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Kingdom of Pontus | |||||||||
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| 281 BC–62 AD | |||||||||
 The Pontic empire at its height: before the reign of Mithridates VI (dark purple), after his early conquests (purple), and his conquests in the first Mithridatic Wars (pink) | |||||||||
| Status |
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| Capital | Amaseia,Sinope 40°39′0″N35°50′0″E / 40.65000°N 35.83333°E /40.65000; 35.83333 | ||||||||
| Common languages | Greek (official after 3rd century BC,[1] coastal cities) Persian, Armenian (after 115 BC) andAnatolian languages (regional and dynastic) | ||||||||
| Religion | Syncretic, incorporatingGreek polytheism,Iranian religion, and local Anatolian religion. | ||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||
| Basileus | |||||||||
• 281–266 BC | Mithridates I Ktistes | ||||||||
• 266–250 BC | Ariobarzanes | ||||||||
• c. 250–220 BC | Mithridates II | ||||||||
• c. 220–185 BC | Mithridates III | ||||||||
• c. 185 – c. 170 BC | Pharnaces I | ||||||||
• c. 170 – 150 BC | Mithridates IV andLaodice | ||||||||
• c. 150 – 120 BC | Mithridates V Euergetes | ||||||||
• 120–63 BC | Mithridates VI Eupator | ||||||||
• 63–47 BC | Pharnaces II | ||||||||
• 47–37 BC | Darius | ||||||||
• 37 BC | Arsaces | ||||||||
• 37–8 BC | Polemon I | ||||||||
• 8 BC – 38 AD | Pythodorida | ||||||||
• 38 AD – 62 AD | Polemon II | ||||||||
| History | |||||||||
• Founded byMithridates I | 281 BC | ||||||||
• Conquered byPompey of theRoman Republic, remained as a client state (eastern part of the kingdom). | 63 BC | ||||||||
• Annexed by theRoman Empire under EmperorNero. | 62 AD | ||||||||
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Pontus (Ancient Greek:ΠόντοςPontos) was aHellenistic kingdom centered in the historical region ofPontus in modern-dayTurkey, and ruled by theMithridatic dynasty ofPersian origin,[2][3][4][1] which may have been directly related toDarius the Great of theAchaemenid dynasty.[5][1] The kingdom was proclaimed byMithridates I in 281 BC[6] and lasted until its conquest by theRoman Republic in 63 BC.[7] The Kingdom of Pontus reached its greatest extent underMithridates VI the Great, who conqueredColchis,Cappadocia,Bithynia, theGreek colonies of theTauric Chersonesos, and for a brief time the Roman province ofAsia. After a long struggle with Rome in theMithridatic Wars, Pontus was defeated.[8]
The kingdom had three cultural strands, which often fused together: Greek (mostly on the coast), Persian, and Anatolian,[9][1] withGreek becoming the official language in the 3rd century BC.[2]
The Kingdom of Pontus was divided into two distinct areas: the coastal region and the Pontic interior. The coastal region bordering the Black Sea was separated from the mountainous inland area by thePontic Alps, which run parallel to the coast. The river valleys of Pontus also ran parallel to the coast and were quite fertile, supporting cattle herds,millet, and fruit trees, includingcherry,apple, andpear. (Cherry andCerasus are probablycognates.) The coastal region was dominated by Greek cities such asAmastris and Sinope, which became the Pontic capital after its capture. The coast was rich in timber, fishing, and olives. Pontus was also rich iniron andsilver, which were mined near the coast south ofPharnacia; steel from the Chalybian mountains became quite famous in Greece. There were alsocopper,lead,zinc andarsenic. The Pontic interior also had fertile river valleys such as the riverLycus and Iris. The major city of the interior wasAmasia, the early Pontic capital, where the Pontic kings had their palace and royal tombs. BesidesAmasia and a few other cities, the interior was dominated mainly by small villages. The kingdom of Pontus was divided into districts named Eparchies.[10]
The division between coast and interior was also cultural. The coast was mainly Greek and focused on sea trade. The interior was occupied by the Anatolian Cappadocians and Paphlagonians ruled by an Iranian aristocracy that went back to the Persian empire. The interior also had powerful temples with large estates. The gods of the Kingdom were mostly syncretic, with features of local gods along with Persian and Greek deities. Major gods included the PersianAhuramazda, who was termedZeus Stratios; the moon godMen Pharnacou; and Ma (interpreted as Cybele).[11]
Sun gods were particularly popular, with the royal house being identified with the Persian god Ahuramazda of the Achaemenid dynasty; bothApollo andMithras were worshipped by the Kings. Indeed, the name used by the majority of the Pontic kings was Mithridates, which means "given by Mithras".[12] Pontic culture represented a synthesis between Iranian, Anatolian and Greek elements, with the former two mostly associated with the interior parts, and the latter more so with the coastal region. By the time of Mithridates VI Eupator, Greek was the official language of the Kingdom, thoughAnatolian languages continued to be spoken in the interior.[13][1]
The region of Pontus was originally part of the Persian satrapy ofCappadocia (Katpatuka).[14] The Persian dynasty which was to found this kingdom had, during the 4th century BC, ruled the Greek city ofCius (or Kios) inMysia, with its first known member being Mithridates of Cius.[15] His sonAriobarzanes II became satrap ofPhrygia. He became a strong ally ofAthens and revolted againstArtaxerxes, but was betrayed by his sonMithridates II of Cius.[16] Mithridates II remained as ruler after Alexander's conquests and was a vassal toAntigonus I Monophthalmus, who briefly ruled Asia Minor after thePartition of Triparadisus. Mithridates was killed by Antigonus in 302 BC under suspicion that he was working with his enemyCassander. Antigonus planned to kill Mithridates' son, also calledMithridates (later named Ktistes, 'founder') butDemetrius I warned him and he escaped to the east with six horsemen.[17] Mithridates first went to the city of Cimiata inPaphlagonia and later toAmasya in Cappadocia. He ruled from 302 to 266 BC, fought againstSeleucus I and, in 281 (or 280) BC, declared himself king (basileus) of a state in northern Cappadocia and eastern Paphlagonia. He further expanded his kingdom to the river Sangrius in the west. His son Ariobarzanes capturedAmastris in 279, its first important Black sea port. Mithridates also allied with the newly arrivedGalatians and defeated a force sent against him byPtolemy I. Ptolemy had been expanding his territory in Asia Minor since the beginning of theFirst Syrian war against Antiochus in the mid-270s and was allied with Mithridates' enemy,Heraclea Pontica.[18]
We know little ofAriobarzanes' short reign, except that when he died his son Mithridates II (c. 250—189) became king and was attacked by the Galatians. Mithridates II received aid fromHeraclea Pontica, who was also at war with the Galatians at this time. Mithridates went on to support Antiochus Hierax against his brother Seleucus II Callinicus. Seleucus was defeated in Anatolia by Hierax, Mithridates, and the Galatians. Mithridates also attackedSinope in 220 but failed to take the city. He married Seleucus II's sister and gave his daughter in marriage to Antiochus III, to obtain recognition for his new kingdom and create strong ties with the Seleucid Empire. The sources are silent on Pontus for the years following the death of Mithridates II, when his son Mithridates III ruled (c. 220–198/88).[19]
Pharnaces I of Pontus was much more successful in his expansion of the kingdom at the expense of the Greek coastal cities. He joined in a war withPrusias I of Bithynia against Eumenes ofPergamon in 188 BC, but the two made peace in 183 afterBithynia suffered a series of reversals. He tookSinope in 182 BC and although the Rhodians complained to Rome about this, nothing was done. Pharnaces also took the coastal cities ofCotyora,Pharnacia, andTrapezus in the east, effectively gaining control of most of the northern Anatolian coastline. Despite Roman attempts to keep the peace, Pharnaces fought against Eumenes of Pergamon and Ariarathes of Cappadocia. While initially successful, it seems he was overmatched by 179 when he was forced to sign a treaty. He had to give up all lands he had obtained inGalatia, andPaphlagonia and the city of Tium, but he kept Sinope.[20] Seeking to extend his influence to the north, Pharnaces allied with the cities in theChersonesus and with other Black Sea cities such asOdessus on the Bulgarian coast. Pharnaces' brother,Mithridates IV Philopator Philadelphus adopted a peaceful, pro-Roman policy. He sent aid to the Roman allyAttalus II Philadelphus of Pergamon againstPrusias II of Bithynia in 155.[21]
His successor,Mithridates V of Pontus Euergetes, remained a friend of Rome and in 149 BC sent ships and a small force of auxiliaries to aid Rome in the Third Punic War. He also sent troops for the war againstEumenes III (Aristonicus), who had usurped the Pergamene throne after the death ofAttalus III. After Rome received the Kingdom ofPergamon in the will of Attalus III in the absence of an heir, they turned part of it into the province of Asia, while giving the rest to loyal allied kings. For his loyalty Mithridates was awarded the region of Phrygia Major. The kingdom of Cappadocia receivedLycaonia. Because of this it seems reasonable to assume that Pontus had some degree of control overGalatia, since Phrygia does not border Pontus directly. It is possible that Mithridates inherited part ofPaphlagonia after the death of its King, Pylaemenes. Mithridates V married his daughter Laodice to the king of Cappadocia,Ariarathes VI of Cappadocia, and he also went on to invade Cappadocia, though the details of this war are unknown. Hellenization continued under Mithridates V. He was the first king to widely recruit Greek mercenaries in the Aegean, he was honored at Delos, and he depicted himself as Apollo on his coins. Mithridates was assassinated at Sinope in 121/0, the details of which are unclear.[22]
Because both the sons of Mithridates V, Mithridates VI andMithridates Chrestus, were still children, Pontus now came under the regency of his wife Laodice. She favored Chrestus, and Mithridates VI escaped the Pontic court. Legend would later say this was the time he traveled through Asia Minor, building his resistance to poisons and learning all of the languages of his subjects. He returned in 113 BC to depose his mother; she was thrown into prison, and he eventually had his brother killed.[23]
Mithridates VI Eupator, 'the Good Father', followed a decisive anti-Roman agenda, extolling Greek and Iranian culture against ever-expanding Roman influence. Rome had recently created the province of Asia in Anatolia, and it had also rescinded the region of Phrygia Major from Pontus during the reign of Laodice. Mithridates began his expansion by inheritingLesser Armenia from King Antipater (precise date unknown, c.115–106) and by conquering the Kingdom ofColchis. Colchis was an important region in Black Sea trade – rich with gold, wax, hemp, and honey. The cities of theTauric Chersonesus now appealed for his aid against theScythians in the north. Mithridates sent 6,000 men under General Diophantus. After various campaigns in the north of the Crimea he controlled all of the Chersonesus. Mithridates also developed trade links with cities on the western Black Sea coast.[24]
At the time, Rome was fighting theJugurthine andCimbric wars. Mithridates and Nicomedes of Bithynia both invaded Paphlagonia and divided it amongst themselves. A Roman embassy was sent, but it accomplished nothing. Mithridates also took a part of Galatia that had previously been part of his father's kingdom and intervened in Cappadocia, where his sister Laodice was queen. In 116 the king of Cappadocia, Ariarathes VI, was murdered by the Cappadocian noble Gordius at the behest of Mithridates, and Laodice ruled as regent over the sons of Ariarathes until 102 BC. AfterNicomedes III of Bithynia married Laodice, he tried to intervene in the region by sending troops; Mithridates swiftly invaded, placing his nephewAriarathes VII of Cappadocia on the throne of Cappadocia. War soon broke out between the two, and Mithridates invaded with a large Pontic army, but Ariarathes VII was murdered in 101 BC before any battle was fought. Mithridates then installed his eight-year-old son,Ariarathes IX of Cappadocia as king, with Gordius as regent. In 97 Cappadocia rebelled, but the uprising was swiftly put down by Mithridates. Afterwards, Mithridates and Nicomedes III both sent embassies to Rome. The Roman Senate decreed that Mithridates had to withdraw from Cappadocia and Nicomedes from Paphlagonia. Mithridates obliged, and the Romans installed Ariobarzanes in Cappadocia. In 91/90 BC, while Rome was busy in theSocial War in Italy, Mithridates encouraged his new ally and son-in-law, KingTigranes the Great of Armenia, to invade Cappadocia, which he did, and Ariobarzanes fled to Rome. Mithridates then deposed Nicomedes IV from Bithynia, placingSocrates Chrestus on the throne.[25]
A Roman army underManius Aquillius arrived in Asia Minor in 90 BC, prompting Mithridates and Tigranes to withdraw. Cappadocia and Bithynia were restored to their respective monarchs, but then faced large debts to Rome due to their bribes for the Roman senators, and Nicomedes IV was eventually convinced by Aquillius to attack Pontus in order to repay the debts. He plundered as far asAmastris, and returned with much loot. Mithridates invaded Cappadocia once again, and Rome declared war.[26][pages needed]
In the summer of 89 BC, Mithridates invaded Bithynia and defeated Nicomedes and Aquillius in battle. He moved swiftly into Roman Asia and resistance crumbled; by 88 he had obtained the surrender of most of the newly created province. He was welcomed in many cities, where the residents chafed under Romantax farming. In 88 Mithridates also ordered the massacre of at least 80,000 Romans and Italians in what became known as the 'Asiatic Vespers'. Many Greek cities in Asia Minor happily carried out the orders; this ensured that they could no longer return to an alliance with Rome. In the autumn of 88 Mithridates also placedRhodes under siege, but he failed to take it.[27]
InAthens, anti-Roman elements were emboldened by the news and soon formed an alliance with Mithridates. A joint Pontic–Athenian naval expedition tookDelos in 88 BC, and granted the city to Athens. Many Greek city-states now joined Mithridates, includingSparta, theAchaean League, and most of theBoeotian League exceptThespiae. Finally, in 87 BC,Lucius Cornelius Sulla set out from Italy with five legions. He marched throughBoeotia, which quickly surrendered, and began laying siege to Athens and thePiraeus (the Athenian port city, no longer connected by theLong Walls). Athens fell in March 86 BC, and the city was sacked. After stiff resistance, Archelaus, the Pontic general in Piraeus, left by sea, and Sulla utterly destroyed the port city. Meanwhile, Mithridates had sent his son Arcathias with a large army via Thrace into Greece.[28]
Sulla now headed north, seeking the fertile plains of Boeotia to supply his army. At theBattle of Chaeronea, Sulla inflicted severe casualties on Archelaus, who nevertheless retreated and continued to raid Greece with the Pontic fleet. Archelaus regrouped and attacked a second time at theBattle of Orchomenus in 85 BC but was once again defeated and suffered heavy losses. As a result of the losses and the unrest they stirred in Asia Minor, as well as the presence of the Roman army now campaigning in Bithynia, Mithridates was forced to accept a peace deal. Mithridates and Sulla met in 85 BC atDardanus. Sulla decreed that Mithridates had to surrender Roman Asia and return Bithynia and Cappadocia to their former kings. He also had to pay 2,000 talents and provide ships. Mithridates would retain the rest of his holdings and become an ally of Rome.[29]
The treaty agreed with Sulla was not to last. From 83 to 82 BC Mithridates fought against and defeatedLicinius Murena, who had been left by Sulla to organize the province of Asia. The so-calledSecond Mithridatic war ended without any territorial gains by either side. The Romans now began securing the coastal region of Lycia and Pamphylia from pirates and established control overPisidia andLycaonia. When in 74 the consulLucullus took overCilicia, Mithridates faced Roman commanders on two fronts. The Cilician pirates had not been completely defeated, and Mithridates signed an alliance with them. He was also allied with the government ofQuintus Sertorius in Spain and with his help reorganized some of his troops in the Roman legionary pattern with short stabbing swords.
TheThird Mithridatic war broke out when Nicomedes IV of Bithynia died without heirs in 75 and left his kingdom to Rome. In 74 BC Rome mobilized its armies in Asia Minor, probably provoked by some move made by Mithridates, but our sources are not clear on this. In 73 Mithridates invaded Bithynia, and his fleet defeated the Romans offChalcedon and laid siege toCyzicus.Lucullus marched from Phrygia with his five legions and forced Mithridates to retreat to Pontus.[30] In 72 BC Lucullus invaded Pontus throughGalatia and marched north following the river Halys to the north coast, he besiegedAmisus, which withstood until 70 BC. In 71 he marched through the Iris and Lycus river valleys and established his base inCabeira. Mithridates sent his cavalry to cut the Roman supply line to Cappadocia in the south, but they suffered heavy casualties. Mithridates, still unwilling to fight a decisive engagement, now began a retreat toLesser Armenia, where he expected aid from his ally Tigranes the Great. Because of his now weakened cavalry, the retreat turned into an all-out rout, and most of the Pontic army was destroyed or captured. These events ledMachares, the son of Mithridates and ruler of the Crimean Bosporus, to seek an alliance with Rome. Mithridates fled to Armenia.[31]
In the summer of 69 Lucullus invaded Armenian territory, marching with 12,000 men through Cappadocia intoSophene. His target wasTigranocerta, the new capital of Tigranes's empire. Tigranes retreated to gather his forces. Lucullus laid siege to the city, and Tigranes returned with his army, including large numbers of heavily armored cavalrymen, termedCataphracts, vastly outnumbering Lucullus' force. Despite this, Lucullus led his men in a charge against the Armenian horses and won a great victory at theBattle of Tigranocerta. Tigranes fled north while Lucullus destroyed his new capital city and dismantled his holdings in the south by granting independence to Sophene and returning Syria to the Seleucid kingAntiochus XIII Asiaticus. In 68 BC Lucullus invaded northern Armenia, ravaging the country and capturingNisibis, but Tigranes avoided battle. Meanwhile, Mithridates invaded Pontus, and in 67 he defeated a large Roman force nearZela. Lucullus, now in command of tired and discontented troops, withdrew to Pontus, then to Galatia. He was replaced by two new consuls arriving from Italy with fresh legions,Marcius Rex andAcilius Glabrio. Mithridates now recovered Pontus while Tigranes invaded Cappadocia.[32]
In response to increasing pirate activity in the eastern Mediterranean, the senate grantedPompey extensiveproconsularImperium throughout the Mediterranean in 67 BC. Pompey eliminated the pirates, and in 66 he was assigned command in Asia Minor to deal with Pontus. Pompey organized his forces, close to 45,000 legionaries, including Lucullus' troops, and signed an alliance with theParthians, who attacked and kept Tigranes busy in the east. Mithridates massed his army, some 30,000 men and 2,000–3,000 cavalry, in the heights of Dasteira in lesser Armenia. Pompey fought to encircle him with earthworks for six weeks, but Mithridates eventually retreated north. Pompey pursued and managed to catch his forces by surprise in the night, and the Pontic army suffered heavy casualties. After the battle, Pompey founded the city of Nicopolis. Mithridates fled to Colchis, and later to his son Machares in the Crimea in 65 BC. Pompey now headed east into Armenia, where Tigranes submitted to him, placing his royal diadem at his feet. Pompey took most of Tigranes' empire in the east but allowed him to remain as king of Armenia. Meanwhile, Mithridates was organizing a defense of the Crimea when his son Pharnaces led the army in revolt; Mithridates was forced to commit suicide or was assassinated.[33]
Most of the western half of Pontus and the Greek cities of the coast, including Sinope, were annexed by Rome directly as part of the Roman province ofBithynia et Pontus. The interior and eastern coast remained an independent client kingdom. TheBosporan Kingdom also remained independent underPharnaces II of Pontus as an ally and friend of Rome. Colchis was also made into a client kingdom. Pharnaces II later made an attempt at reconquering Pontus. During the civil war of Caesar and Pompey, he invaded Asia Minor (48 BC), taking Colchis, lesser Armenia, Pontus, and Cappadocia and defeating a Roman army at Nicopolis. Caesar responded swiftly and defeated him atZela, where he uttered the famous phrase 'Veni, vidi, vici'.[34] Pontic kings continued to rule the client Kingdom of Pontus, Colchis, and Cilicia untilPolemon II was forced to abdicate the Pontic throne byNero in AD 62.
Although the Pontic kings claimed descent from the Persian royal house, they generally acted as Hellenistic kings and portrayed themselves as such in their coins, mimicking Alexander's royalstater.[13]
Thearmy of the Pontic Kingdom had a varied ethnic composition, as it recruited its soldiers from all over the kingdom. The standing army includedArmenians,Bastarnae,Bithynians,Cappadocians,Galatians,Heniochoi,Iazyges,Koralloi,Leucosyrians,Phrygians,Sarmatians,Scythians,Tauri, andThracians, as well as soldiers from other areas around the Black Sea. The Greeks who served in the military were not part of the standing army, but rather fought as citizens of their respective cities.[35] Like manyHellenistic armies, the army of Pontus adopted theMacedonian phalanx; it fielded a corps ofChalkaspides ('bronze-shields'), for example againstSulla at theBattle of Chaeronea,[36] while at the same battle 15,000 phalangites were recruited from freedslaves.[37] Pontus also fielded various cavalry units, includingcataphracts.[38] In addition to normalcavalry Pontus also fieldedscythed chariots.[39] Under Mithridates VI Pontus also fielded a corps of 120,000 troops armed "in the Roman fashion" and "drilled in the Roman phalanx formation".[40] These unitsimitatedRoman legions, although it is disputed to what degree they achieved this.[citation needed]
Thenavy was organized in a similar fashion as the army. While the kingdom itself provided the main contingent of ships, a small portion represented the Greek cities. The crewmen either came from the various tribes of the kingdom, or were of Greek origin.[35]
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