Kingdom of Bosnia Bosansko kraljevstvo Босанско краљевство | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1377–1463[1] | |||||||||
 Royal banner of King Tvrtko I | |||||||||
 Medieval Bosnian State Expansion | |||||||||
| Capital | 44°08′13″N18°14′16″E / 44.13694°N 18.23778°E /44.13694; 18.23778 | ||||||||
| Religion | Catholicism (official)[2]Bosnian ChurchEastern Orthodoxy | ||||||||
| Demonym | Bosnian | ||||||||
| Government | Feudal monarchy | ||||||||
| King | |||||||||
• 1377–1391 | Tvrtko I(first) | ||||||||
• 1461–1463 | Stephen Tomašević(last) | ||||||||
| Historical era | Middle Ages | ||||||||
• Coronation ofTvrtko I | 26 October 1377 | ||||||||
| 25 May 1463[1] | |||||||||
| Currency | Bosnian Golden Coin | ||||||||
| |||||||||
TheKingdom of Bosnia (Serbo-Croatian:Kraljevina Bosna / Краљевина Босна), orBosnian Kingdom (Bosansko kraljevstvo / Босанско краљевство), was a medieval kingdom that lasted for nearly a century, from 1377 to 1463, and evolved out of theBanate of Bosnia, which itself lasted from at least 1154.
KingTvrtko I (r. 1353–91) acquired portions of western Serbia and most of the Adriatic coast south of theNeretva River. During the late part of his reign, Bosnia became one of the strongest states in theBalkan Peninsula. However,feudal fragmentation remained important in Bosnia and the Bosnian nobility held significant power, exercising it at theStanak meetings where members deliberated on matters such aselection of the new king or queen andcoronations, foreign policy, sale or cession of territory, contracting and signing treaties with neighboring countries, and military issues.
TheOttoman Empireannexed portions of eastern Bosnia in the 1440s and 1450s and went on to conquerHum, by then renamed toHerzegovina, with the last fortress,Novi, falling in December 1481.Stephen Tomašević, the last king of Bosnia, was captured by the Ottomans and killed in 1463.
The overwhelming majority of the population was rural, with few significant urban centers. Among the more notable towns wereDoboj,Jajce,Srebrenik,Srebrenica,Tešanj, andPodvisoki. Mining, especially forsilver, was a major source of income for Bosnian kings.
TheBanate of Bosnia was a medieval state comprising, at its peak, most of what is todayBosnia and Herzegovina, as well as parts ofDalmatia (inCroatia),Serbia, andMontenegro. Although nominally belonging to theKingdom of Hungarycrown lands, it was a de facto independent state.[3][4][5] After the reign ofBan Kulin, rulers ofBosnia enjoyed virtual independence from Hungary,[6][5] and although they formally held avassal position for much of this time, in reality they managed to maintain independent functions and even expand their rule in Serbia, Croatia, and Dalmatia.
The Banate of Bosnia existed until 1377,[7][8][9] when it was elevated into a kingdom through theSerbian crown[10] coronation ofTvrtko I, held at theSerbian OrthodoxMileševa Monastery before the relics ofSaint Sava of Serbia,[11][12] following the death of the lastSerbianEmperor from theNemanjić dynasty,Stefan Uroš V, who died childless and without an heir in 1371.[13]
Tvrtko had the strongest claim to the royal title at that time, and even if he had no practical means to rule Serbia, it allowed him to elevate Bosnia to a kingdom, as this would imply more formal independence.[14] Tvrtko thus proclaimed himself the first King of Bosnia, claiming full legitimacy as the crown he took was sent fromPope Honorius III toStefan the First-Crowned in 1217.[15] A Serbianlogothete named Blagoje,[16] having found refuge at Tvrtko's court, attributed to Tvrtko the right to a "double crown": one for Bosnia, and the other for the Serbian lands of his Nemanjić ancestors.[17] He was also King of Serbia, and in that way, legal basis for crowning was achieved, which was promoted even by his formal sovereignLouis I.[15] Tvrtko's title as a king was also approved by Louis's successor, and Tvrtko's cousin,Mary, Queen of Hungary.Venice andRagusa consistently referred to Tvrtko as King ofRascia, Ragusa even complaining, in 1378, about Tvrtko's preoccupation with his new kingdom.[18] Tvrtko's coronation asKing of Bosnia andSerbia was held in the fall of 1377 (probably 26 October, thefeast day ofSaint Demetrius), and marked a significant event of Bosnian medieval history, although contemporary sources about the coronation are very rare. The Royal Charter issued to the Ragusan commune on 10 April 1378 stands as one of the key sources for understanding the position of medieval Bosnian banate and its transformation to the kingdom, as well as information about economic activity between Bosnia and Ragusa, and proof of Bosnian independence.[19]
Feudal fragmentation remained important feature in Bosnia and the Bosnian nobility held significant power, exercising it at theStanak meetings. The Stanak is the most common name used to refer to the assembly of nobility inmedieval Bosnia, and it is first attested in the charter ofTvrtko I in 1354.[20] Its influence peaked between the 1390s and the 1420s. The existence of thestanak proved a unity and feeling of belonging to a Bosnian identity and integrity,[21] but also it illustrated weakness of the monarch anddecentralization of the state.[22]
The right to take part in the sessions of thestanak was enjoyed by every Bosnianknez, from magnates to petty lords, collectively known asvlastela, but the ultimate authority belonged to the highest nobility.[23] Thestanak was convoked when required, usually by theruler, who presided over it and led its sessions.[20][23] If male,his wife was allowed to attend, but his children were not.[20] TheBosnian Church clergy, not belonging to thevlastela, were also barred, but influenced decision-making in thestanak through the great lords associated with them.[23] The magnates of the country convoked thestanak themselves when the country experienced greater domestic issues, such as succession crisis or deposition of the ruler, domestic conflicts or wars. It normally took place wherever the monarch held court: inMile,Milodraž,Bobovac,Kraljeva Sutjeska andJajce.[20]
The Stanak enjoyed power and authority on all matters, includingelection of the new king or queen andcoronation, foreign policy, sale or cession of territory, contracting and signing treaties with neighboring countries, and military issues.[20][23] Charters issued by monarchs reflected the decisions made by thestanak; as the royal power weakened, that of stanak increased.[20]
Hungarian rulers perceived Bosnia as a countryunder their sovereignty during medieval time. Bosnian rulers acted completely independently in carrying out state and diplomatic affairs, governing the judicial system, granting towns and estates, minting coins, exploiting natural resources, and making trading agreements with other countries and independent cities.[24]
As a main trading partner of the Bosnian state, the Ragusa referred to the Bosnian Kingdom as a separate state ("rusag"), for example in a charter issued toSandalj Hranić in November 1405, where they articulated that the Ragusan merchants would be safe across the "Bosnian rusag",[25] or 1451, during the war with Stjepan Vukčić, as a "Holy Kingdom".[26] Ragusans also paid Saint Demetrius an income of 2000Ragusan perpera.Ladislaus of Naples acknowledged the territories of the kingdom on 26 August 1406 at the request of Tvrtko II.[25]
Bosnia reached its peak under Tvrtko I, a member of theKotromanić dynasty, who came to power in 1353. In 1372, Tvrtko formed an alliance with PrinceLazar Hrebeljanović, one of the regional lords in the territory of the disintegratedSerbian Empire.[27] The next year, Tvrtko and Lazar attacked the domain ofNikola Altomanović, the most powerful Serbian noble at the time. After defeating Altomanović, they divided his lands, except for his littoral districts ofDračevica,Konavle, andTrebinje, which were seized byĐurađ I Balšić, theLord of Zeta. Tvrtko received parts ofZahumlje, the upper reaches of theDrina andLim rivers, and the districts ofOnogošt andGacko. This acquisition included the important Serbian Orthodox monastery ofMileševa, which held the relics ofSaint Sava, the first Serbian Archbishop.[28]
In 1377, Tvrtko took the littoral districts from Balšić. That year, on 26 October, he was crowned King of "The Serbs, Bosnia, the Primorje (Seaside), and the western lands".[29] The acquisition of Serbian territory, including the important Monastery of Mileševa, combined with the fact that Tvrtko's grandmother had been a member of theNemanjić dynasty, prompted Tvrtko into having himself crowned King of Serbia, thus asserting his pretensions to the Serbian throne. This was made possible by the royal Nemanjić line having died out withUroš in 1371.[28] The crown was sent to him by Hungarian kingLouis of Anjou. According to a plurality of recent works from scholars like Čošković, Anđelić, Lovrenović, and Filipović, the ceremony itself was conducted inMile nearVisoko in the church that was built duringStephen II Kotromanić's reign, where he was also buried alongside his uncle Stjepan II.[30][31][32][33] In contrast, some earlier historiographers, mostly represented by western scholars, consider that he was crowned in the Orthodox Monastery of Mileševa[34] by the Metropolitan of Mileševa.[31][28]
After the defeat of Altomanović, Lazar was the most powerful lord on the territory of the former Serbian Empire.[35] He wanted to reunite the Serbian state, and theSerbian Orthodox Church saw him as the best suited to succeed the Nemanjić dynasty. The Church, which was the strongest cohesive force among the Serbs at the time, did not support Tvrtko's aspirations in this regard.[36]
By 1390, Tvrtko had expanded his realm to include a part ofCroatia andDalmatia,[37] and expanded his title to "King of The Serbs, Bosnia, Dalmatia, Croatia and the Littoral".[38] Tvrtko's full title listed subject peoples and geographical dependencies, following the Byzantine norm. At the peak of his power, he was "King ofBosnia,Serbia,Croatia,Hum,Usora,Soli,Dalmatia, andDonji Kraji".
In the last months of his reign, Tvrtko devoted himself to solidifying his position in Dalmatia and to plans for taking Zadar, the only Dalmatian city that had evaded his rule. He offered an extensive alliance to Venice, but it did not suit the republic's interests.[38] Meanwhile, Tvrtko was also fostering relations withAlbert III, Duke of Austria. By the late summer of 1390, a marriage was expected to be contracted between the recently widowed King and a member of the Austrian ruling family, theHabsburgs. The Hungarian kingdom remained the focus of Tvrtko's foreign policy, however. Although they did not recognize each other as kings, Tvrtko and HungarianKing Sigismund started negotiating a peace in September. Sigismund was in the weaker position and likely ready to make concessions to Tvrtko when his ambassadors arrived at Tvrtko's court in January 1391. The negotiations were probably never concluded, as Tvrtko died on 10 March.[39]
While Bosnia retained its standing among neighboring states in the immediate aftermath of Tvrtko's death, duringDabiša's reign conditions within the state started deteriorating. He successfully resisted his sovereigns fromHungary,Naples, and evenOttoman Turks. In the first years of his reign, Dabiša successfully maintained the integrity of the Kingdom.
The latter part of his reign, however, saw the ascent of magnates and considerable loss of territories and influence. The nobility grew stronger and for the first time acted independently of the king, starting with the ZachlumianSanković noble family. Dabiša curbed the Sanković power, but the trend was irreversible and eventually led to the weakening of the royal authority.[40]Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić, the kingdom's leading magnate, came into agreement with Sigismund and Mary but remained loyal to Dabiša. By June 1394, Dabiša was in open conflict withJohn Horvat, a fervent supporter of Ladislaus and enemy of Sigismund. He ordered that men from his islands ofBrač,Hvar, andKorčula assist in the siege ofOmiš, a city ruled by Horvat.[41] Sigismund, who had been amassing an army since April, took advantage of the discord.
TheBattle of Dobor saw Horvat's defeat and execution as well as the destruction of the eponymous town on theriver Bosna by Sigismund's troops. Soon thereafter Dabiša submitted to Sigismund and resigned Croatia and Dalmatia to the Hungarian king and, with the agreement of his vassals, recognized him as his feudal overlord as well as heir designate to the Bosnian throne. It is not clear what prompted Dabiša to agree to such harsh terms. In return, as evident from a treaty issued in July 1394, Sigismund included Dabiša among the highest ranking Hungarian officials and named himispán (count) ofSomogy.[42][full citation needed]
Despite an auspicious start, Dabiša's reign ended with the kingdom displaying the first signs of decay. Much of Tvrtko's extraordinary legacy was lost in the summer of 1394, and the state resumed its previous boundaries. Dabiša left the state more dependent on Hungarian kings than ever before, and the kingdom's influence in the Balkans waned.[42]
In 1394, Dabiša's wife Helen agreed to Dabiša's decision to designate Sigismund as his heir. When Dabiša died on 8 September the following year, however, the leading noblemen – Grand DukeHrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić, PrincePavao Radinović, DukeSandalj Hranić, and Juraj ofRadivojević's – refused to honor the agreement Dabiša had made with Sigismund.[43] Sigismund raised an army and marched to nearbySyrmia to claim the Bosnian throne, but the noblemen convoked astanak, an assembly of noblemen, and elected Helen as Dabiša's successor. Not willing to engage the united nobility in war, Sigismund withdrew; the death of his wifeMary, heir of Hungary and cousin of Dabiša, made his position too precarious to attack in Bosnia, as did the defeat by theOttomans at theBattle of Nicopolis.[44] By mid-December 1395, Helen had consolidated her grasp on the throne,[43] and the pretender was killed by Sigismund's supporters in 1396, never having seriously threatened the Queen.[45] The emancipation of Bosnian nobility reached a peak during Helen's reign. Having become virtually autonomous, her vassals engaged in internal warfare, which weakened Bosnia and precluded its participation in regional politics.[43][46]
By March 1398, Bosnia was beset by internal strife.[46] It seems that Helen's family, theNikolić, attempted to take further advantage of their royal relations and free themselves from subordinacy to theHouse of Kosača to become immediate vassals of the monarch.[47] This may have been the reason for an uprising against Helen.[47] She maintained a great deal of support in April, when Ragusa paid its tribute to her. The last to remain on her side were the Radivojević noble family, including Helen's grandson-in-law Juraj.[48] By 10 May, however, her husband's kinsmanOstoja was enthroned as the new King of Bosnia.[43]
Ostoja was brought to power by the forces ofHrvoje Vukčić, who deposed Helen in 1398. In 1403 he sided with King Ladislaus of Naples against Sigismund. Ostoja led a war against theRepublic of Dubrovnik, a Hungarian vassalage. In 1404, the Bosnian nobles under Hrvoje Vukčić replaced him with his brotherTvrtko II because of his pro-Hungarian views. He had to flee to Hungary after a stanak inMile,Visoko. Ostoja tried to reclaim the throne with Hungarian support, but, in June 1404, Tvrtko's supporters defeated a Hungarian army and thus prevented Ostoja from reclaiming the crown, although the chief royal residence ofBobovac and theUsoran town ofSrebrenik were captured and restored to Ostoja.[49][50] All major noble families remained loyal to Tvrtko, while Ostoja functioned as Sigismund's puppet whose territory included little more than Bobovac. The fortress, however, housed the crown, which Tvrtko was not able to reach.[50]
Following a few minor disputes with themaritime republics ofVenice and Ragusa overKonavli andPomorje, Tvrtko gained recognition as the legitimate king from both states. By 1406, Ostoja was losing what little support he had left in Bosnia, with the nobility now unanimously favouring Tvrtko, but the former king's decision to remain in the country continued to trouble Tvrtko.[51] Ragusans described the beginning of Tvrtko's reign as more tumultuous than anything "since theFlood",[52] but he soon succeeded in uniting the country by bringing together his feuding vassals.[53]
Hungarian attacks on Bosnia took place annually, making Tvrtko's life "a constant hassle".[50] In 1408, Sigismund defeated the Bosnian nobility and Tvrtko and in 1409 he restored Ostoja to the throne. One hundred and seventy minor noblemen were captured and killed inDobor by being tossed over the city walls. Tvrtko is said to have been captured as well, but this does not appear to be true, as he demanded the customary tribute from the Ragusans in February 1409.[50] The hostilities continued until the end of November, with Tvrtko retreating southwards with his noblemen and resisting Hungarian attacks, which enabled Ostoja to reestablish control overCentral Bosnia.[54]
Tvrtko remained on the throne until mid-1409, when Ostoja prevailed.[55] Sigismund's claim became untenable, but Bosnians acknowledged his overlordship over Ostoja; only Tvrtko refused to submit to the King of Hungary.[56] He appears to have evaded capture by Hungarian troops by fleeing to the mountains of northernZachlumia. Ostoja ended the decade-long dispute with the Hungarians by recognizing the suzerainty of the Hungarian crown and, in 1412, visiting the Hungarian throne inBuda with the rest of the Bosnian and Serbian nobility includingSerbian DespotStefan Lazarević. After that Tvrtko faded into obscurity and had no part in Bosnian affairs for several years.
The first Ottoman troops attacked Bosnia in May 1414; in August they also brought the deposed monarch, Tvrtko, and set him up asanti-king. His alliance with the Ottomans may have been due to their mutual hostility towards Sigismund.[57] Pavle Radenović immediately declared for Tvrtko, but no other major nobleman appears to have followed his example – not even Hrvoje.[50] While Tvrtko hoped for an Ottoman victory, Ostoja expected that a Hungarian triumph would rid him of Ottoman raiders and secure his position against both his rival and his ambitious magnates.[58] TheBattle of Doboj in August 1415 saw the disastrous defeat of Sigismund's army. Contrary to expectations, however, the Ottomans recognized Ostoja as the legitimate king. Tvrtko lost his ground, while the united Bosnians for the first time shifted their allegiance from the Hungarian crown to the Ottoman Sultanate.[59]
Ostoja died in September 1418. Despite expectations that Tvrtko would take over, Ostoja's sonStephen was elected king.[60] When the Ottomans invaded Bosnia in early 1420, Tvrtko once again accompanied them and installed himself as anti-king. Sandalj immediately declared for him. Fearing the Ottomans, Sandalj's example was soon followed by other noblemen. In June Tvrtko convoked a stanak, and Ragusa recognized him as king. He had the support of almost all of the nobility inVisoko, includingdukeVukmir, mayor Dragiša,knez Juraj Vojsalić, knez Pribić, knez Radič Radojević, knez Batić Mirković, knez Juraj Dragičević, knez Petar Klešić, duke Ivko, and duke Pavao Jurjević. By the end of the year, Tvrtko had completely ousted Stephen, who continued to advance his claim until the summer of 1421. He appears to have died soon after.[61]
Internal troubles forced the Ottomans to withdraw their troops from Bosnia, which enabled Tvrtko to strengthen his hold on the kingdom and for its economy to recover.[62] Tvrtko's second accession had to be legitimized with a new coronation, which took place during a stanak in August 1421. Tvrtko's second reign was marked by his quick resolution to restore royal authority and the king's pre-eminence among Bosnia's feudal rulers.[63] With Hrvoje and Pavle gone, and Sandalj preoccupied by conflict with Pavle's sons, Tvrtko was able to significantly expand theroyal domain. In December 1422 Tvrtko signed a beneficial trade treaty with the Republic of Venice and discussed plans for joint military action against Sigismund in Dalmatia.[64] Tvrtko's association with Venice bothered not only Ragusa, but also the Ottoman Turks; the former resented losing their monopoly on trade, while the latter's poor relationship with Venice was the result of territorial disputes overAlbania andZeta. Ottomans proceeded to raid Bosnia in the spring of 1424 to make it clear to Tvrtko that close relations with Venice would not be tolerated. Tvrtko understood that Venice would not be able to provide him with help against the Ottomans, and thus slowly dismantled their alliance.[64] In 1425, Tvrtko realized that he needed a strong ally in the event of further Ottoman attacks. The Ottomans responded with severe attacks that forced Tvrtko to accept theirsuzerainty and to agree to pay an annual tribute.
In 1432, Stefan Lazarević's successorĐurađ, Sandalj, and the Ottomans helpedRadivoj, the elder illegitimate son of the long-deceased Ostoja, to lay claim to the throne and take control of much of the country. Tvrtko's only noteworthy support came from Hrvoje's nephew and successor,Juraj Vojsalić, and he managed to retain only central and northwestern Bosnia. Tvrtko retreated toVisoko, but soon found that Sandalj had become too ill to support Radivoj's cause. After years of pleading for their help, Tvrtko finally saw Hungarians march into Bosnia in mid-1434. They recovered for himJajce,Hodidjed,Bočac and theKomotin Castle, but he lost it all as soon as they retreated. In fact, he himself appears to have left with the troops on their way back to Hungary, as he is known to have resided at the court inBuda in 1435. Radivoj ceased being a threat when he lost Ottoman support that year, while Sandalj's death presented Tvrtko with a new and more vital rebellious vassal in the form of Sandalj's nephew and successor,Stjepan Vukčić Kosača.[64]
Thomas succeeded Tvrtko, but his accession was not recognized by the leadingmagnate of Bosnia, Stjepan Vukčić Kosača. The two engaged in a civil war which ended when Thomas repudiated his wifeVojača and married the insubordinate nobleman's daughterCatherine. Thomas and his second wife, both raised in theBosnian Church tradition, converted toRoman Catholicism and sponsored the construction of churches and monasteries throughout Bosnia.
Throughout his reign, Thomas waged a war with theSerbian Despotate over the lucrative mining town ofSrebrenica and its surroundings, in addition to (or in conjunction with) multiple conflicts with his father-in-law. Having failed to expand intoCroatia proper, Thomas turned again to the east in 1458, arranging a match between his sonStephen Tomašević and the Serbian heiressHelena. His control over the remnants of the Serbian Despotate lasted merely a month before the Ottoman conquest of the state. Thomas's failure to defend Serbia permanently damaged his reputation in Europe. Wishing to improve his image among Europe's Catholics, Thomas turned against the Bosnian Church, thus becoming the first ruler of Bosnia to engage inreligious persecution.
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Radivoj styled himself as King of Bosnia for the remainder of Tvrtko's reign. He was nominally supported by the Ottomans and by Stjepan Vukčić Kosača. This alliance could have easily deposed Tvrtko II in Radivoj's favor if they wished, but it appears that their only goal was to weaken and divide Bosnia for their own future benefit.[65]
Notwithstanding, King Tvrtko II maintained himself on the Bosnian throne longer than any of themonarchs who followed Tvrtko I. He also did more to restore royal dignity and centralize the state than any other, leaving a strong mark on Bosnia's politics, economy, and culture. King Tvrtko II died in September 1443. childless, having expressed a wish to be succeeded by his politically inactive and until then rather obscure cousinStephen Thomas, Radivoj's younger brother and likewise an illegitimate son of Ostoja.[65]
Meanwhile, like most Bosnian nobleman of the era,[66][67] Stjepan Vukčić too considered himself a staunchKrstjanin,[68] as theBosnian Church adherents were known and as its members called themselves. His conspicuous attitude toward Bosnian Church was highlighted when king Tvrtko II died and Stjepan refused to recognize a chosen heir, the deceased king's cousin and recent convert toRoman Catholicism,Thomas, as the new King of Bosnia, thus creating a political crisis which culminated in civil war. Apparently, one of the points of contention was Thomas recent conversion Catholicism, move that was deem potentially harmful to the Bosnian Church. And while Thomas' decision to convert was forced political maneuvering, albeit founded in sound reasoning with the saving of the realm on his mind, he also committed himself to demonstrate his devotion by engaging in religious prosecution against his recent fellow co-religionist, thus eventually proving his conversion to be detrimental to theKristjani. These developments prompted Stjepan to give followers and members of the Bosnian Church safe haven, and also to join theOttomans in support of Bosnian anti-King Radivoj, Thomas' exiled brother, who was too Bosnian Church faithful and remained so in face of king's crusade against the church adherents.[69]
In 1443, thePapacy sent envoys to Thomas and Stjepan about a counter-offensive against the Ottomans, but the two were in the middle of the civil war.Ivaniš Pavlović, sent by King Thomas, attacked Stjepan Vukčić. Thomas had at the same time been recognized by the Hungarian regentJohn Hunyadi. Stjepan turned to KingAlfonso V of Aragon, who made him "Knight of the Virgin", but did not give him troops. On 15 February 1444, Stjepan signed a treaty with the King of Aragon and Naples, becoming his vassal in exchange for Alfonso's help against his enemies, namely King Thomas, Duke Ivaniš Pavlović and theRepublic of Venice. In the same treaty Stjepan promised to pay regular tribute to Alfonso instead of paying the Ottoman sultan as he had done until then.[70]
In 1446 Stjepan Vukčić finally recognized Thomas as king, and the pre-war borders were restored.[69] Peace between two rivals was sealed by the marriage of Stjepan's daughterCatherine (Katarina) and King Thomas in May 1446,[68] with Catherine abandoning Bosnian Church and converting to Roman Catholicism.[69]
The Ottomans were displeased with the peace as their interest lay primarily in weakening and dividing Bosnia. Serbian DespotĐurađ Branković was also displeased due to theSrebrenica issue, as the principal mining center of Bosnia returned to Bosnia. In 1448, the Ottomans sent an expedition to plunder King Tomaš's lands, but they also plundered Stjepan Vukčić's lands. Stjepan sent envoys to Despot Đurađ to try to improve the relations between himself on one side and Đurađ and Ottomans on the other.[69]
In the first half of 1448, Stjepan Vukčić, in an attempt to "bolster his case with the Ottomans",[71] added the title ofherzog and styled himselfHerzog of Hum and the Coast, Grand Duke of Bosnia, Knyaz of Drina, and the rest, first documented in the spring of 1449.[72][73] Later, toward the end of 1449 and the beginning of 1450, in a public relations stunt,[71] he changed it toHerzog of Saint Sava, Lord of Hum, Grand Duke of Bosnia, Knyaz of Drina, and the rest.[72]
In 1451 Stjepan Vukčić attacked theRepublic of Ragusa, and laid siege tothe city. As he had earlier been made a Ragusan nobleman, the Ragusan government now proclaimed him a traitor. A reward of 15,000ducats, a palace in Dubrovnik worth 2,000 ducats, and an annual income of 300 ducats was offered to anyone who would kill him.[74] along with the promise of hereditary Ragusan noble status which also helped hold this promise to whoever did the deed. The threat seems to have worked, as Stjepan abandoned the siege.[74] After King Thomas and Despot Đurađ reconciled sometime prior to late fall 1451, Ragusa proposed a league against Stjepan.[75] Thomas' charter from 18 December 1451, apart from ceding of some of Stjepan's territories to Ragusa, who nevertheless firmly held those, also included the obligation that he would attack Vukčić.[76]
Stjepan Tomašević succeeded his father on the throne following the latter's death in July 1461 and became the first Bosnian king to receive a crown from theHoly See. Under Tomašević, Bosnia was left to fend for itself by his senior,Matthias Corvinus, who held nominal rule of Bosnia, and by other European powers. After the Ottomans laidsiege on Jajce, Tomašević escaped toKljuč, a fortress in the western territories of his realm, but Ottomans led byMahmud Pasha Angelović pursued and caught up with him there. After a four days siege of Ključ and negotiations, Angelović sent a written assurance to the king, stating that his life will be spared. It turned out to be an empty promise as once the king was lured back toJajce, he was beheaded just behind the capital's citadel, since then named Carevo polje (transl. "Emperor's Field").[77] The Kingdom fell in 1463 and eventually became the westernmost province of theOttoman Empire.[78] After the fall of Bosnia, Catherine, thequeen-mother, escaped toRome on horseback by fooling the Ottomans about which route she wanted to take. She stated that she was leaving the country to see her sons or to visit theHoly See.[citation needed]
The rapid conquest of Bosnia, despite its inaccessible mountain fortresses, was unexpected, but many Bosnians were already aware of the impossible situation. If they were to fall, they preferred the Ottomans to the Hungarians, who they saw as an age-long enemies. They offered their kingdom to Venice in return for aid, but when Venice refused, they preferred to remain under the Ottomans than the Hungarians.[79]
After the fall in 1463,hercegStjepan Vukčić, lord of theHum province in the south of the kingdom, lived for another three years, enough to see kingdom's complete demise, for which he blamed his eldest sonVladislav Hercegović. On 21 May 1466, old and terminally ill duke dictated his last words, recorded in a testament, and bypassing Vladislav he condemned him by saying that it was him who "brought the great Turk to Bosnia to the death and destruction of us all". The next day duke died.[80]
He was succeeded asherceg by his second and younger sonVlatko Hercegović, who struggled to retain as much of the territory he could. However,Blagaj, Kosača capital, fell in 1466, while Ključ fort between Nevesinje and Gacko was cut off from the main part of his territory, although Vlatko's actions against Ottomans were mostly concentrated around this fort with limited success.Počitelj fell in 1471, however,herceg Vlatko already in 1470 realized that only radical change in his politics could bring him some release, so he pursued and achieved a peace with the Ottomans. In the same year, the Ottomans excluded Hum from theBosnian Sanjak, and established a new, separate sanjak with its seat inFoča,Sanjak of Herzegovina.[80]
The very last remnants of Bosnian state territory were these stretches of land held by Vlatko in Hum, while he moved residence to his last capital,Novi.[81]He also gave up his agreement with Ottomans, after just a few years or so, just about the same time when his younger brother, Stjepan, assumed highest office of the Ottoman navy asAhmed Pasha Hercegović (around 1473) inIstanbul. After his marriage in 1474, he reconciled with his older brother Vladislav.[81]Just before death ofSultan Mehmed II, Vlatko tried one more push to the heart of Bosnia, but abandoned by his allies his venture ended in disaster, after which he completely and finitely withdraws to his fortress in Novi. Meanwhile, all this, along with death of Mehmed II, prompted new sultan,Bayezid II, to overtake Novi and its harbor, along with whatever territory remained. In November 1481,Ajaz-Bey of the Sanjak of Herzegovina besieged Novi, however, just before 14 December 1481 Vlatko gave up resisting, and agreed with the Ottomans to move with his family to Istanbul. This signified the ultimate disappearance of what was the last remaining independent point of the Bosnian state.[81][82]
So, the province endured for another fifteen years after Stjepan Vukčić's death, shrinking with time, before it was eventually swallowed by the Ottomans in December 1481, and incorporated into the empire as re-organized territory of already formed and renamed province,Sanjak of Herzegovina.[80]
Thefortified Jajce, the capital of, at that point, all but completely annihilated kingdom, was captured by Hungarians under Matthias on 26 December 1463. Hungarians established a defensive territory between advancing Ottomans and their kingdom further north by constituting the "Banate of Jajce" along with the Banate ofSrebrenik and the Banate of Bihać. In Hungarian hands Jajce withstood Ottoman attacks until 1527, when it finally surrendered after a decisive Ottoman victory in theBattle of Mohács. Much of modern northern and western Bosnia and Herzegovina was then incorporated into the OttomanSanjak of Bosnia, initially belonging to theRumelia Eyalet, when in 1580 Bosnian Sanjak became a core province of the newly establishedEyalet of Bosnia.
The territory of Bosnia and today's Herzegovina is littered with medieval gravestones calledstećak, which first appeared in the middle of the 12th century. They were a tradition amongBosnian,Catholic andOrthodox Church followers alike.[83] While Bosnia had many architecturally impressive stone fortresses, its medieval churches were small, especially compared to Catholic churches along the coast and Orthodox monasteries in neighboring Serbia,[83] possibly because of the indifference of Bosnian nobles towards formal religion.[83]
Medieval Bosnia and Herzegovina had threeChristian faiths:Catholic andOrthodox Christians, and some who simply called themselves Bosnians,[84] belonging to the so-calledBosnian Church.[85] Most information about this church comes from outside sources and its exact nature is a subject of debate, particularly around its possible dualist teachings. It was accused by the Catholic and Orthodox authorities of heresy and being linked to theBogomils (Patarenes).[85] The Catholic church was slightly more dominant in towns and in the west and north of Bosnia. The Bosnian Church was present in Donji Kraji and the Drina river valley to some extent, but the majority of population remained Catholic, although most of the population was without priests.[86] WhenVukosav Hrvatinić of Donji Kraji pledged allegiance toStephen II and gained župa Banica and Vrbanja as a result, Bosnian Church officials were present as a guarantee of charter that confirmed those župas.[87]
Thebans and kings of Bosnia were proclaimed Catholics during their reign, except forOstoja, who showed some interest in the Bosnian Church while he was on the throne,[88] andRadivoj the exiled anti-King, who was openly Bosnian Church faithful and remained so in face of king's crusade against the church adherents.[65][69] There were, however, several important noblemen who were members of the Bosnian Church, called "Krstjani", such asHrvoje Vukčić, theRadinović-Pavlović family,Sandalj Hranić,Stjepan Vukčić, and Paul Klešić. Conversions were sometimes used as a political tool by high-ranking nobles such as Hrvoje Vukčić of Donji Kraji, who converted to Catholicism to obtain lucrative titles, but when faced with difficult odds in 1413 he openly threatened that he would go back to "pagan religion", as the Catholic Church viewed the Bosnian Church as a dualist religion.[89] Despite the religious hesitancy of the duke, by his death, the Bosnian Church had lost its foothold in Donji Kraji, since his heirs were increasingly referred to as committed Catholics.[89] At the beginning of the 15th century, the withdrawal of representatives of the Bosnian Church from political activities in the service of Hrvoje Vukčić allowed members of the Catholic Church to take up those seats, as recorded in a document of Juraj Vojsalić dated 12 August 1434.[90]
It was common for theHoly See to have Bosnian rulers renounce any relation to the Bosnian Church, or even perform conversions, in return for support. AfterStephen Thomas started persecuting Bosnian Church followers, they responded in the traditional stronghold in Visoko and in 1450 demolished theFranciscanmonastery inMile.[91] However, it was quickly rebuilt. Thomas earned the nickname "damned king" for his actions against adherents of the Bosnian Church.[91][92] Especially detrimental to theKristjani were these developments, which in turn prompted Stjepan Vukčić Kosača to give followers and members of the Bosnian Church safe haven, and also to join theOttomans in support of Bosnian anti-King Radivoj.[69]
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Important mining towns likeFojnica,Kreševo,Olovo,Srebrenica,Dusina,Kamenica, and Deževice began to be mentioned in contemporary sources during Tvrtko I's reign. Srebrenica was a very lucrative possession with its silver mines. Caravan trade was frequent between the Republic of Ragusa and Bosnia, and Ragusan merchants had trading colonies inPodvisoki, Fojnica, Srebrenica, Kreševo and others. Economic activity allowed for the creation of newžupas like Nenavište inPosavina and Trebotić inPodrinje.Via Narenta andVia Drine were economically crucial as they provided access toDrijeva andDubrovnik, which in turn provided access to theAdriatic Sea. In 1382 Tvrtko built a new fortress in theBay of Kotor on the Adriatic coast to form the basis of a newsalt trading centre. Initially named afterSaint Stephen, the city came to be known asNovi (meaning "new").
Mining was a major industry in Bosnia. Saxons provided engineering expertise, and the mines were often run by Ragusans. Notable among these Saxon engineers was Hans Sasinović, who together with his brother got the rights for silver mines in Ostružnica and Fojnica.[93] Most of the silver mines laid in the king's lands, except from Srebrenica, and there was a demand for Bosnian silver products in the cities on the Adriatic. Germans working in Bosnia produced firearms and cannons, making it one of the first inland Balkan countries to do so.[83]
Vlachs in medieval Bosnia carried much of the traffic between inland and coastal cities. With their caravans, led bykramar,[94] mostly composed of 10 to 100 horses, they conducted much of the trade between inland and coastal cities.[95][96][full citation needed] A particularly large caravan trade happened on 9 August 1428 between Podvisoki and Ragusa, whenVlachs committed to Ragusan lord Tomo Bunić that they would deliver 1500modius ofsalt on 600 horses.[97] At the end of the 14th century, merchants from Podvisoki took part in theslave trade. For example, on November 1389 Bogovac Vukojević sold the small boy Milko for 4ducats.[98]
In the twilight years of the Kingdom of Bosnia, Thomas engaged in vigorous commerce and made business deals with Dalmatian traders. He relied heavily on his silver mining, but profited most from his salt trade monopolies.[99][100][full citation needed] SultanMehmed started exerting even greater pressure on Bosnia. In addition to financial extortion, Bosnia under Thomas was now forbidden to export silver, which Mehmed claimed for himself, crippling of the Bosnian economy.[101] Thomas's successor Stephen Tomašević tried to improve the situation, and the economy became stronger than ever during his reign, collecting more profit from the flourishing metalworking trade.[102][full citation needed]
The most important customs posts were inDrijeva, Vrabač, Deževice, Podvisoki,Trebinje,Foča,Goražde, Borač,Višegrad, Olovo, and Srebrenica. Customs collection was overseen byprotovestiarios, who were often Ragusan citizens.
One of the early representations of coats of arms attributed to Bosnia come from theOhmučević Armorial and laterFojnica Armorial, which were completed first in 16th and second in 17th century.[103] In the Illyrian armorials arms are shown upon a gold shield, two black ragged staffs are crossed insaltire with twoMoor's heads surmounting the upper portion of each staff. Overall is a redescutcheon that was charged with an eight-pointed star and crescent. In the past centuries, European sources have attributed arms to Bosnia that were close or full analogue to this depiction.[104]
The coat of arms of the Kings of Bosnia, who ruled from 1377 until 1463 over the area that is present dayBosnia-Herzegovina andDalmatia, consisted of a blue shield with sixGolden Lilies displayed around a whitebend, all within a goldbordure; the Golden Lily is theLilium bosniacum, which is a native lily to the area.[105][106] The crest is a plume of peacock feathers that sit within a coronet of lilies. TheHouse of Kotromanić reigned until 1463 when the Ottomans conquered the region, ceasing then the use of the royal coat of arms in Bosnia.[107]
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coronation.
The coronation of Bosnian ban Tvrtko I Kotromanić as the King of "the Serbs and Bosnia and Pomorje and Western parts" in 1377 was one of the most significant events of Bosnian medieval history. With this act the Bosnian state elevated in the rank of kingdoms and its ruling dynasty, the Kotromanićs entered in the narrow circle of the noblest families of Medieval Europe. Contemporary sources about his event, unfortunately, are scarce and very rare.
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