TheKingdom of France is the historiographical name orumbrella term given to various political entities ofFrance in themedieval andearly modern period. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe from theHigh Middle Ages to 1848 during its dissolution. It was also an earlycolonial power, with colonies in Asia and Africa, and the largest beingNew France in North America geographically centred on theGreat Lakes.
The Kingdom of France was descended directly from thewestern Frankish realm of theCarolingian Empire, which was ceded toCharles the Bald with theTreaty of Verdun (843). A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, whenHugh Capet was elected king and founded theCapetian dynasty. The territory remained known asFrancia and its ruler asrex Francorum ('king of the Franks') well into theHigh Middle Ages. The first king calling himselfrex Francie ('King of France') wasPhilip II, in 1190, and officially from 1204. From then, France was continuously ruled by the Capetians and theircadet lines under theValois andBourbon until the monarchy was abolished in 1792 during theFrench Revolution. The Kingdom of France was also ruled inpersonal union with theKingdom of Navarre over two time periods, 1284–1328 and 1572–1620, after which the institutions of Navarre were abolished and it was fully annexed by France (though the King of France continued to use the title "King of Navarre" through the end of the monarchy).
France in the Middle Ages was a decentralised,feudal monarchy. InBrittany,Normandy,Lorraine,Provence,East Burgundy andCatalonia (the latter now a part of Spain), as well asAquitaine, the authority of the French king was barely felt. West Frankish kings were initially elected by the secular and ecclesiastical magnates, but the regular coronation of the eldest son of the reigning king during his father's lifetime established the principle of maleprimogeniture, which became codified in theSalic law. During theLate Middle Ages, rivalry between the Capetian dynasty, rulers of the Kingdom of France and their vassals theHouse of Plantagenet, who also ruled theKingdom of England as part of their so-called competingAngevin Empire, resulted in many armed struggles. The most notorious of them all are the series of conflicts known as theHundred Years' War (1337–1453) in which thekings of England laid claim to the French throne. Emerging victorious from said conflicts, France subsequently sought to extend its influence intoItaly, but after initial gains was defeated bySpain and the Holy Roman Empire in the ensuingItalian Wars (1494–1559).
France in the early modern era was increasingly centralised; the French language began to displace other languages from official use, and the monarch expanded hisabsolute power in an administrative system, known as theAncien Régime, complicated by historic and regional irregularities in taxation, legal, judicial, and ecclesiastic divisions, and local prerogatives. Religiously, France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority, theHuguenots, which led to a series of civil wars, theWars of Religion (1562–1598). Subsequently, France developed its first colonial empire in Asia, Africa, and in the Americas.
Viking incursions up theLoire, theSeine, and other inland waterways increased. During the reign ofCharles the Simple (898–922), Vikings underRollo fromScandinavia settled along the Seine, downstream from Paris, in a region that came to be known asNormandy.[6]
TheCarolingians were to share the fate of their predecessors: after an intermittent power struggle between the two dynasties, the accession in 987 ofHugh Capet, Duke of France and Count of Paris, established theCapetian dynasty on the throne. With its offshoots, the houses ofValois andBourbon, it was to rule France for more than 800 years.[7]
The old order left the new dynasty in immediate control of little beyond the middle Seine and adjacent territories, while powerful territorial lords such as the 10th- and 11th-centurycounts of Blois accumulated large domains of their own through marriage and through private arrangements with lesser nobles for protection and support.
The area around the lower Seine became a source of particular concern when DukeWilliam of Normandy took possession of the Kingdom of England by theNorman Conquest of 1066, making himself and his heirs the king's equal outside France (where he was still nominally subject to the Crown).
Henry II inherited theDuchy of Normandy and theCounty of Anjou, and married France's newly single ex-queen,Eleanor of Aquitaine, who ruled much of southwest France, in 1152. After defeating arevolt led by Eleanor and three of their four sons, Henry had Eleanor imprisoned, made theDuke of Brittany his vassal, and in effect ruled the western half of France as a greater power than the French throne. However, disputes among Henry's descendants over the division of his French territories, coupled withJohn of England's lengthy quarrel withPhilip II, allowed Philip to recover influence over most of this territory. After the French victory at theBattle of Bouvines in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwesternDuchy of Aquitaine.[8]
The losses of the century of war were enormous, particularly owing to the plague (theBlack Death, usually considered an outbreak ofbubonic plague), which arrived from Italy in 1348, spreading rapidly up the Rhône valley and thence across most of the country: it is estimated that a population of some 18–20 million in modern-day France at the time of the 1328hearth tax returns had been reduced 150 years later by 50 percent or more.[10]
The Renaissance era was noted for the emergence of powerful centralized institutions, as well as a flourishing culture (much of it imported fromItaly).[11] The kings built a strong fiscal system, which heightened the power of the king to raise armies that overawed the local nobility.[12] In Paris especially there emerged strong traditions in literature, art and music. The prevailing style wasclassical.[13]
TheOrdinance of Villers-Cotterêts was signed into law byFrancis I in 1539.Largely the work ofChancellorGuillaume Poyet, it dealt with a number of government, judicial and ecclesiastical matters. Articles 110 and 111, the most famous, called for the use of the French language in all legal acts, notarised contracts and official legislation.
After the Hundred Years' War,Charles VIII of France signed three additional treaties withHenry VII of England, EmperorMaximilian I, andFerdinand II of Aragon respectively atÉtaples (1492),Senlis (1493) andBarcelona (1493). These three treaties cleared the way for France to undertake the long Italian Wars (1494–1559), which marked the beginning of early modern France. French efforts to gain dominance resulted only in the increased power of theHouse of Habsburg.
Barely were the Italian Wars over, when France was plunged into a domestic crisis with far-reaching consequences. Despite the conclusion of aConcordat between France and the Papacy (1516), granting the crown unrivalled power in senior ecclesiastical appointments, France was deeply affected by theProtestant Reformation's attempt to break the hegemony of Catholic Europe. A growing urban-based Protestant minority (later dubbedHuguenots) faced ever harsher repression under the rule of Francis I's son KingHenry II. After Henry II's death in a joust, the country was ruled by his widowCatherine de' Medici and her sonsFrancis II,Charles IX andHenry III. Renewed Catholic reaction headed by the powerfuldukes of Guise culminated in amassacre of Huguenots (1572), starting the first of theFrench Wars of Religion, during which English, German and Spanish forces intervened on the side of rival Protestant and Catholic forces. Opposed to absolute monarchy, the HuguenotMonarchomachs theorized during this time theright of rebellion and the legitimacy oftyrannicide.[14]
The Wars of Religion culminated in theWar of the Three Henrys in which Henry III assassinatedHenry de Guise, leader of the Spanish-backedCatholic League, and the king was murdered in return. After the assassination of both Henry of Guise (1588) and Henry III (1589), the conflict was ended by the accession of the Protestant king ofNavarre asHenry IV (first king of theBourbon dynasty) and his subsequent abandonment of Protestantism (Expedient of 1592) effective in 1593, his acceptance by most of the Catholic establishment (1594) and by the Pope (1595), and his issue of the toleration decree known as theEdict of Nantes (1598), which guaranteed freedom of private worship and civil equality.[15]
France's pacification under Henry IV laid much of the ground for the beginnings of France's rise to European hegemony. France was expansive during all but the end of the seventeenth century: the French began trading in India andMadagascar, foundedQuebec and penetrated the North AmericanGreat Lakes andMississippi, established plantation economies in theWest Indies and extended their trade contacts in theLevant and enlarged theirmerchant marine.
Henry IV's sonLouis XIII and his minister (1624–1642)Cardinal Richelieu, elaborated a policy against Spain and the Holy Roman Empire during theThirty Years' War (1618–1648) which had broken out in Germany. After the death of both king and cardinal, thePeace of Westphalia (1648) secured universal acceptance of Germany's political and religious fragmentation, but the Regency ofAnne of Austria and her ministerCardinal Mazarin experienced a civil uprising known as theFronde (1648–1653) which expanded into aFranco-Spanish War (1635–1659). TheTreaty of the Pyrenees (1659) formalised France's seizure (1642) of the Spanish territory ofRoussillon after the crushing of the ephemeralCatalan Republic and ushered a short period of peace.[16]
TheAncien Régime, a French term rendered in English as "Old Rule", or simply "Former Regime", refers primarily to the aristocratic, social and political system of early modern France under the late Valois and Bourbon dynasties. The administrative and social structures of the Ancien Régime were the result of years of state-building, legislative acts (like theOrdinance of Villers-Cotterêts), internal conflicts and civil wars, but they remained a confusing patchwork of localprivilege and historic differences until theFrench Revolution brought about a radical suppression of administrative incoherence.
For most of the reign ofLouis XIV (1643–1715), ("The Sun King"), France was the dominant power in Europe, aided by the diplomacy of Cardinal Richelieu's successor as the King's chief minister, (1642–61)Cardinal Jules Mazarin, (1602–1661). Cardinal Mazarin oversaw the creation of aFrench Royal Navy that rivalledEngland's, expanding it from 25 ships to almost 200. The size of theFrench Royal Army was also considerably increased. Renewed wars (theWar of Devolution, 1667–1668 and theFranco-Dutch War, 1672–1678) brought further territorial gains (Artois and westernFlanders and the freeCounty of Burgundy, previously left to the Empire in 1482), but at the cost of the increasingly concerted opposition of rival royal powers, and a legacy of an increasingly enormousnational debt. An adherent of the theory of the"Divine Right of Kings", which advocates the divine origin of temporal power and any lack of earthly restraint of monarchical rule, Louis XIV continued his predecessors' work of creating acentralized state governed from the capital of Paris. He sought to eliminate the remnants offeudalism still persisting in parts of France and, by compelling the noble elite to regularly inhabit his lavishPalace of Versailles, built on the outskirts of Paris, succeeded in pacifying the aristocracy, many members of which had participated in the earlier "Fronde" rebellion during Louis' minority. By these means he consolidated a system of absolute monarchy in France that endured 150 years until theFrench Revolution.[17] McCabe says critics used fiction to portray the degraded Turkish court, using "the harem, the Sultan court, oriental despotism, luxury, gems and spices, carpets, and silk cushions" as an unfavorable analogy to the corruption of the French royal court.[18]
The king sought to impose total religious uniformity on the country, repealing theEdict of Nantes in 1685. It is estimated that anywhere between 150,000 and 300,000 Protestants fled France during the wave of persecution that followed the repeal,[19] (following "Huguenots" beginning a hundred and fifty years earlier until the end of the 18th century) costing the country a great many intellectuals, artisans, and other valuable people. Persecution extended to unorthodox Roman Catholics like theJansenists, a group that denied free will and had already been condemned by the popes. In this, he garnered the friendship of the papacy, which had previously been hostile to France because of its policy of putting all church property in the country under the jurisdiction of the state rather than that of Rome.[20]
In November 1700, KingCharles II of Spain died, ending the Habsburg line in that country. Louis had long planned for this moment, but these plans were thrown into disarray by the will of King Charles, which left the entire Spanish Empire to Louis's grandsonPhilip, Duke of Anjou, (1683–1746). Essentially, Spain was to become a perpetual ally and even obedient satellite of France, ruled by a king who would carry out orders from Versailles. Realizing how this would upset the balance of power, the other European rulers were outraged. However, most of the alternatives were equally undesirable. For example, putting another Habsburg on the throne would end up recreating the grand multi-nationalEmpire of Charles V; of the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, and the Spanish territories in Italy, which would also grossly upset the power balance. However, the rest of Europe would not stand for his ambitions in Spain, and so the longWar of the Spanish Succession began (1701–1714), a mere three years after theWar of the Grand Alliance (1688–1697,a.k.a. "War of the League of Augsburg") had just concluded.[21]
The reign (1715–1774) ofLouis XV saw an initial return to peace and prosperity under theregency (1715–1723) ofPhilippe II, Duke of Orléans, whose policies were largely continued (1726–1743) byCardinal Fleury, prime minister in all but name. The exhaustion of Europe after two major wars resulted in a long period of peace, only interrupted by minor conflicts like theWar of the Polish Succession from 1733 to 1735. Large-scale warfare resumed with theWar of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748). But alliance with the traditional Habsburg enemy (the "Diplomatic Revolution" of 1756) against the rising power of Britain andPrussia led to costly failure in theSeven Years' War (1756–63) and the loss of France's North American colonies.[22]
On the whole, the 18th century saw growing discontent with the monarchy and the established order. Louis XV was a highly unpopular king for his sexual excesses, overall weakness, and for losingNew France to the British. The writings of thephilosophes such asVoltaire were a clear sign of discontent, but the king chose to ignore them. He died ofsmallpox in 1774, and the French people shed few tears at his death. While France had not yet experienced theIndustrial Revolution that was beginning in Britain, the rising middle class of the cities felt increasingly frustrated with a system and rulers that seemed silly, frivolous, aloof, and antiquated, even if true feudalism no longer existed in France.
Upon Louis XV's death, his grandsonLouis XVI became king. Initially popular, he too came to be widely detested by the 1780s. He was married to an Austrian archduchess,Marie Antoinette. French intervention in the American War of Independence was also very expensive.[23]
With the country deeply in debt, Louis XVI permitted the radical reforms ofTurgot andMalesherbes, but noble disaffection led to Turgot's dismissal and Malesherbes' resignation in 1776. They were replaced byJacques Necker. Necker had resigned in 1781 to be replaced byCalonne andBrienne, before being restored in 1788. A harsh winter that year led to widespread food shortages, and by then France was a powder keg ready to explode.[24] On the eve of theFrench Revolution of July 1789, France was in a profound institutional and financial crisis, but the ideas of theEnlightenment had begun to permeate the educated classes of society.[21]
On September 3, 1791, the absolute monarchy which had governed France for 948 years was forced to limit its power and become a provisional constitutional monarchy. However, this too would not last very long and on September 21, 1792, the French monarchy was effectively abolished by the proclamation of theFrench First Republic. The role of the King in France was finally ended with theexecution of Louis XVI byguillotine on Monday, January 21, 1793, followed by the "Reign of Terror", mass executions and the provisional "Directory" form of republican government, and the eventual beginnings of twenty-five years of reform, upheaval, dictatorship, wars and renewal, with the variousNapoleonic Wars.
Following the French Revolution (1789–99) and theFirst French Empire underNapoleon (1804–1814), the monarchy was restored when acoalition of European powers restored by arms the monarchy to the House of Bourbon in 1814. However the deposed Emperor Napoleon I returned triumphantly to Paris from his exile inElba and ruled France for a short period known as theHundred Days.
When aSeventh European Coalition again deposed Napoleon after theBattle of Waterloo in 1815, the Bourbon monarchy was once again restored. The Count of Provence - brother of Louis XVI, who was guillotined in 1793 - was crowned asLouis XVIII, nicknamed "The Desired". Louis XVIII tried to conciliate the legacies of the Revolution and the Ancien Régime, by permitting the formation of aParliament and aconstitutional Charter, usually known as the "Charte octroyée" ("Granted Charter"). His reign was characterized by disagreements between theDoctrinaires, liberal thinkers who supported the Charter and the risingbourgeoisie, and theUltra-royalists, aristocrats and clergymen who totally refused the Revolution's heritage. Peace was maintained by statesmen likeTalleyrand and theDuke of Richelieu, as well as the King's moderation and prudent intervention.[25] In 1823, theTrienio Liberal revolt in Spain led to aFrench intervention on the royalists' side, which permitted KingFerdinand VII of Spain to abolish theConstitution of 1812.
However, the work of Louis XVIII was frustrated when, after his death on 16 September 1824, his brother the Count of Artois became king under the name ofCharles X. Charles X was a strongreactionary who supported the ultra-royalists and theCatholic Church. Under his reign, the censorship of newspapers was reinforced, theAnti-Sacrilege Act passed, and compensations toÉmigrés were increased. However, the reign also witnessed theFrench intervention in theGreek Revolution in favour of the Greek rebels, and the first phase of theconquest of Algeria.
The absolutist tendencies of the King were disliked by the Doctrinaire majority in theChamber of Deputies, that on 18 March 1830sent an address to the King, upholding the rights of the Chamber and in effect supporting a transition to a full parliamentary system. Charles X received this address as a veiled threat, and in 25 July of the same year, he issued theSt. Cloud Ordinances, in an attempt to reduce Parliament's powers and re-establish absolute rule.[26] The opposition reacted with riots in Parliament andbarricades in Paris, that resulted in theJuly Revolution.[27] The King abdicated, as did his son the DauphinLouis Antoine, in favour of his grandsonHenri, Count of Chambord, nominating his cousin theDuke of Orléans as regent.[28] However, it was too late, and the liberal opposition won out over the monarchy.
On 9 August 1830, the Chamber of Deputies electedLouis Philippe, Duke of Orléans as "King of the French": for the first time since French Revolution, the King was designated as the ruler of the French people and not the country. The Bourbonwhite flag was substituted with theFrench tricolour,[29] and anew charter was introduced in August 1830.[30]
However, despite the initial reforms, Louis Philippe was little different from his predecessors. The oldnobility was replaced by urban bourgeoisie, and the working class was excluded from voting.[32] Louis Philippe appointed notable bourgeois asPrime Minister, like bankerCasimir Périer, academicFrançois Guizot, generalJean-de-Dieu Soult, and thus obtained the nickname of "Citizen King" (Roi-Citoyen). The July Monarchy was beset by corruption scandals and financial crisis. The opposition of the King was composed ofLegitimists, supporting theCount of Chambord, Bourbon claimant to the throne, and ofBonapartists andRepublicans, who fought against royalty and supported the principles of democracy.
The King tried to suppress the opposition with censorship, but when theCampagne des banquets ("Banquets' Campaign") was repressed in February 1848,[33] riots and seditions erupted in Paris and later all France, resulting in theFebruary Revolution. TheNational Guard refused to repress the rebellion, resulting in Louis Philippe abdicating and fleeing to England. On 24 February 1848, the monarchy was abolished and theSecond Republic was proclaimed.[34] Despite later attempts to re-establish the Kingdom in the 1870s, during theThird Republic, the French monarchy has not restored.
West Francia during the reign ofHugh Capet between 987 and 996 AD with the royal domain shown in blueThe Kingdom of France in 1030 with the kingdom's royal domain in light blueTerritorial development under KingPhilip II between 1180 and 1223
Before the 13th century, only a small part of what is now France was under control of the Frankish king; in the north there were Viking incursions leading to the formation of theDuchy of Normandy; in the west, thecounts of Anjou established themselves as powerful rivals of the king, by the late 11th century ruling over the "Angevin Empire", which included theKingdom of England. It was only withPhilip II of France that the bulk of the territory of Western Francia came under the rule of the Frankish kings, and Philip was consequently the first king to call himself "king of France" (1190). The division of France between the Angevin (Plantagenet) kings of England and the Capetian kings of France would lead to theHundred Years' War, and France would regain control over these territories only by the mid-15th century. What is now eastern France (Lorraine, Arelat) was not part of Western Francia to begin with and was only incorporated into the kingdom during theearly modern period.
Dauphiné (1349), hereditary possession of the kings of France, to be held by theheir apparent, but technically not part of the Kingdom of France because it remained nominally part of theHoly Roman Empire.
Prior to theFrench Revolution, theCatholic Church was the officialstate religion of the Kingdom of France.[35] France was traditionally considered the Church's eldest daughter (French:Fille aînée de l'Église), and theking of France always maintained close links to the Pope,[36] receiving the titleMost Christian Majesty from the Pope in 1464.[37] However, the French monarchy maintained a significant degree of autonomy, namely through its policy of "Gallicanism", whereby the king selected bishops rather than the papacy.[38]
During the Protestant Reformation of the mid-16th century, France developed a large and influential Protestant population, primarily ofReformed confession; after French theologian and pastorJohn Calvin introduced theReformation in France, the number ofFrench Protestants (Huguenots) steadily swelled to 10 percent of the population, or roughly 1.8 million people. The ensuringFrench Wars of Religion, and particularly theSt. Bartholomew's Day massacre, decimated the Huguenot community;[39] Protestants declined to seven to eight percent of the kingdom's population by the end of the 16th century. TheEdict of Nantes brought decades of respite until itsrevocation in the late 17th century byLouis XIV. The resulting exodus of Huguenots from the Kingdom of France created abrain drain, as many of them had occupied important places in society.[40]
Jews have a documented presence in France since at least theearly Middle Ages.[41] The Kingdom of France was a center of Jewish learning in the Middle Ages, producing influential Jewish scholars such asRashi and even hostingtheological debates between Jews and Christians.Widespread persecution began in the 11th century and increased intermittently throughout the Middle Ages, with multiple expulsions and returns.[42]
Theabsolute monarchy in the kingdom was not the same astotalitarian dictatorship for example, and there were limits on the king's power. These arose chiefly from religious constraints: because the monarchy was considered to be established bydivine right, that is, that the king was chosen by God to carry out his will, this implied that the king's subjects should obey and respect him. The king is accountable only to God, but this meant an implicit demand of virtue,[43]
^Price, Roger (2005).A Concise History of France. Cambridge University Press. p. 30.ISBN9780521844802.
^Bradbury, Jim (2007).The Capetians: Kings of France, 987–1328. Bloomsbury Academic.ISBN9781852855284.;Airlie, Stuart (1993). "Review article: After Empire-recent work on the emergence of post-Carolingian kingdoms".Early Medieval Europe.2 (2):153–161.doi:10.1111/j.1468-0254.1993.tb00015.x.
^James Russell Major,Representative Institutions in Renaissance France, 1421–1559 (1983).
^Martin Wolfe,The fiscal system of renaissance France (1972).
^Yarrow, Philip John (1974).A literary history of France: Renaissance France 1470–1589.;Zerner, Henri (2003).Renaissance art in France: the invention of classicism. Flammarion.
^Holt, Mack P. (2005).The French wars of religion, 1562–1629.
^Buisseret, David (1990).Henry IV: King of France. Routledge.ISBN9780044456353.
^Peter H. Wilson,Europe's Tragedy: A History of the Thirty Years' War (2009).
^Beik, William (2000).Louis XIV and Absolutism: A Brief Study with Documents.
^McCabe, Ina Baghdiantz (2008).Orientalism in Early Modern France: Eurasian Trade, Exoticism, and the Ancien Régime. Berg. p. 134.ISBN9781847884633.
^Wolf, John Baptiste (1962).The Emergence of European Civilization: From the Middle Ages to the Opening of the Nineteenth Century. University of Virginia Press. p. 419.ISBN9789733203162.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^Parisse, Michael (2005). "Lotharingia". In Reuter, T. (ed.).The New Cambridge Medieval History: c. 900–c. 1024. Vol. III. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 313–315.
^Wolfe, M. (2005). Jotham Parsons. The Church in the Republic: Gallicanism and Political Ideology in Renaissance France. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press. 2004. pp. ix, 322. The American Historical Review, 110(4), 1254–1255.
^Hans J. Hillerbrand,Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume Set, paragraphs "France" and "Huguenots"; The Huguenot Population of France, 1600–1685: The Demographic Fate and Customs of a Religious Minority by Philip Benedict; American Philosophical Society, 1991, 164
^Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed, Frank Puaux, "Huguenot"
^Pirenne, Henri (2001).Mahomet et Charlemagne (reprint of 1937 classic) (in French). Dover Publications. pp. 123–128.ISBN0-486-42011-6.
Dignat, Alban (27 May 2021). Grégor, Isabelle (ed.)."XVIIe siècle : Absolutisme et monarchie en France" [17th century: Absolutism and Monarchy in France].Herodote.net (in French). Herodote.net SAS. Retrieved6 July 2023.
Duby, Georges.France in the Middle Ages 987–1460: From Hugh Capet to Joan of Arc (1993), survey by a leader of the Annales Schoolexcerpt and text search
Fierro, Alfred.Historical Dictionary of Paris (1998) 392pp, an abridged translation of hisHistoire et dictionnaire de Paris (1996), 1580pp
Pinkney, David H. "Two Thousand Years of Paris",Journal of Modern History (1951) 23#3 pp. 262–264in JSTOR
Revel, Jacques, and Lynn Hunt, eds.Histories: French Constructions of the Past (1995). 654pp, 64 essays; emphasis onAnnales School
Symes, Carol. "The Middle Ages between Nationalism and Colonialism",French Historical Studies (Winter 2011) 34#1 pp 37–46
Thébaud, Françoise. "Writing Women's and Gender History in France: A National Narrative?"Journal of Women's History (2007) 19#1 pp. 167–172 inProject MUSE
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