșteanu-Jacobs,Habsburg Galicia and the Romanian Kingdom Sociocultural Development, 1866–1914 (2023), Routledge, Poland-Transnational Histories
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