Kimberley | |
|---|---|
 Extent of Kimberley region | |
  Kimberley | |
| Coordinates:17°29′29″S124°31′58″E / 17.49145°S 124.53265°E /-17.49145; 124.53265 | |
| Country | Australia |
| State | Western Australia |
| LGAs | |
| Established | 1881 |
| Government | |
| • State electorate | |
| • Federal division | |
| Area | |
• Total | 423,517 km2 (163,521 sq mi) |
| Population | |
| • Total | 34,364 (2016 census) |
| • Density | 0.0811396/km2 (0.210151/sq mi) |
TheKimberley is the northernmost of the nineregions of Western Australia. It is bordered on the west by theIndian Ocean, on the north by theTimor Sea, on the south by theGreat Sandy andTanami deserts in the region of thePilbara, and on the east by theNorthern Territory.
The region was named in 1879 by government surveyorAlexander Forrest afterSecretary of State for the ColoniesJohn Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley.[1]
The Kimberley was one of the earliest settled parts of Australia, with the first humans landing about 65,000 years ago.[2] They created a complex culture that developed over thousands of years.Yam (Dioscorea hastifolia)agriculture was developed,[3] and rock art suggests that this was where some of the earliestboomerangs were invented.[4] The worship ofWandjina deities was most common in this region, and a complex theology dealing with the transmigration of souls was part of the local people's religious philosophy.[5]
During the 18th century,Dutchexplorers named the region of Kimberley and nearbyDarwin variations ofVan Diemen's Land[6] after theVOCgovernor-generalAnthony van Diemen. This should not be confused withthe more general and prolonged use of the same name forTasmania. The area is also not to be confused withKimberley inSouth Africa the site of a majordiamond rush in the 19th century.
In 1837, with expedition support from theRoyal Geographical Society ofGreat Britain, LieutenantsGeorge Grey and Franklin Lushington and 12 men sailed on the schoonerLynher fromCape Town, South Africa. They reached Hanover Bay on 2 December 1837. The exploring party started inland on 19 January 1838. Leaders and men were inexperienced, their progress was delayed by the flooded country, and they abandoned many stores along the way. The party was constantly split up although they had to contend with large numbers of hostile Aboriginals. On 11 February, Grey was speared near the hip, during a skirmish withIndigenous Australians, and became critically ill, and left him with a lifelong limp, but, after two weeks, continued the exploration.[7][8][9] The party found and named theGairdner River, theGlenelg River, the Stephen and Whately ranges andMount Lyell before returning to Hanover Bay in April. There they were picked up byHMS Beagle andLynher and taken toMauritius to recuperate.[10][11]
In 1879, Western Australian government surveyorAlexander Forrest led a party of seven from the west coast at Beagle Bay toKatherine, Northern Territory. Forrest explored and named the Kimberley district, theMargaret andOrd Rivers and the King Leopold Ranges (now theWunaamin-Miliwundi Ranges), and located well-watered pastoral lands along theFitzroy and Ord rivers.[12] He subsequently set himself up as a land agent specialising in the Kimberley during a period to 1883 when over 21,000,000 hectares (51,000,000 acres) of land were taken up as pastoral leaseholds in the region.[13]
In 1881, Philip Saunders and Adam Johns, in the face of great difficulties and dangers, found gold in various parts of the Kimberley. Early in 1881, the first five graziers, who called themselves the Murray Squatting Company, took up 49,000 hectares (120,000 acres) behind Beagle Bay and named itYeeda Station.[12] In 1883 they were the first men to shear sheep in the southern Kimberley. Additional Anglo-European settlement occurred in 1885 when ranchers drove cattle across Australia from the eastern states in search of goodpasture lands. After gold was discovered aroundHalls Creek, many other erstwhile European miners arrived rapidly.
In the 1890s, the area was the site of an armed insurrection of indigenous people led byJandamarra, aBunuba warrior.[14]
DuringWorld War II, when Australia was among the nations at war with the Axis powers, the Japanese invaded the nation with only a small reconnaissance party in The Kimberley on 19 January 1944; they were investigating reports that the Allies were building large bases in the region. Four Japanese officers were on board a small fishing boat. They investigated theYork Sound region for a day and a night before returning toKupang inTimor on 20 January. After returning to Japan in February, the junior officer, who had commanded the party, suggested using 200 Japanese prison inmates to launch aguerrilla campaign in Australia. No superior adopted his suggestion, and the officer was posted to other duties.[15]
From 1983 to 2020 theArgyle diamond mine operated in the eastern part of the Kimberley.
The 2011 estimated permanent population of Kimberley was 34,794 but it rises dramatically during winter when it attracts a seasonal population. On Census night in 2011 (9 August), it was 50,113. The population is fairly evenly distributed, with only three towns having populations over 2,000:Broome (12,766),Derby (3,261), andKununurra (4,573). Approximately 40% of the region's population is ofAboriginal descent.[16][17]
The Kimberley has been noted as a region of great linguistic diversity, rivalled in Australia only by theTop End. Depending on the geographical boundaries of The Kimberley, and the definition of what constitutes a "language" (as opposed to a "dialect"), about 50–60Aboriginal languages were once spoken in this region. The vast majority of these do not belong to the family ofPama-Nyungan languages.[18] Four endemic, primarylanguage families are recognised within the core Kimberley region:
Pama-Nyungan languages spoken in and around the Kimberley region include theMarrngu languages (such asKarajarri andNyangumarta, theNgumpin languages (such asWalmajarri andJaru), theYapa languages (such asWarlpiri) and theWestern Desert languages (includingWangkajunga andKukatja). Non-Pama-Nyungan languages spoken around the Kimberleys (but speakers of which today live within the Kimberley) include theDaly languageMurrinh-Patha andWestern Mirndi languageJaminjung.
Presently, many indigenous languages are no longer spoken daily. In addition toAustralian English, post-contact languages spoken in the Kimberley includeAboriginal English,Kriol,Pidgin English and the Malay-basedBroome Pearling Lugger Pidgin (not spoken daily any more).
At the federal level, Kimberley is represented by the member forDurack. At the state level, theKimberley electorate takes in all of the region and its towns.
The Kimberley region consists of thelocal government areas ofBroome,Derby-West Kimberley,Halls Creek andWyndham-East Kimberley.
The Kimberley region is extremely rich in art, mainly that of Indigenousrock art.[19] Considering the area's size, it is no surprise that there are tens of thousands of rock art examples coming from a variety of different cultural groups within the region.[20] The diversity of peoples has allowed for many different art styles to develop with some of the most widely known examples beingWandjina andGwion Gwion.[21] In addition to the variation in styles, there are almost equally diverse fabrication techniques. The earliest form of Kimberley rock art washand stencils,[22] but techniques such as engraving, painting, scratchwork, pecking, drawing, and later beeswax applique[23] have also been used. In addition to the varying styles and techniques, there are united visual depictions that reflect the changes and persistence within the cultural and natural environment.[24]
The changing and expanding complexity of styles and techniques has caught the attention of many, paving the way for mass amounts of archaeological and anthropological research. Much of the artwork in the area has been gone over with similar or alternative methods to preserve the art, add to it, or enhance it.[24] Rock shelters are some of the best locations for preservation.[25] The oldest category known as the Irregular Infill Animal or the Naturalistic period is responsible for the region's life-size animal depictions.[26] A rock shelter in Kimberley's northeastern territory is home to a perfect example of this, a two-meter-long kangaroo painting on the ceiling. This case was extremely rare as archaeologists found remains of mud wasp nests that could be used for dating. These nests were located both below and on top of the painting making them prime for determining an accurate age of the kangaroo art itself. They analysed samples from 6 of the nests and settled on a date between 17,500 years old and 17,100 years old, making the kangaroo rock art the oldest in Australia.[26][27]
Based on oral accounts from Aboriginal people in the region[23] it has been confirmed that many of the works that have been re-touched maintain a much deeper significance. There is a complex performative aspect that goes hand-in-hand with the art that remains today. The re-touching/re-marking actions are considered a performance and act as a retelling of the story behind the art. The performance is a way for people to reconnect with the cultural significance behind the work itself and maintain the connection from person to place.[23][28] This process highlights indigenous beliefs about the land and the position that native people have within that space.[29] Identity plays a major role in understanding the rock art in the region. Many different sectors within the Kimberley region allow for a dispersal of cultural thought and expression unique to the group in their respective areas.[30] This differentiation of style may have been socially necessary, but there was a unifying aspect regarding theWandjinas and the meaning behind them. They are seen throughout the region at many different sites and are the most repainted rock art in Kimberley. This is because indigenous groups believe in the power that Wandjina holds. Creation stories, migrational patterns, and clothing style of the figures emphasise their importance and integration into the sociocultural groups inhabiting the area.[31]
The Kimberley is an area of 423,517 square kilometres (163,521 sq mi), which is about three times the size ofEngland, twice the size ofVictoria, or just slightly smaller thanCalifornia.
The Kimberley consists of the ancient, steep-sided mountain ranges of northwestern Australia cut through with sandstone and limestone gorges and steep ridges, from which the extrememonsoonal climate has removed much of the soil. The southern end of the Kimberley beyond theDampier Peninsula is flatter with dry tropical grassland and is used for cattle ranching. In parts of the Kimberley, such as the valleys of theOrd andFitzroy Rivers in the south, the soils are relatively usablecracking clays, whilst elsewhere they arelateriticOrthents. Although none of the mountains reach even 1,000 metres (3,281 ft), there is so much steep land as to make much of the region difficult to traverse, especially during the wet season, when even sealed roads are often flooded. The coast is typically steep cliffs in the north but flatter in the south, all subject to high tides.
The Kimberley coast is subject to Australia's biggest tides which can reach over 11 metres. This is due to the presence of theNorth West Shelf, an unusually massive continental shelf which stretches hundreds of kilometres out towards Indonesia, which amplifies waves as they move across the rising seafloor.[32]
The Kimberley has atropical monsoon climate. The region receives about 90% of its rainfall during the short wet season, from November to April whencyclones are common (especially around Broome) and the rivers flood. The annual rainfall is highest in the northwest, whereKalumburu andthe Mitchell Plateau average 1,270 millimetres (50 in) per year, and lowest in the southeast where it is around 520 millimetres (20 in). In the dry season, from May to October, south easterly breezes bring sunny days and cool nights.Climate change since 1967 has led to large increases of as much as 250 millimetres (10 in) per year in annual rainfall over the whole region. A 2007 study suggests that Asianpollution may be a key contributory factor to this increased rainfall.[33] In 1997 and 2000, the region received especially heavy rains, leading to record flooding of the Fitzroy and other rivers.
The Kimberley is one of the hottest parts of Australia, with the average annual mean temperature around 27 °C (81 °F), and with mean maximum temperatures almost always above 30 °C (86 °F), even in July. The hottest part of the year is November before the rains break, when temperatures frequently reach above 37 °C (99 °F) on the coast and well over 40 °C (104 °F) inland. Mean minimum temperatures in July range from around 12 °C (54 °F) in the south to 16 °C (61 °F) along the coast, whilst in November and December they are generally around 26 °C (79 °F).[34] Record high temperatures range from around 47 to 48 °C (117 to 118 °F), while record lows are around 2 to 3 °C (36 to 37 °F), although some parts of the central Kimberly plateau can drop below 0 °C (32 °F) during the dry season.
The Aboriginal people of the Kimberley recognisesix traditional seasons based on meteorological events, as well as on observations of flora and fauna.[35]
During theDevonian period, a barrier reef system formed before a subsequent drop in sea levels over the Kimberley. This reef system was similar to theGreat Barrier Reef and is still visible today in the form of theNapier Range and theNingbing Range. Some of the features areTunnel Creek,Windjana Gorge andGeikie Gorge.[36]
This area is also known as the Kimberley Block physiographic province, which is part of the largerWest Australian Shield division. This province contains theWunaamin-Miliwundi Range,Durack Range,Leveque Rise,Browse Depression, andLondonderry Rise physiographic sections.
According to theBureau of Meteorology weather reports, the "North Kimberley Coast" is the WA border to the Kuri Bay section of the coast, while the "West Kimberley Coast" is from Kuri Bay to Wallal Downs. Significant sections of the coastline between Broome and Wyndham have no means of road access, and boats or helicopters are the only means. Due to the isolation, several tourist operations on the coastline have been called "wilderness" locations.
The rugged and varied sandstone landscape is home to a distinctive mixture of wildlife, which has been thoroughly mapped and described by theWestern Australian Department of Conservation and Land Management.[37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][excessive citations] There are habitats similar to the Kimberley across the border in theNorthern Territory, including the valleys of theVictoria andDaly Rivers but these have been less carefully studied.[48][49]
Much of the Kimberley is chiefly covered in opensavanna woodland dominated by lowbloodwood andboab trees (Adansonia gregorii) withDarwin stringybark andDarwin woollybutt eucalyptus in the wetter areas. The red sandy soil of theDampier Peninsula in the south is known for its characteristicpindan wooded grassland, while in the more fertile areas like theOrd Valley, the trees are found in grasslands ofChrysopogon,Aristida,Dichanthium andXerochloa (rice grass) in the wetter valleys. The banks of theOrd,Fitzroy River and other rivers are home to a greater variety of vegetation, while in sheltered gorges of the high rainfall north, there are patches oftropical dry broadleaf forest, calledmonsoon forests, deciduous vine forest or vine thicket in Australia, (often mistakenly which is called "dry rainforest"), which were unknown to science until 1965,[50] and are one of the most floristically rich parts of Australia outside the Wet Tropics and southwestern WA. There are also areas ofmangrove in river estuaries where the coast is flatter[clarification needed].
In 1979, Beard identified four phytogeographic districts within the Northern Botanical Province:[51]
Animals found here include the hugesaltwater crocodile, its smaller cousin thefreshwater crocodile and a rich variety ofbirds such as thechannel-billed cuckoo,Pacific koel,purple-crowned fairywren and thebowerbird. The sandstone gorges of north Kimberley are an important refuge for a particularly rich collection of endemic species including some that have disappeared from the flatter areas, including the purple-crowned fairywren, the endangeredGouldian finch and a large number ofamphibians:flat-headed frog,cave-dwelling frog,magnificent tree frog,Derby toadlet,small toadlet,fat toadlet, the unconfirmedmarbled toadlet,Mjoberg's toadlet,mole toadlet andstonemason's toadlet. Mammals that have declined especially in the flatlands include thebilby,northern quoll,pale field rat,golden-backed tree rat, andgolden bandicoot.Megabats such as theblack flying foxes andlittle red flying foxes are common and perform importantpollination andseed dispersal work for many species of native trees and shrubs.
A species of endemicgecko,Gehyra kimberleyi, is named after the Kimberley region.[52]
The gorges of central Kimberley are known for theirfossils and for their large colonies of bats, includingWindjana,Tunnel Creek, andGeikie Gorges.Lake Argyle and other wetlands of the Ord and the Kimberley are important habitats while there are important populations ofshorebirds in the Ord estuary,Eighty-mile Beach andRoebuck Bay, which has been described as "one of the most important stop-over areas for shorebirds in Australia and globally".[53] Finally, there are several rocky islands off the north coast that are home toseabirds andturtles.
Little of the Kimberley has been subject to wholesale clearance other than particularly fertile parts of the Ord Valley (and areas of Kimberley-type habitat across the Daly River basin in the Northern Territory) but the pastureland in the southern areas has been affected by 100 years of livestock grazing and other threats including introduced weeds (such ascocklebur,parkinsonia,bellyache bush andcastor oil plant), feral cats and changes to traditional Aboriginalfire regimes (the way grassland is burnt and allowed to renew). However, the remote sandstone areas to the north have valuable original habitats in good condition providing shelter for much wildlife.
The largest protected areas are thePrince Regent National Park and theDrysdale River National Park along withGregory National Park andKeep River National Park across the Northern Territory, which preserves similar habitats. (Keep River's nearest town isKununurra in the Kimberley.)
The Kimberley is a popular tourist destination, with areas such as theBungle Bungle Range, theGibb River Road,Lake Argyle,El Questro Station,Mornington Sanctuary,Horizontal Falls andCape Leveque. The Gibb River Road and the road into the Bungle Bungles can at times be accessed in atwo-wheel drive car, although one can access many additional areas in afour-wheel drive vehicle.
Other parks in the region includeGeikie Gorge National Park,Mirima National Park,Mitchell River National Park,Point Coulomb National Park,Purnululu National Park,Tunnel Creek National Park,Windjana Gorge National Park andWolfe Creek Meteorite Crater National Park. In 2012 the Western Australian government announced the creation of the 7,062 square kilometre Camden Sound Marine Park with a further three to come.[needs update]
Visitors to the area should be aware that the area can be subject to controlled burns at any time of year. In September 2011, a fire burned five people, two severely, who had been competing in the Kimberley Ultramarathon, an endurancecross-country footrace.[54]
The local Kimberley community led a campaign to stop a proposal to industrialise the Kimberley coast atJames Price Point 50km north of Broome.Woodside Energy, with Joint Venture partnersBHP, Chevron, Shell and BP along with the Barnett Liberal-National CoalitionGovernment of Australia, sought to build the largest gas refineries in the world on the Kimberley coast. The local community rejected the proposal given the enormous damage it would've caused.
Organisations and groups that were involved in the campaign included the Goolarabooloo people, the Broome Community No Gas Campaign, Environs Kimberley, Save the Kimberley, The Wilderness Society, Sea Shepherd and Australian Conservation Foundation.
The campaign received support from public figures such asJohn Butler, Clare Bowditch,Missy Higgins, Jimmy Barnes, Paul Kelly and former leader of theAustralian Greens,Bob Brown.
On 5 October 2012, a concert was held atFederation Square inMelbourne, Australia, to raise awareness of the campaign; the protest event attracted approximately 6,000 people.
On 24 February 2013, an estimated 20,000 people gathered for a charity concert[55] inFremantle, Western Australia to raise awareness and funds to help protect the Kimberley, with performances fromBall Park Music, Missy Higgins, and John Butler.
Woodside and its Joint Venture partners withdrew from the project on April 12, 2013.
The Kimberley region has a diverse regional economy. Mining, construction, tourism, retail, agriculture, and pearling are major contributors to the region's economic output.[56]
The town ofBroome has a flourishingpearling industry, which operates around the Kimberley coast. Some of the major farmers are Paspaley Pearls, Clipper Pearls, Broome Pearls and the Willie Creek Pearl Farm.
One-third of the world's annual production ofdiamonds used to be mined at theArgyle and theEllendale diamond mines which are both now closed.Oil was extracted from theBlina oil field in the 1980's and 90's andnatural gas is extracted from theIchthys LNG project.Zinc andlead were mined at the Pillara and Cadjebut mines near Fitzroy Crossing, nickel used to be mined at Savannah Nickel mine near Halls Creek.Derby was the nearest export base for shipping these metals.
Traditionally, the economy depended onpastoral leases, with most of the region covered by the leases.
More recently agriculture has been focused on theOrd River Irrigation Area nearKununurra. Irrigation was also trialled in West Kimberley by way of the now-defunctCamballin Irrigation Scheme which failed in 1983. There are also fruit growers in Broome and other areas in the West Kimberley. Beef cattle are grown in the Kimberley and exported live. There were formerly meatworks at Wyndham, Broome and Derby but financial constraints have caused these to be closed.
Barramundi are bred inLake Argyle, and Broome features a fully equipped Aquaculture Park near the port; tenants include Paspaley Pearls and BroomeTAFE. The Kimberley also has a thriving fishing industry.
Some of Australia's most prominent Indigenous artists and art centres are in or adjacent to the Kimberley region. Artists such asPaddy Bedford andFreddie Timms have an international profile, and there are several Aboriginal-owned and controlled art centres and companies that assist artists, arrange exhibitions and sell works. The art centres in the region are also organized through the Association of Northern, Kimberley and Arnhem Aboriginal Artists. Issues have been raised regarding the exploitation of indigenous artists by businesses and individuals, including in the Kimberley, which was canvassed in anAustralian Senate parliamentary committee report.
Tourism is expected to remain one of the Kimberley region's major growth industries. Averaged across 2010, 2011, and 2012, there were 292,600 domestic and international visitors to the Kimberley annually.[56]
{{cite book}}:|work= ignored (help)
Media from Commons
Travel guides from Wikivoyage
